fruit is used to a very great extent in washing linen:--the _kasémak_,
from the bark of which is made a varnish for umbrellas:--the _sámpang_,
from the resin of which the natives prepare a shining varnish for the
wooden sheaths of krîses:--the cotton-tree, from which a silky wool is
obtained for stuffing pillows and beds:--the wax-tree, which, though
scarce on Java, grows abundantly on some parts of Madúra: (the kernel,
by expression, produces an oil, which some time after becomes hard
and bears a resemblance to wax; it may be burnt in lamps or converted
into candles, and affords an agreeable odour): the _bendúd_, a shrub
producing the substance of which the elastic gum, commonly called
Indian-rubber, is prepared. The art of preparing it in this form is
however unknown in Java. Torches are made of it, for the use of those
who search for birds' nests in the rocks, and it serves for winding
round the stick employed to strike musical instruments, as the _gong_,
&c. to soften the sound. The _mínyak káwon_ or _niátu_ is a very
useful tree, which grows solitary in all, and abundantly in some parts
of the island, and produces a kind of tallow.
_Dámar_, or resin, is distinguished by the inhabitants of these
countries into two kinds: _dámar-bátu_ or _séla_, and _dámar-puti_,
comprising numerous varieties obtained from different trees. None of
these are, however, produced on Java. Besides the _rásamála_, which is
very limited as to its place of growth, the _Canáram_, and a peculiar
resin employed by the natives for varnishing the wooden sheaths of
their krîses, called _sámpang_, few odoriferous resins are found. The
camphor-tree, which abounds on Sumatra and Borneo, is unknown on Java.
The wood oil, distinguished among the Malays by the name of _krúwing_
(which in Java is applied to all resinous or oily substances employed
in the construction of vessels), is not a native of Java, but it grows
abundantly on Banka and Sumatra.
None of what are called the finer kinds of spices, namely, the nutmeg,
clove, and cinnamon, are indigenous to Java; but the few trees which
have been planted in the gardens of Europeans have thriven well: and,
from the nature of the soil and climate, there seems little doubt that
the nutmeg and clove, in particular, might be extensively cultivated
throughout the island, did it suit the policy of the European
government to admit of their general introduction.
The vine was once extensively cultivated in some of the eastern
provinces of the island, in which the soil and climate appear well
calculated for its growth; but an apprehension, on the part of
the Dutch East-India Company, that its cultivation on Java might
interfere with the wine trade of the Cape of Good Hope, induced them
to discourage it, and the preparation of wine from the grape was
strictly prohibited. Lieutenant-Colonel Mackenzie, when noticing the
vast quantities of ashes thrown up from the different volcanos, makes
the following observation on the eastern part of Java. "The soil of
the country is evidently enriched by the ashes and earth emitted by
these eruptions, and there is reason to conclude, what persons well
acquainted with the south of Europe assert, that the vines of Italy
and the Cape would thrive in perfection, in a soil and climate so well
adapted to them."
Among the vegetable productions of Java, none has excited more interest
than the celebrated _úpas_, or poison-tree. Mr. Marsden, in his history
of Sumatra[32], has referred to various concurring authorities, in
refutation of the very extraordinary tales told of this tree; and, in
this general account of the productions of Java, it may perhaps be
sufficient to refer the reader to the particulars contained in the
subjoined note[33].
Of the useful or domestic quadrupeds it may be observed, that neither
the elephant nor the camel is a native of Java: the former is rarely
imported, the latter unknown. Neither the ass nor mule is found; but
the island has a fine breed of small horses (_járan_), strong, fleet,
and well made. A still finer breed is imported from _Bíma_, on the
neighbouring island of _Sumbáwa_, which by competent judges has been
said to resemble the Arab in every respect except size. They seldom
exceed thirteen hands, and in general are below this standard.
The bull and cow (_sápi_ or _lémbu_) are general, but much more so in
the central and eastern districts than in the western. The breed has
been greatly improved by the species introduced from continental India.
But the animal of most essential and general use in the agriculture
of the country is the buffalo (_kábu_, _maísa_, or _múnding_), a
particular account of which will appear in the chapter on Agriculture.
Goats (_wedús_) are numerous and of a small size: sheep (called here
European goats) are scarce and small. As in other sultry climates,
the latter have a coarse woollen coat, which is employed for stuffing
saddles, pillows, &c. but it is in so little request that the
inhabitants are rarely at the trouble of shearing for it. The hog
(_chéleng_) is reared principally among the Chinese.
Of beasts of prey may be enumerated several species of the tiger, as
the _máchan lóreng_ (felis tigris), _máchan gogor_ (a variety), _máchan
tútul_ (probably the small leopard of Pennant), _máchan kombang_ and
_kúwuk_, the smallest kind, called tiger-cats. The jackal, and several
varieties of the wild-dog; as the _ásu wáwar_, _ásu ájag_, or _ásu
kíki_; and among other wild quadrupeds, the rhinoceros, and _bánteng_,
or wild Javan ox, the wild-hog and the stag: the last, as well as the
rib-faced and axis deer, is tamed and fattened for food. The aggregate
number of mammalia on Java have been estimated at about fifty. The
habits and manners of the larger animals, the tiger, leopard, black
tiger, rhinoceros and stag, and two species of deer, the varieties of
the wild-hog, &c. are sufficiently known; but the _bánteng_, or Javan
ox, the Javan buffalo, the varieties of the wild-dog, those of the
weasel and squirrel, and most of the other smaller quadrupeds, still
present curious subjects for the study of the naturalist. Next to
the rhinoceros, which sometimes (though rarely at present) injures
plantations, the wild-hogs are the most destructive animals. They are
often poisoned (or intoxicated, according to the quantity they consume)
by the _kálák kámbing_, or by the remains from the preparation of
_brom_. The practice of suspending rags impregnated with urine, at
small distances around the plantations, is universal over the whole
island. These animals are said to have so violent an aversion to this
odour, that even this "feeble barrier" is useful in preserving the
plantations.
Musk, called _dedes_, is procured from the _rasé_.
Although the same qualities are ascribed to them here as in other
countries, bezoars are comparatively scarce in Java; and those
occasionally found in the maritime capitals are uniformly brought from
other countries. The hog-deer and Nicobar pigeon are not natives; and
although wild-hogs, in which bezoars are said to be found, are very
abundant, they are never examined or approached by the natives. Every
extraordinary concretion, calculus, ossification, &c. found in any part
of an animal, is called _mustíka_, which corresponds to the bezoar of
the Arabs, Persians, &c. A concretion of feathers found in the stomach
of a fowl is called _mustíka áyam_, and is carefully preserved. A
stony concretion, discovered accidentally by the rattling of a human
skull exposed for many years to the action of the sun, has been
denominated _mustíka órang_, and the most salutary virtues ascribed
to it. Analogous to the bezoars, must be considered the horns of the
rhinoceros, whose virtues are highly prized.
Among the domestic fowls, or poultry, are the turkey, which is
comparatively scarce, and chiefly raised for the tables of Europeans;
the goose, which is very common near all the establishments of
Europeans; the _bébek_, or duck, abundant in every part of the island;
the common fowl and pigeons. Among the birds of prey, the eagle is
not found; but there are several varieties of the falcon, of which
the _jóko wuru_ is the largest; also the carrion crow and the owl.
Of the parrot kind, two only, the _bétet_ and _selíndit_, are found
on Java. The peacock (_merák_), is very common in large forests. The
number of distinct species of birds has been estimated not greatly to
exceed two hundred, of which upwards of one hundred and seventy have
been described, and are already contained in the collections made on
account of the English East India Company.
The dorsal feathers of the white heron, and the vent feathers of the
_sándang láwé_, are employed, as substitutes for ostrich feathers, by
the natives, for plumes, &c. It is very rarely that the feathers of
geese, &c. are employed for beds or pillows, the silky cotton of the
_kápok_ being preferred on account of its coolness. For ornamenting the
arrows of the natives, the feathers of some of the falcon tribe are
chiefly employed.
Among the interesting subjects which still remain open for search,
are the habits and constitution of the hirundo esculenta, the small
swallow which forms the edible nests, annually exported in large
quantities from Java and the Eastern Islands for the Chinese market.
These birds not only abound among the cliffs and caverns of the south
coast of the island, but inhabit the fissures and caverns of several
of the mountains and hills in the interior of the country. From every
observation which has been made on Java, it has been inferred, that
the mucilaginous substance, of which the nests are formed, is not, as
has been generally supposed, obtained from the ocean. The birds, it
is true, generally inhabit the caverns in the vicinity of the sea, as
agreeing best with their habits, and affording them the most convenient
retreats for attaching their nests to; but several caverns are found
inland, at a distance of forty or fifty miles from the sea, containing
nests similar to those on the shore. From many of their retreats along
the southern coast, they have been observed to take their flight in
an inland direction, towards the pools, lakes, and extensive marshes
covered with stagnant water, as affording them abundance of their food,
which consists of flies, mosquitoes, gnats, and small insects of every
description. The sea that washes the foot of the cliffs, where they
most abound, is almost always in a state of the most violent agitation,
and affords none of those substances which have been supposed to
constitute the food of the esculent swallow. Another species of
swallow on this island forms a nest, in which grass or moss, &c. are
merely agglutinated by a substance, exactly similar to that of which
exclusively the edible nests consist. This substance, from whatever
part of these regions the nests be derived, is essentially uniform,
differing only in the colour, according to the relative age of the
nests. It exhibits none of those diversities which might be expected,
if it were collected casually (like the mud employed by the martin, and
the materials commonly employed in nest-making), and applied to the
rocks. If it consisted of the substances usually supposed, it would be
putrescent and diversified.
Dr. Horsfield thinks that it is an animal elaboration, perhaps a kind
of secretion; but to determine its nature accurately, it should be
carefully analyzed, the anatomy of the bird should be investigated, and
its character and habits watched.
The kayman of the Dutch, the _boáya_ of the Malays, and the _bóyo_
or _bájul_ of the Javans, which abounds along the shores and in the
principal rivers of the island, resembles more the crocodile of Egypt
than that of the Ganges, or the American alligator. The character of
the lacerta crocodiles, as given in the Systema Naturæ, applies to
the Javan crocodile, with this difference, that in the latter the two
crests of the tail coalesce towards the extremity, in which respect
it agrees with that of the Ganges; but its head and jaws are broad,
and rounded. In its manners, habits, and destructive qualities, it
resembles the largest animals of this genus. Next to the crocodile in
size is the _béwak_ of the Malays, or _menyáwak_ or _selíra_ of the
Javans. It sometimes attains the length of six or seven feet, and lives
near the banks of rivers and marshes. Its character agrees with those
of the lacerta monitor. It is erroneously denominated the guana by
Europeans. The eggs of this animal, as well as of the crocodile, are
eaten by the natives, and the fat is collected for medical purposes. A
small lizard, the _búnglon_ of the Javans, is erroneously called the
chameleon, in consequence of the property of changing its colour. It
has the specific characters of the guana, but is much smaller, seldom
exceeding eighteen or twenty inches in length. There are various other
lizards.
Two varieties of the turtle, _pényu_ and _pényu kombang_, are found
in the seas surrounding Java. Both yield the substance called
tortoise-shell, but they are seldom taken of sufficient size to render
it valuable: the flesh is excellent. Another kind, of which the species
is unknown, renders a thicker shell. _Kúro_ is the name of the common
land-tortoise, which is found very abundantly in particular districts.
Besides the rana esculenta, green frog (_kódok íjù_ of the Javans)
which is frequently eaten, and the _kódok benju_, there is the common
toad, _kódok_, and the _bánkong_ and _kíntel_. The frog-fish (rana
paradosa), or a variety of it, is also found on the island, and
has been exhibited in the same supposed metamorphosis as in other
countries. No noxious quality of any of these animals is here known.
It is uncertain whether the boa constrictor be found on Java. The
serpent usually called the _úlar sáwa_ is a species of coluber, and has
been described in one of the volumes of the Batavian Transactions; but
several other species are found which arrive at a very large size. One
of them, the _úlar lánang_, is very much dreaded by the natives, and
said to be poisonous. Of the _úlar sáwa_ there are several varieties,
one of which, _úlar sáwa máchan_, is most beautifully variegated.
Upwards of twenty serpents are enumerated as poisonous. The _úlar
lámpe_ is found at or near the discharge of large rivers into the
ocean, and is more abundant in some districts than in others. This is
greatly dreaded by the natives; its bite however is rarely mortal,
and the effects are comparatively slow, death seldom occurring within
twenty-four hours from the time of its infliction. No remedies which
deserve notice are known by the natives: charms and superstitious
applications are generally resorted to. The most remarkable serpent
is the _úlar kádut_, or _kárang_. The úlar lánang, and some of the
varieties _úlar sáwa_ are slender, and possess considerable agility.
According to the account of the natives, they frequently ascend trees,
and suspending themselves by the extremity of their tail, seize upon
small animals passing below; but the true _úlar sáwa_ of the Eastern
Javans is slow, thick, and unwieldy. Nothing which could illustrate its
supposed power of fascination has been noticed.
Of the fish most commonly used for food by the natives, many of which
are excellent and abundant, thirty-four species of river fish, seven
found chiefly in pools or stagnant waters, and sixteen sea fish, are
already enumerated by Dr. Horsfield. The classes of amphibia and
pisces, doubtless, afford many new subjects for investigation. Valentyn
enumerates five hundred and twenty-eight uncommon kinds of fish found
in the waters of the Eastern Islands.
Honey and wax are produced by three species of bees, inhabiting the
largest forests, but they are both collected in very inconsiderable
quantities. Bees are occasionally domesticated by the Arabs and Indians
near the large settlements, but never by the natives. Silk-worms were
once introduced by the Dutch near Batavia, but attention to them
did not extend among the natives. The chrysalis of the large atlas
affords a coarse silk, which is however not collected for use. To the
fruit, several insects, and to the corn while in the ear, a peculiar
species, generally known by the name of _wálang-sángít_, are most
destructive. The latter has in some years destroyed the growth of
whole districts, and occasioned partial scarcity. The natives attempt,
in some instances, to extirpate it by burning chaff and brimstone
in the fields. There are scorpions and centipedes, but their bite
is considered of little consequence: the natives generally apply a
cataplasm of onions to the wound. The class of insects affords many
new objects; specimens of most of the genus papilio, and many of other
genera have already been collected.
Java does not afford the same opportunities for beautiful collections
of shells as the Moluccas, Papua, and other Islands. Along the northern
coast, few shells are found of beauty or variety, and the corallines
have mostly lost their integrity by attrition; but the extensive bays
in the southern shore contain many of these objects in a state of
beauty and perfection.
FOOTNOTES:
[12] The primitive Athenians were called Iones or Iaones (Herodotus,
lib. i. &c.) This name is thought to have been given to them from
Javan, which bears a great resemblance to Ιάων. This Javan was the
fourth son of Japheth, and is said to have come into Greece after the
confusion of Babel, and seated himself in Attica; and this report
receives no small confirmation from the divine writings, where the
name of Javan is in several places put for Greece. See Daniel x. 20.
xi. 2. where the vulgar translations render it not Javan, as in the
original, but Græcia. The Athenians afterwards named Asia the less
_Ionia_.--Potter's Archæologia Græca.
[13] Panicum Italicum.
[14] The term _Zapagé_ or _Zabaja_ seems also to have been a corruption
from _Jawa_, and to have been used with the same latitude, according
to the following notices by Major Wilford. "There was a constant
intercourse, both by sea and land, between the kingdom of _Magad'hi_
and China, on the authority of Chinese history; and they traded to an
island and kingdom, called Founan, to the eastward of Siam, during the
third and fourth centuries. This was probably a Malay kingdom; but
we cannot ascertain its situation. It seems that the Malay emperors
and kings, as those of _Zapagi_ and _Founan_, did what they could to
introduce trade and learning into their dominions, but their exertions
proved ineffectual; at least they were not attended with much success;
and their subjects soon relapsed into their former mode of life." ...
"There are two countries called Maharaja, which are often confounded
together; the first, at the bottom of the Green Sea, including
Bengal and all the countries on the banks of the Ganges; the second
comprehended the peninsula of Malacca, and some of the adjacent islands
in the seas of China. In these countries the emperor, or king, always
assumed the title of Maharaja, even until this day. Their country,
in general, was called _Zapagé_ or _Zabaja_, which is a corruption
from _Java_ or _Jaba_, as it was called in the west, and was also the
name of Sumatra, according to Ptolemy, who calls it _Jaba-diu_, and
to Marco Polo. In the peninsula of Malacca was the famous emporium of
_Zaba_: Zubaja, in Sanscrit, would signify then _Zaba_. The empire of
_Zabajé_ was thus called, probably, from its metropolis, _Zaba_, as
well as the principal islands near it. _Zaba_ was a principal emporium
even as early as the time of Ptolemy. It remained so till the time of
the two Mussulman travellers of Renaudot, and probably much longer.
It is now called _Batu Sabor_, upon the river Jehor, which is as
large as the Euphrates, according to these travellers; who add, that
the town of Calabar, on the coast of Coromandel, and ten days to the
south of Madras, belonged to the Maharaja of Zabaje. The wars of this
Maharaja with the king of _Alkoner_ or countries near Cape Comorin, are
mentioned by the two Mussulman travellers in the ninth century, and
it seems that, at that time, the Malayan empire was in its greatest
splendor."--_Asiatic Researches_, vol. ix.
[15] Others again have derived the term _Jawa_ from _Yava_, which in
Sanscrit means barley, whence Java has occasionally been termed the
land of barley.
[16] Beschryving van _Groot Djawa_ of te _Java Major_ door F.
Valentyn.--Amsterdam, 1726.
[17] The breadth is a few miles less between Cheribon and the south
coast, occasioned by the deep bay of _Cheláchap_, and also in the
eastern termination of the island beyond Surabáya, where it only
averages forty-five geographical miles.
[18] The term _regencies_ is adopted from the title of Regent, given by
the Dutch to the chief native authority in each district.
[19] _Súra-kérta_ or _Sura-kérta di ning'rat_, is the name given to the
seat of empire; but as the capital was only removed to its present site
about the middle of the last century, it is still frequently called
_Solo_, the name of the village in or near which this capital was
established.
[20] This capital is indifferently turned _Yokya_, _Jokya_, _Juju_,
_'Ng'yug'ya_, or _Yug'ya-kerta_, and is the _Djojo-Carta_, according to
the Dutch orthography. The turn _Yug'ya_ has been selected, on account
of its nearer approximation to the supposed derivation of the word from
the _Na-yud-ya_ of the Ramayan.
[21] The height of the mountain _Arjúna_, in the eastern part of the
island, has been determined at 10,614 feet above the level of the sea;
and this mountain is by no means so lofty as those of _Semíru_ and
_Tegál_, the exact height of which has not yet been ascertained.
[22] The height of this mountain has been ascertained to be 5,263
English feet above the level of the sea.
[23] To the above general observations, which are made on the authority
of Dr. Horsfield, it may not be uninteresting to subjoin a more
particular account of two or three of the volcanos which have been
examined by that gentleman; those of _Tánkuban-Prahu_, _Papandáyang_,
and _Gúntur_ are, therefore, extracted from a paper published by Dr.
Horsfield in the Batavian Transactions.
"TANKUBAN-PRAHU.--This mountain (which has derived its name from
its appearance at a distance, resembling a _prahu_, or boat, turned
upside down) forms a vast truncated cone. Its base extends to a
very great distance, and it belongs to the largest mountains of
the island, forming one of its most interesting volcanos. Although
it has had no violent eruption for many ages, as is evident from
the progress of vegetation, and from the depth of black mould
which covers its sides, its interior has continued in a state of
uninterrupted activity.
"The crater is one of the largest, perhaps the largest, of the
island. It has, in general, the shape of a funnel; but its sides
are very irregular. The brim, or margin, which bounds it at the
top, has also different degrees of elevation, rising and descending
along the whole course of its circumference. The perpendicular
depth at the side, where I descended (in the south), is at
least two hundred and fifty feet: in the west the margin rises
considerably higher. The regular circumference of the crater I
estimate one English mile and nearly an half. The south side of the
interior crater, near the top, is very steep. I found it impossible
to descend, without the assistance of ropes tied to the shrubs at
the margin. It consists here of small fragments of lava. About
one-third of its depth it becomes more oblique or inclining, and
the lower part consists of large piles of rocks, through which the
descending streams of water have excavated a winding channel. The
east side descends gradually about one-half of the depth, where
it is terminated abruptly by a perpendicular pile of large rocks,
which continues to the bottom. The north side is more gradually
shelving than the others, and is partly covered with vegetation.
The west side is one perpendicular pile of rocks. The nucleus of
the mountain consists of large masses of basaltes, in which the
volcanic opening is situated; and the sides exhibit piles and
strata of this stone in every possible variety of configuration. In
some places the rocks have the appearance of a regular wall, which
is suddenly diversified by large fragments suspended apparently
by a small base, and threatening to fall down every instant.
Sometimes they rise in an oblique manner, and appear to have been
disposed by art. But I shall not attempt a minute description of
the disposition of the rocks and the strata which form the internal
walls of the crater, which, without an accurate drawing, would be
tedious and scarcely intelligible. The surface of the rocks which
line the interior of the crater is completely calcined, generally
of a white colour, sometimes inclining to grey or yellow. In many
places small fragments of lava adhere to and cover the rocks of
basalt: these are of different sizes, and of great variety of form
and colour; but the most are calcined or burnt, or the surface like
the rocks themselves. The different sides of the internal crater
are excavated in many places, by furrows made by the descending
water, which penetrate to a considerable depth, and expose more
completely the interior basaltic composition. The bottom of the
crater has a diameter of three hundred yards, but is not completely
regular; its form depends on the gradual meeting of the sides
below. Its surface is much diversified: it is strewed, like the
sides, with immense blocks of basalt, the interstices between
which are excavated, in a similar manner, by the streams of the
descending water.
"Near the centre, somewhat inclining to the west side, it contains
an irregular oval lake, or collection of water, whose greatest
diameter is nearly one hundred yards: it dilates into several
branches. The water is white, and exhibits truly the appearance
of a lake of milk, boiling with a perpetual discharge of large
bubbles, which rise with greatest force from the eastern side.
The heat is 112° of Fahrenheit's scale: the apparent boiling
arises from a constant development of fixed air. The water has a
sulphureous odour; its taste is astringent, somewhat saline. Shaken
in a bottle it explodes its fixed air with great violence. The
sides of the lake, to some distance, are lined by a white aluminous
earth, most impalpably fine, and very loose, on which account it is
very difficult to approach the water. In attempting to examine its
temperature, and to collect for analysis, I sunk into the earth to
a considerable distance, and found it necessary to dispose large
fragments of basaltes before I was able to pass over it. This
earth consists of the clay (alumine) of the lavas dissolved by the
sulphureous steams on the bottom of the crater; it is of the purest
kind, and divided to a degree minute almost beyond conception.
Large quantities have been several times thrown out of the ancient
craters of the island. One eruption of this substance occurred
in the year 1761 from the mountain Gedé: it was considered as an
eruption of ashes.
"I was witness to a similar eruption, which occurred from the
mountain of _Klut_, in the month of June last year. The earth very
much resembled ashes, and was so impalpably fine and light, that
the common breeze of the monsoon carried it from this mountain,
situated in the longitude of Surabáya, to Batavia and farther
westward. It possessed the properties of the purest clay, and being
mixed with water became viscid and ductile. It can easily be formed
into vessels, and if procurable in large quantities, might usefully
be employed in the arts. All its properties indicated sufficiently
that it was the alumine of the lavas, divided in an extreme
degree by the causes above-mentioned. The Javanese are not wholly
unacquainted with the properties of this earth. It is a custom
amongst silversmiths to collect the ashes thrown out by similar
eruptions, for the purpose of making _moulds_ for the finest works.
"Towards the eastern extremity of the lake are the remaining
outlets of the subterraneous fires: they consist of several
apertures, from which an uninterrupted discharge of sulphureous
vapours takes place. Two of these are larger than the rest; they
are several feet distant from each other. The apertures are of an
irregular oblong form, and covered with crystals of impure sulphur,
which form from the discharged vapours, and adhere to those
incrustations of the aluminous earth which have formed themselves
in a great variety of configurations (hollows, tubes, &c.) near
the apertures. The vapours rush out with incredible force, with
violent subterraneous noises, resembling the boiling of an immense
cauldron in the bowels of the mountain: their colour is white, like
the concentrated vapours of boiling water. The apertures cannot be
approached without the greatest danger, as their true extent cannot
be discovered: they are surrounded by incrustations of sulphur
adhering to delicate laminæ of the aluminous earth, which are
extremely brittle. The greatest diameter of the large opening is
nearly twelve inches.
"To give an adequate description of the interior of this crater
would furnish matter for an able pen: the force of the impression
is increased, perhaps, by the recollection of the danger which
has been overcome in descending to the bottom. Every thing here
contributes to fill the mind with the most awful satisfaction. It
doubtless is one of the most grand and terrific scenes which nature
affords; and, in the present instance, the extent of the crater, as
well as the remains of the former explosions, afforded a view and
enjoyment which is not in my power to describe.
"PAPANDAYANG.--The Papandáyang, situated on the western part of the
district of Cheribon, in the province of _Suka-pura_, was formerly
one of the largest volcanos of the island; but the greatest part
of it was swallowed up in the earth, after a short but very severe
combustion, in the year 1772. The account which has remained of
this event asserts, that near midnight, between the 11th and 12th
of August, there was observed about the mountain an uncommonly
luminous cloud, by which it appeared to be completely enveloped.
The inhabitants, as well about the foot as on the declivities of
the mountain, alarmed by this appearance, betook themselves to
flight; but before they could all save themselves, the mountain
began to give way, and the greatest part of it actually _fell_ in
and disappeared in the earth. At the same time, a tremendous noise
was heard, resembling the discharge of the heaviest cannon. Immense
quantities of volcanic substances, which were thrown out at the
same time and spread in every direction, propagated the effects of
the explosion through the space of many miles.
"It is estimated, that an extent of ground, of the mountain
itself and its immediate environs, fifteen miles long and full
six broad, was by this commotion swallowed up in the bowels of
the earth. Several persons, sent to examine the condition of the
neighbourhood, made report, that they found it impossible to
approach the mountain, on account of the heat of the substances
which covered its circumference, and which were piled on each
other to the height of three feet; although this was the 24th
of September, and thus full six weeks after the catastrophe. It
is also mentioned, that forty villages, partly swallowed up by
the ground and partly covered by the substances thrown out, were
destroyed on this occasion, and that 2,957 of the inhabitants
perished. A proportionate number of cattle was also destroyed,
and most of the plantations of cotton, indigo, and coffee, in the
adjacent districts, were buried under the volcanic matter. The
effects of this explosion are still very apparent on the remains
of this volcano; but I defer an account of it, till I have had an
opportunity of making a more minute examination.
"GUNTUR.--The whole of the eastern part of this mountain is
completely naked, and exposes to view, in a striking manner, the
course of the lavas of the latter eruptions: the top is a regular
cone, and covered with loose fragments of lava. I shall give a
very concise abstract of the observations on the mountain, and on
the different streams of lava which have lately flowed from its
crater. I could distinctly trace, from the base of the conical top
to the roots of the mountain, five different eruptions. The latest
stream of lava which I examined (the mountain has since had a later
eruption) was thrown out in 1800. Its course along the top cannot
be distinctly observed, being completely covered with sand and
small fragments of lava, which generally rise towards the end of an
eruption. At the place where the stream first appeared distinctly,
it was about five yards broad and completely even on the surface:
having proceeded about twenty yards further it gradually widened,
and was formed into a connected stream, higher in the middle, the
sides tapering or inclining towards the top, forming a ridge with
a pointed or sharp back. As the stream arrived at the foot of
the mountain, it spread more and more, and pursued its course to
the eastward, about six hundred yards over the adjacent country.
Its greatest breadth, from north to south, is about one hundred
and sixty yards, and it terminates abruptly by a rounded margin,
consisting of large blocks of lava piled upon each other, nearly
perpendicularly, to the height of fifteen to twenty feet.
"This stream of lava, like all the others of later date which I
have examined on the island, does not consist of a connected mass
of fluid lava, united like a stream of melted metal; at least on
the surface where it is exposed to view. It is made up of separate
masses, which have an irregular (generally oblong or cubical)
shape, and lie upon each other as 'loose disjointed clods,' in an
immense variety of disposition. In some of these fragments I think
I could observe a tendency to assume the regular basaltic figure.
During its course down the steeps of the mountain, the stream,
as has been observed, forms the long connected ridge (which has
been described above, in the account of the volcanos, as generally
covering the sides); but having arrived at the foot and spread
more at large, these lumps of lava dispose themselves, in some
instances, in plains, bounded by deep vallies: now they rise to
a considerable height, and form a steep perpendicular eminence;
then again they are piled upon each other more gradually, and
appear rising by steps and divisions. But to give an accurate
description of the arrangement of these fragments of lava would be
unnecessarily prolix, and would require, to be clearly understood,
a good drawing. In different places, the sulphureous vapours have
forced their way through the interstices of the blocks of lava. The
sides of their outlets (whose form is very irregular) is covered
with a white calcareous crust; and the heat is so great, that small
pieces of paper thrown into them are immediately singed.
"This stream of lava is bounded on the north by another, of the
same nature and disposition, thrown out of the mountain (according
to an estimate made from the commencement and progress of
vegetation upon it) about thirty years ago. In its course along
the sides of the mountain it forms the same pointed ridges above
described. It affords a plain demonstration of the manner in which
the surface of lava is decomposed and rendered fit for vegetation.
A third district of lava bounds the new stream first described in
the south: it is more extensive than the others, and consists of
several distinct regions, probably thrown out during one eruption
(which appears to have been more violent than the others), but in
successive periods shortly following each other. It extends farther
to the eastward than the others, and covers a great portion of the
foot of the mountain. Vegetation has already made considerable
progress upon it: in the vallies between the separate streams of
lava are found not only plants but also small shrubs. At one place,
near the termination of this stream, the lava is piled up in two
irregular ridges to the height of twenty feet; and at a small
distance from its eastern extremity, in a spot which has escaped
the effects of the later eruptions, and is covered by pleasant
wood, are three different hot wells, within the circumference of a
quarter of a mile. In the south, this district of lava is bounded
by a recent stream, which appears to have been thrown out in 1800,
by the same eruption which produced the first mentioned stream. It
differs from the others only in the colour of its lava, which has
a reddish hue: it is less considerable in extent than any of the
others, and cannot be traced far from the foot of the mountain. The
fifth stream of lava which I examined is still farther towards the
south, and is one of the oldest which have been discharged from
the eastern part of the crater. Near the foot of the mountain,
vegetation has made greater progress than in any of the other
districts of lava.
"The colour of the recent lava of this mountain is jet-black or
grey: one of the streams only has a reddish colour. Its texture is
very loose, and its fracture very porous. The smaller fragments
have much the appearance of the scoriæ of a blacksmith's forge: on
being thrown against each other, they emit a sound like two bricks
coming into contact. The interior crater of this mountain, as it
has remained after the eruption of 1800, is less interesting than
the others which I have examined. Its shape is somewhat oval, the
greatest diameter being about one hundred yards: its depth is not
very considerable. Its structure, in general, is similar to that of
_Tankuban-prahu_. It has one remaining aperture, which discharges
with great force hot sulphureous vapours."
_Batavian Transactions_, vol. ix.
[24] Mineral wells, of various qualities, are found in almost
every part of the island. As an instance of the hot wells, the
following account of those found in Cheribon is selected. "At the
village of _Bongas_ (situated about ten miles to the north-east of
_Karang-Sambong_) I directed my route to the large mountain, in
order to examine part of the hills along its foot, called the hills
of _Pana-wangan_, and several hot wells which are found near their
borders. On approaching these hills, after a very gentle acclivity
covered entirely by calcareous stones, I very soon came to the spot
of the hot wells. They are found on a gently inclining plain, about
one hundred yards in circumference. This plain is perfectly white; and
on approaching it, it is perceived at some distance by a sulphureous
vapour, arising from the whole neighbourhood. The water springs from
several apertures, but their temperatures are not equal; the hottest
indicates the degree of one hundred and thirty of Fahrenheit's scale.
They all contain a very large quantity of calcareous earth in solution
and suspension, which coming into contact with the air, immediately
separates, and adheres to the surrounding objects, or is precipitated
to the ground. The branches of the shrubs in the vicinity are all
enveloped by a stalactical incrustation. The water from the different
wells gently descending the white calcareous plain, is collected in
a rivulet below. A large number of calcareous rocks are found in
the vicinity of the plains; some are covered with elegant crystals
of calcareous spar, others have a coralline appearance, and some
have the fracture of alabaster. On proceeding up the hills, immense
irregular blocks of calcareous rocks are found strewed about in the
valleys. About one hundred yards above this district are several wells
of naphtha, or petroleum. It rises in small plashes of water, about
twelve or eighteen inches in diameter, upon which it drives its black
specks, emitting the peculiar odour of the petroleum. The earth in the
circumference of these plashes is strongly impregnated with this oil:
it is very tough, and from that immediately bounding apertures, the
naphtha flows out on its being pressed; some portions exactly resemble
asphaltum. A considerable space of ground is occupied by these wells.
The stones are all calcareous. A few hundred yards above this spot, the
borders of the hills become very steep. I examined them to some extent.
They are composed exclusively of calcareous stones. Several extensive
stalactitic caves are found at no great distance above the wells;
they exhibit the usual appearances of calcareous caves and vaults.
The process of incrustation is continually going on. In some places,
deep perforations extend into the heart of the hills."--_Essay on the
Mineralogy of Java, by Dr. Horsfield. Bat. Trans._ vol. ix.
Among other objects of curiosity, which can only be illustrated by
particular description, are the explosions of mud, situated between
the district of Grobogan on the west, and of Blora and Jipang on the
east. By the natives they are termed Blédeg, and are described by Dr.
Horsfield as salt wells.
"These salt wells," he observes, "are dispersed through a district of
country several miles in circumference, the base of which, like that
of other parts of the island which furnish mineral and other saline
waters, is limestone. They are of considerable number, and force
themselves upwards, through apertures in the rocks, with some violence
and ebullition. The waters are strongly impregnated with sea-salt,
and yield upon evaporation very good salt for culinary purposes. (In
quantity not less than two hundred tons in the year.)
"About the centre of this limestone district, is found an extraordinary
volcanic phenomenon. On approaching it from a distance, it is first
discovered by a large volume of smoke rising and disappearing at
intervals of a few seconds, resembling the vapours arising from a
violent surf: a dull noise is heard, like that of distant thunder.
Having advanced so near, that the vision was no longer impeded by the
smoke, a large hemispherical mass was observed, consisting of black
earth, mixed with water, about sixteen feet in diameter, rising to
the height of twenty or thirty feet in a perfectly regular manner,
and as it were pushed up, by a force beneath; which suddenly exploded
with a dull noise, and scattered about a volume of black mud in every
direction. After an interval of two or three, or sometimes four or
five seconds, the hemispherical body of mud or earth rose and exploded
again. In the same manner this volcanic ebullition goes on without
interruption, throwing up a globular body of mud, and dispersing it
with violence through the neighbouring plain. The spot where the
ebullition occurs is nearly circular and perfectly level, it is
covered only with the earthy particles impregnated with salt water,
which are thrown up from below; the circumference may be estimated at
about half an English mile. In order to conduct the salt water to the
circumference, small passages, or gutters, are made in the loose muddy
earth, which lead it to the borders, where it is collected in holes dug
in the ground for the purpose of evaporation.
"A strong, pungent, sulphureous smell, somewhat resembling that of
earth-oil, is perceived on standing near the explosion; and the mud
recently thrown up possesses a degree of heat greater than that of the
surrounding atmosphere. During the rainy season these explosions are
more violent, the mud is thrown up much higher, and the noise is heard
at a greater distance.
"This volcanic phenomenon is situated near the centre of the large
plain which interrupts the large series of volcanos; and owes its
origin to the general cause of the numerous volcanic eruptions which
occur on the island." _Batavian Trans._ vol. ix.
"These salt wells, as Dr. Horsfield terms them, and other phenomena
connected with them, appear to be precisely of the same description as
the mud volcano at Macalouba, in Sicily, and the eruptions described by
Pallas, at Tainan and Kercha (the boundary of Europe to the south-east
of Little Tartary) and no doubt owe their origin to similar causes--the
extrication of gas, as well described by Dallas, in his Translation
of the History of Volcanos, by the Abbé Ordinaire," page 249. All the
phenomenon described in this work, as well in Sicily as at Tainan and
Kercha, are to be found in Java, where, on the hypothesis of the Abbé,
"the vitriolic acid liberating a great quantity of fixed air from the
salts with which this argillaceous and limy mass is impregnated, is
observed escaping copiously, by a general bubbling on the surface of
the plain, when the substances are sufficiently diluted by rain," &c.
On the hypothesis of the Abbé it may, therefore, be doubted whether
the assertion "that the Blédegs owe their origin to the general cause
of the numerous volcanos on the island, is correct." Pallas conceives
that the phenomenon at Kercha and Tainan may be explained by supposing
a deep coal mine to have been for ages on fire, that the sea broke in
upon it, that the water was turned into steam, and that the expansion
occasioned thereby, and the struggle of the different gases to get
free, force the upper surface, &c. but there seems no necessity for
admitting the action of fire; the mud he describes is only _luke-warm_,
this is precisely the case in Java.
It is remarkable that in Java, as in Sicily, in the vicinity of these
phenomena, "the country around is of calcareous earth; briny springs
and salt mines are found in the neighbourhood; some beds of oil of
petroleum are also observed floating on adjacent stagnant waters."
[25] The tradition is as follows:--"It is related, that in former
times the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Sumbawa were united, and
afterwards separated into nine different parts; and it is also said,
that when three thousand rainy seasons have passed away, they will be
reunited."
The separation of the lands of Palembang (Sumatra) and Java
took place in the Javan year 1114
The separation of the lands of Bali and Balembangan on Java in 1204
The separation of the lands of Giling Trawangán and Bali in 1260
The separation of the island of Selo-Parang and Sumbawa in 1280
_See Chronological Table, under the head "History of Java."_
[26] In order to give the reader some idea of the tremendous violence
with which nature sometimes distinguishes the operations of the
volcano in these regions, and enable him to form some conjecture,
from the occurrences of recent experience, of the effects they may
have produced in past ages, a short account of the extraordinary and
wide-spread phenomena that accompanied the eruption of the Tomboro
mountain, in the island of Sumbawa, in April 1815, may not be
uninteresting. Almost every one is acquainted with the intermitting
convulsions of Etna and Vesuvius, as they appear in the descriptions
of the poet and the authentic accounts of the naturalist, but the most
extraordinary of them can bear no comparison, in point of duration
and force, with that of Tomboro. This eruption extended perceptible
evidences of its existence over the whole of the Molucca islands,
over Java, a considerable portion of Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo,
to a circumference of a thousand statute miles from its centre, by
tremulous motions, and the report of explosions; while within the range
of its more immediate activity, embracing a space of three hundred
miles around it, it produced the most astonishing effects, and excited
the most alarming apprehensions. On Java, at the distance of three
hundred miles, it seemed to be awfully present. The sky was overcast at
noon-day with clouds of ashes, the sun was enveloped in an atmosphere,
whose "palpable" density he was unable to penetrate; showers of ashes
covered the houses, the streets, and the fields to the depth of several
inches; and amid this darkness explosions were heard at intervals, like
the report of artillery or the noise of distant thunder. So fully did
the resemblance of the noises to the report of cannon impress the minds
of some officers, that from an apprehension of pirates on the coast
vessels were dispatched to afford relief. Superstition, on the other
hand, on the minds of the natives, was busily at work, and attributed
the reports to an artillery of a different description to that of
pirates. All conceived that the effects experienced might be caused by
eruptions of some of the numerous volcanos on the island; but no one
could have conjectured that the showers of ashes which darkened the
air, and covered the ground of the eastern districts of Java, could
have proceeded from a mountain in Sumbawa, at the distance of several
hundred miles. Conceiving that it might be interesting and curious to
preserve an authentic and detailed account of the information that
could be gained of this wonderful phenomenon, while the event was still
recent and fully remembered, I directed a circular to the different
Residents, requiring them to transmit to the Government a statement of
the facts and circumstances connected with it, which occurred within
their own knowledge. From their replies, the narrative drawn up by Mr.
Assey, and printed in the ninth volume of the Batavian Transactions,
was collected; the following is an extract from that paper:--
"The first explosions were heard on this island (Java) in the evening
of the 5th of April: they were noticed in every quarter, and continued
at intervals until the following day. The noise was, in the first
instance, universally attributed to distant cannon: so much so,
that a detachment of troops was marched from Djocjocarta, under the
apprehension that a neighbouring post had been attacked; and along
the coast boats were in two instances dispatched in quest of supposed
ships in distress. On the following morning, however, a slight fall
of ashes removed all doubt as to the cause of the sound; and it is
worthy of remark, that as the eruption continued, the sound appeared
to be so close, that in each district it seemed near at hand, and was
generally attributed to an eruption either from the mountains Merapi,
Klut, or Bromo. From the 6th the sun became obscured; it had every
where the appearance of being enveloped in a fog. The weather was
sultry and the atmosphere close, and still the sun seemed shorn of its
rays, and the general stillness and pressure of the atmosphere seemed
to forebode an earthquake. This lasted several days. The explosions
continued occasionally, but less violently, and less frequently than
at first. Volcanic ashes also began to fall, but in small quantities,
and so slightly as to be hardly perceptible in the western district.
This appearance of the atmosphere continued, with little variation,
until the 10th of April; and till then it does not appear that the
volcano attracted much observation, or was considered of greater
importance than those which have occasionally burst forth in Java. But
on the evening of the 10th, the eruptions were heard more loud and
more frequent; from Cheribon eastward the air became darkened by the
quantity of falling ashes; the sun was nearly darkened; and in some
situations, particularly at Solo and Rembang, many said that they felt
a tremulous motion of the earth. It was universally remarked in the
more eastern districts, that the explosions were tremendous, continuing
frequently during the 11th, and of such violence as to shake the houses
perceptibly. An unusual thick darkness was remarked all the following
night, and the greater part of the next day. At Solo candles were
lighted at 4 p. m. of the 12th; at Mágelan in Kédu, objects could not
be seen at three hundred yards distance. At Grésik, and other districts
more eastward, it was dark as night in the greater part of the 12th
April, and this saturated state of the atmosphere lessened as the cloud
of ashes passed along and discharged itself on its way. Thus the ashes
that were eight inches deep at Bányuwángi were but two in depth at
Súmenap, and less in Grésik, and the sun does not seem to have been
actually obscured in any district west of Semárang.
"All reports concur in stating, that so violent and extensive an
eruption has not happened within the memory of the oldest inhabitant,
nor within tradition. They speak of similar effects, in a lesser
degree, when an eruption took place from the volcano of Karang Asam in
Bali, about seven years ago, and it was at first supposed that this
mountain was the seat of the eruption. The Balinese on Java attributed
the event to a recent dispute between the two Rajahs of Bali Baliling,
which terminated in the death of the younger Rajah by order of his
brother.
"The haziness and heat of the atmosphere, and occasional fall of
volcanic ashes, continued until the 14th, and in some parts of the
island until the 17th of April. They were cleared away universally
by a heavy fall of rain, after which the atmosphere became clear and
more cool; and it would seem that this seasonable relief prevented
much injury to the crops, and removed an appearance of epidemic
disease which was beginning to prevail. This was especially the case
at Batavia, where, for two or three days preceding the rain, many
persons were attacked with fever. As it was, however, no material
injury was felt beyond the districts of Banyuwángi. The cultivators
every where took precaution to shake off the ashes from the growing
paddy as they fell, and the timely rain removed an apprehension very
generally entertained, that insects would have been generated by the
long continuance of the ashes at the root of the plant. In Rembang,
where the rain did not fall till the 17th, and the ashes had been
considerable, the crops were somewhat injured; but in Banyuwángi,
the part of the island on which the cloud of ashes spent its force,
the injury was more extensive. A large quantity of paddy was totally
destroyed, and all the plantations more or less injured. One hundred
and twenty-six horses and eighty-six head of cattle also perished,
chiefly for want of forage, during a month from the time of the
eruption.
"From Sumbawa to the part of Sumatra where the sound was noticed, is
about nine hundred and seventy geographical miles in a direct line.
From Sumbawa to Ternate is a distance of about seven hundred and twenty
miles. The distance also to which the cloud of ashes was carried, so
quickly as to produce utter darkness, was clearly pointed out to have
been the island of Celebes and the districts of Grésik on Java: the
former is two hundred and seventeen nautical miles distant from the
seat of the volcano; the latter, in a direct line, more than three
hundred geographical miles."
The following is an extract from the reports of Lieutenant Owen
Phillips, dated at Bima on the island of Sumbawa. "On my trip towards
the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of
Dompo and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the
inhabitants have been reduced is shocking to behold. There were still
on the road-side the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where
many others had been interred: the villages almost entirely deserted
and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed
in search of food. The Rajah of Sang'ir came to wait on me at Dompo,
on the 3d instant. The suffering of the people there appears, from his
account, to be still greater than in Dompo. The famine has been so
severe that even one of his own daughters died from hunger. I presented
him with three coyangs of rice in your name, for which he appeared most
truly thankful.
"As the Rajah was himself a spectator of the late eruption, the
following account which he gave me is perhaps more to be depended
upon than any other I can possibly obtain. About 7 p. m. on the 10th
of April, three distinct columns of flame burst forth near the top of
the Tomboro mountain (all of them apparently within the verge of the
crater), and after ascending separately to a very great height, their
tops united in the air in a troubled confused manner. In a short time,
the whole mountain next Sang'ir appeared like a body of liquid fire,
extending itself in every direction. The fire and columns of flame
continued to rage with unabated fury, until the darkness caused by the
quantity of falling matter obscured it at about 8 p. m. Stones, at
this time, fell very thick at Sang'ir; some of them as large as two
fists, but generally not larger than walnuts. Between 9 and 10 p. m.
ashes began to fall, and soon after a violent whirlwind ensued, which
blew down nearly every house in the village of Sang'ir, carrying the
ataps, or roofs, and light parts away with it. In the part of Sang'ir
adjoining Tomboro its effects were much more violent, tearing up by the
roots the largest trees and carrying them into the air, together with
men, horses, cattle, and whatever else came within its influence. (This
will account for the immense number of floating trees seen at sea).
The sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had ever been known to
do before, and completely spoiled the only small spots of rice land
in Sang'ir, sweeping away houses and every thing within its reach.
The whirlwind lasted about an hour. No explosions were heard till the
whirlwind had ceased, at about 11 a. m. From midnight till the evening
of the 11th, they continued without intermission; after that time their
violence moderated, and they were only heard at intervals, but the
explosions did not cease entirely until the 15th of July. Of the whole
villages of Tomboro, Tempo containing about forty inhabitants is the
only one remaining. In Pekáté no vestige of a house is left: twenty-six
of the people, who were at Sumbawa at the time, are the whole of the
population who have escaped. From the most particular inquiries I have
been able to make, there were certainly not fewer than twelve thousand
individuals in Tomboro and Pekáté at the time of the eruption, of whom
only five or six survive. The trees and herbage of every description,
along the whole of the north and west sides of the peninsula, have been
completely destroyed, with the exception of a high point of land near
the spot where the village of Tomboro stood."
[27] Batavian Transactions, vol. viii. Introductory Discourse.
[28] See Appendix A.
[29] Raynal, vol i. page 293.
[30] It is remarkable that the teak tree, which, as far as our
information yet extends, is not to be found on the peninsula of
Malacca, or on Sumatra or the adjacent islands, should grow in
abundance on Java and several of the islands which lie east of it:
as on Madúra and its dependent islands, Báli, Sumbáwa, and others.
Sumbáwa produces a considerable quantity. The whole of the hills on the
north-east part of that island under Bíma are covered with it; but from
the constant demand for the timber, the trees are seldom allowed to
grow to more than a foot in diameter, except in the forests exclusively
appropriated to the use of the sovereign. In Dómpo, which occupies the
central division of the same island, the teak cannot be used by any
but the sovereign, and the trees are in consequence allowed to attain
their full size. The timber is here uncommonly fine, and by the natives
considered superior to that of Java; but the forests being surrounded
by steep hills, and the population but scanty, it cannot be transported
to the sea-coast without great labour and expense. On Celebes the
teak tree is only known in a few spots. The principal forest is in
the district of Mario; and this does not appear to be indigenous, as
the natives assert that the seed from which the forest has grown, was
brought from Java about eighty years ago by one of the sovereigns of
Tanété.
[31] The Dutch, apprehensive of a failure in the usual supply of teak
timber, have long been in the habit of forming extensive plantations of
this tree; but whether from a sufficient period not having yet elapsed
for the trial, or that the plantations are generally made in soils and
situations ill calculated for the purpose, experience, as far as it has
yet gone, has shown, that the trees which are left to the operations of
nature, attain to greater perfection, even in a comparatively barren
soil, unfit for any other cultivation, than those which are with great
care and trouble reared in a fertile land. Their wood is more firm,
more durable, and of a less chalky substance than that of the latter.
[32] Page 176, third edit.
[33] Although a serious refutation of the gross imposition practised on
the people of Europe, by the romance of Foersch on the subject of the
upas, or celebrated poison-tree of Java, may at this day be in a great
measure superfluous, as the world has long ceased to be the dupe of
his story, and as regular series of experiments have been instituted,
both in France and in England, to ascertain the nature and potency of
the poison; yet it may not be altogether displeasing to the reader to
see in this place an authentic account of the poison, as drawn out by
Dr. Horsfield at my request, and published in the seventh volume of
the Batavian Transactions. Almost every one has heard of its fabulous
history, which, from its extravagant nature, its susceptibility of
poetical ornament, its alliance with the cruelties of a despotic
government, and the sparkling genius of Darwin, whose purpose it
answered to adopt and personify it as a malignant spirit (in his Lives
of the Plants), has obtained almost equal currency with the wonders of
the Lerna Hydra, the Chimera, or any other of the classic fictions of
antiquity.
"Although the account published by Foersch, in so far as relates to
the situation of the poison-tree, to its effects on the surrounding
country, and to the application said to have been made of the upas on
criminals in different parts of the island, as well as the description
of the poisonous substance itself, and its mode of collection, has been
demonstrated to be an extravagant forgery,--the existence of a tree on
Java, from the sap of which a poison is prepared, equal in fatality,
when thrown into the circulation, to the strongest animal poisons
hitherto known, is a fact which is at present my object to establish
and illustrate. The tree which produces this poison is the anchar, and
grows in the eastern extremity of the island. The work of Rhumphius
contains a long account of the upas, under the denomination of arbor
toxicaria. The tree does not grow on Amboyna, and his description was
made from the information he obtained from Makasar. His figure was
drawn from a branch of what is called the male-tree, sent to him from
the same place, and establishes the identity of the poison-tree of
Makasar, and the other Eastern Islands, with the anchar of Java. The
simple sap of the arbor toxicaria (according to Rhumphius) is harmless,
and requires the addition of several substances, of the affinity of
ginger, to render it active and mortal. In so far it agrees with the
anchar, which, in its simple state, is _supposed_ to be inert, and
before being employed as a poison, is subjected to a preparation which
will be described after the history of the tree. Besides the true
poison-tree, the upas of the Eastern Islands, and the anchar of the
Javans, this island produces a shrub, which, as far as observations
have hitherto been made, is peculiar to the same, and, by a different
mode of preparation, furnishes a poison far exceeding the upas in
violence. Its name is chetik, and its specific description will succeed
to that of the anchar: the genus has not yet been discovered or
described.
"DESCRIPTION OF THE ANCHAR.--The anchar belongs to the twenty-first
class of Linnæus, the monoecia. The male and female flowers are
produced in catkins (amenta) on the same branch, at no great distance
from each other: the female flowers are in general above the male. The
characters of the genus are:--MALE flower; calix, consisting of several
scales, which are imbricate. Corol; none. Stamens; filaments many, very
short, covered with scales at the receptacle. The receptacle, on which
the filaments are placed, has a conical form, abrupt, somewhat rounded
above.--FEMALE flower; catkins, ovate. Calix; consisting of a number
of scales (generally more than in the male), containing one flower.
Corol; none. Pistil; germ single, ovate. Styles; two, long, slender,
and spreading. Stigmas; single and acute. Seed-vessel; an oblong drupe,
covered with the calix. Seed; an ovate nut, with one cell.
"SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION.--The anchar is one of the largest trees in the
forests of Java. The stem is cylindrical, perpendicular, and rises
completely naked to the height of sixty, seventy, or eighty feet.
Near the surface of the ground it spreads obliquely, dividing into
numerous broad appendages or wings, much like the canarium commune
(the canary-tree), and several other of our large forest trees. It is
covered with a whitish bark, slightly bursting in longitudinal furrows.
Near the ground this bark is, in old trees, more than half an inch
thick, and upon being wounded yields plentifully the milky juice from
which the celebrated poison is prepared. A puncture or incision being
made into the tree, the juice or sap appears oozing out of a yellowish
colour (somewhat frothy) from old, paler or nearly white from young
trees; exposed to the air, its surface becomes brown. The consistence
very much resembles milk: it is more thick and viscid. This sap is
contained in the true bark (or cortex), which, when punctured, yields
a considerable quantity, so that in a short time a cup-full may be
collected from a large tree. The inner bark (or liber) is of a close
fibrous texture, like that of the morus papyrifera, and when separated
from the other bark, and cleansed from the adhering particles,
resembles a coarse piece of linen. It has been worked into ropes, which
are very strong; and the poorer class of people employ the inner bark
of the younger trees, which is more easily prepared, for the purpose
of making a coarse stuff which they wear in working in the fields. But
it requires much bruising, washing, and a long immersion, before it
can be used, and when it appears completely purified, persons wearing
this dress being exposed to rain, are affected with an intolerable
itching, which renders their flimsy covering insupportable. It will
appear from the account of the manner in which the poison is prepared,
that the deleterious quality exists in the gum; a small portion of
which still adhering, produces, when exposed to wet, this irritating
effect: and it is singular, that this property of the prepared bark
is known to the Javans in all places where the tree grows, while the
preparation of a poison from its juice, which produces a mortal effect
when introduced into the body by pointed weapons, is an exclusive art
of the inhabitants of the eastern extremity of the island. The stem
of the anchar having arrived at the above-mentioned height, sends
off a few stout branches, which spreading nearly horizontally with
several irregular curves, divide into smaller branches, and form a
hemispherical, not very regular, crown. Previous to the season of
flowering, about the beginning of June, the tree sheds its leaves,
which reappear when the male flowers have completed the office of
fecundation. It delights in a fertile, not very elevated, soil, and is
only found in the largest forests. One of the experiments to be related
below was made with the upas prepared by myself. In the collection of
the juice I had some difficulty in inducing the inhabitants to assist
me; they feared a cutaneous eruption and inflammation, resembling
(according to the account they gave of it) that produced by the ingas
of this island, the rhus vernix of Japan, and the rhus radicans of
North America. The anchar, like the trees in its neighbourhood, is
on all sides surrounded by shrubs and plants: in no instance have I
observed the ground naked or barren in its immediate circumference. The
largest tree I met with in Balambangan, was so closely environed by the
common trees and shrubs of the forest in which it grew, that it was
with difficulty I could approach it. Several vines and climbing shrubs,
in complete health and vigour, adhered to it, and ascended to nearly
half its height; and, at the time I visited the tree and collected the
juice, I was forcibly struck with the egregious misrepresentation of
Foersch. Several young trees spontaneously sprung from seeds that had
fallen from the parent, put me in mind of a line in Darwin's Botanic
Garden:--
'Chain'd at his root two scion-demons dwell;'
while in recalling his beautiful description of the upas, my vicinity
to the tree gave me reason to rejoice that it was founded in fiction.
"DESCRIPTION OF THE CHETIK.--The fructification of the chetik is still
unknown: after all possible research in the district where it grows,
I have not been able to find it in a flowering state. It is a large
winding shrub. The root extends creeping a considerable distance
parallel to the surface, sending off small fibres at different curves,
while the main root strikes perpendicularly into the ground. The stem,
which in general is shrubby, sometimes acquires the size of a small
tree. The poison is prepared from the bark of the root. The chetik
grows only in close, shady, almost inaccessible forests, in a deep,
black, fertile vegetable mould. It is very rarely met with even in the
wildernesses of Balambangan.
"PREPARATION OF THE POISON FROM THE ANCHAR.--This process was performed
for me by an old Javan, who was celebrated for his superior skill in
preparing the poison: about eight ounces of the juice of the anchar,
which had been collected the preceding evening in the usual manner, and
been preserved in the joint of a bambu, was carefully strained into
a bowl. The sap of the following substances, which had been finely
grated and bruised, was carefully expressed and poured into it, viz.
arum (nampu), kempferia galanga (kenchur), anomum (bengli) a variety
of zerumbed, common onion and garlic, of each about half a drachm. The
same quantity of finely powdered black pepper was then added, and the
mixture stirred. The preparer now took an entire fruit of capsicum
fruticosum or Guinea pepper, and having opened it, he carefully
separated a single seed, and placed it on the fluid in the middle of
the bowl. It immediately began to reel round rapidly, now forming a
regular circle, then darting towards the margin of the vessel, with a
perceptible commotion on the surface of the liquor, which continued
about one minute. Being completely at rest, the same quantity of pepper
was again added, and another seed of the capsicum laid on as before.
A similar commotion took place in the fluid, but in a less degree,
and the seed was carried round with diminished rapidity. The addition
of the same quantity of pepper was repeated a third time, when a seed
of the capsicum being carefully placed in the centre of the fluid,
remained quiet, forming a regular circle about itself in the fluid,
resembling the halo of the moon. This is considered as a sign that the
preparation of the poison is complete.
"PREPARATION OF THE POISON FROM THE CHETIK.--The bark of the root
is carefully separated and cleared of all the adherent earth, a
proportionate quantity of water is poured on, and it is boiled about
an hour, when the fluid is carefully filtered through a white cloth;
it is then exposed to the fire again, and boiled down to nearly the
consistence of an extract; in this state it much resembles a thick
syrup. The following spices, having been prepared as above described,
are added in the same proportion as to the anchar, viz. kempferia
galanga (kenchur), (súnti), anomum zingéber (shai), common onion,
garlic, and black pepper. The expressed juice of these is poured into
the vessel, which is once more exposed to the fire for a few minutes,
when the preparation is complete. The upas of both kinds must be
preserved in very close vessels."
Dr. H. then details the particulars of twenty experiments made on
different animals with these poisons, as well in their simple state
as procured from the bark, powerfully prepared in the manner as above
stated, in which the violence of the poison was manifested; and
concludes with some general observations, from which the following are
extracted:
"The operation of the two different poisons on the animal system is
essentially different. The first seventeen experiments were made with
the anchar. The rapidity of its effect depends in a great degree
upon the size of the vessel wounded, and on the quantity of poison
carried into the circulation. In the first experiment, it induced
death in twenty-six minutes: in the second, which was made with the
sap collected at Púgar, in thirteen minutes. The poison from different
parts of the island has been found nearly equal in activity. The common
train of symptoms is; a trembling and shivering of the extremities,
restlessness, erection of the hair, discharges from the bowels,
drooping and faintness, slight spasms and convulsions, hasty breathing,
an increased flow of saliva, spasmodic contractions of the pectoral and
abdominal muscles, retching, vomiting, excrementitious vomiting, frothy
vomiting, great agony, laborious breathing, repeated convulsions, and
death. The effects are nearly the same on quadrupeds, in whatever part
of the body the wound is made. It sometimes acts with so much force,
that not all the symptoms enumerated are observed. In these cases,
after the premonitory symptoms (tremors, twitchings, faintness, an
increased flow of saliva), the convulsions come on suddenly, and are
quickly followed by death. The upas appears to affect quadrupeds with
nearly equal force, proportionate in some degree to their size and
disposition. To dogs it proved mortal in most experiments within an
hour; a mouse died in ten minutes; a monkey in seven; a cat in fifteen;
a buffalo, one of the largest quadrupeds of the island, died in two
hours and ten minutes.
"If the simple or unprepared sap is mixed with the extract of tobacco,
instead of the spices mentioned, it is rendered equally, perhaps more,
active. Even the pure juice, unmixed and unprepared, appears to act
with a force equal to that which has undergone the preparative process.
Birds are very differently affected by this poison. Fowls have a
peculiar capacity to resist its effects: a fowl died in twenty-four
hours after the wound; others have recovered after being partially
affected.
"The eighteenth and succeeding experiments were made with the poison
prepared from the chetik. Its operation is far more violent and
rapid than that of the anchar, and it affects the animal system in a
different manner. While the anchar operates chiefly on the stomach,
alimentary canal, the respiration and circulation, the chetik is
determined to the brain and nervous system: a relative comparison
of the appearances on dissection, demonstrates in a striking manner
the peculiar operation of each. A general view of the effects of the
chetik on quadrupeds is given in these experiments. After the previous
symptoms of faintness, drowsiness, and slight convulsions, it acts by
a sudden impulse, which like a violent apoplexy prostrates at once the
whole nervous system. In two of these experiments this sudden effect
took place in the sixth minute after the wound, in another in the
seventh minute: the animals suddenly started, fell down head foremost,
and continued in convulsions until death ensued. This poison affects
fowls in a much more violent manner than that of the anchar. They are
first affected by a heat and itching of the breast and wings, which
they shew by violently pecking those parts; this is followed by a
loose discharge from the bowels, when they are seized with tremors
and fluttering of the wings, which having continued a short time,
they fall down head foremost, and continue convulsed till death. In
some instances, particularly young fowls, the poison acts with great
rapidity; death has frequently occurred within the space of a minute
after a puncture with a poisoned dart.
"Taken into the stomach of quadrupeds, the chetik acts as a most
violent poison; but it requires about thrice the period to produce
the same effect which a wound produces. But the stomach of fowls can
resist its operation. Having mixed about double the quantity generally
adhering to a dart with the food of a fowl, it consumed it without
shewing any marks of indisposition. The poison of the anchar does by
no means act as violently on quadrupeds as that of the chetik. I have
given it to a dog: it produced at first nearly the same symptoms as
a puncture; oppression of the head, twitchings, faintness, laborious
respiration, violent contraction of the pectoral and abdominal muscles,
&c. which continued nearly two hours; but after the complete evacuation
of the stomach by vomiting, the animal gradually recovered.
"I have but little to add concerning the operation of the anchar
on the human system. The only credible information on this subject
is contained in the work of Rhumphius, who had an opportunity of
personally observing the effect of the poisoned darts and arrows as
they were used by the natives of Makasar, in their attack on Amboyna
about the year 1650. They were also employed by the inhabitants
of Celebes in their former wars with the Dutch. Speaking of their
operation he says, 'the poison touching the warm blood, it is instantly
carried through the whole body, so that it may be felt in all the
veins, and causes an excessive burning, particularly in the head,
which is followed by fainting and death.' This poison (according to
the same author) possesses different degrees of virulence, according
to its age and state of preservation. The most powerful is called upas
raja, and its effects are considered as incurable; the other kinds are
distributed among the soldiers on going to war. After having proved
mortal to many of the Dutch soldiers in Amboyna and Makasar, they
finally discovered an almost infallible remedy in the root of the radix
toxicaria of Rhumphius, which, if timely applied, counteracted, by its
violent emetic effect, the force of the upas. An intelligent Javan of
Banyuwangi informed me, that a number of years ago an inhabitant of
that district was wounded in a clandestine manner, by an arrow thrown
from a blow-pipe, in the fore-arm, near the articulation of the elbow.
In about fifteen minutes he became drowsy; after which he was seized
with vomiting, became delirious, and in less than half an hour he died.
From the experiments above related, we may form an analogous estimate
of its probable effects on man." _Batavian Transactions_, vol. vii.