comprised the first pointed work in Scotland. Those reigns were
characterised by quietness and prosperity at home and peace abroad. The
Norman invasion of the previous century seemed to have become complete,
and the country had settled down and accepted the new conditions
imported from the South, both as regards matters secular and
ecclesiastic. The king’s writ extended all over the land, except in the
Western and Northern Islands, and the Roman rule in ecclesiastical
affairs was co-extensive with it. The country was prosperous, and is
believed to have been more wealthy than at any time till after the Union
with England. These conditions favoured architecture, and, coming as
they did in the first pointed period, the consequence was that the
edifices erected during the thirteenth century were the largest and
contained the finest architecture which Scotland can boast of. But this
fortunate state of matters was doomed to a sudden extinction. The
disputed succession following the death of the third Alexander, in
1286, opened to Edward I. an opportunity for endeavouring to complete
the Norman conquest of the country. This, as we have seen, had been
already achieved so far as social relations were concerned, and Edward
resolved that it should also be so politically.
The resistance of the country and Edward’s hostile attitude had the
immediate effect of causing the withdrawal of the Norman settlers, who
owed allegiance to Edward for their estates in England, along with their
dependants. These carried with them much of the civilisation and culture
which they had introduced. Moreover, the incessant state of war and
disturbance which arose during the struggle for independence, and lasted
over so many years, put a stop to all commerce and agriculture, and
reduced the country to a condition of the utmost poverty and barbarism.
Even after King Robert’s death, in 1329, a part of the South of Scotland
remained in the hands of the English for a considerable time, and
suffered much from lying in the track of war.
Melrose Abbey had been partly rebuilt through the pious devotion of King
Robert, but in 1385, this and other abbeys in the south-eastern
district, together with the town of Edinburgh, including St. Giles’
Church, were again destroyed by Richard II.
In the midst of all these depressing influences it is obvious that the
ecclesiastical architecture of the country must for a long time not only
have suffered a total cessation from progress, but must also have
endured severe injury.
It has been pointed out how deep was the poverty of the country during
the fourteenth century, and with what difficulty the nobles, amongst
whom Bruce had distributed the forfeited lands, were able to raise even
a small pele tower for the defence of themselves and their
retainers.[58] The Church, patriotic as it was, suffered in the general
distress, and for a time funds were lacking for the completion of works
in progress, or the execution of new undertakings.
In these circumstances, it is vain to look in Scotland for much
architecture during the fourteenth century. This being the period during
which Gothic art reached its highest expression, both in England and
abroad, it is unfortunate for Scottish architecture that it should be so
imperfectly represented by edifices worthy of that time.
The country may be said not to have recovered from the impoverishment of
the war of independence till the fifteenth century was well advanced,
and when that period arrived, the desire for the erection of cathedrals
and establishment of monasteries had to a large extent ceased, and
endowments were, after that time, principally devoted to the erection of
smaller structures in the nature of Collegiate Institutions.
The connection with England having now been completely severed, and a
political alliance having been formed with France, it is natural to
find a departure in the architecture of Scotland from the close
resemblance to that of England which had hitherto characterised it, and
to detect the introduction of features from abroad. These elements play
an important part in the architecture of the end of the fifteenth
century and succeeding period, and produce a mixed style, not distinctly
the same either as that of the perpendicular in England, or of the
Flamboyant in France, but a style peculiar to Scotland, which includes
elements derived from both these styles, and also retains some features
of the earlier phases of Gothic architecture. This style has a distinct
character of its own, and is in Scotland parallel to the third period of
Gothic both in England and France.
The paucity of examples in Scotland during the fourteenth century, and
the absence in the succeeding century of any distinctly marked features
assimilating Scottish architecture especially either to the
perpendicular or Flamboyant styles of the later pointed epochs of
England and France, have led writers on the architecture of Scotland to
the conclusion that this country was entirely devoid of any
representatives of the decorated or middle pointed style, as
distinguished from the late or third pointed period, and they have,
therefore, included all Scottish architecture after the first or early
pointed period under the title of second pointed.[59] We are satisfied
that this is a mistake, and we trust to be able to show that Scotland,
although somewhat scantily represented by its architecture during the
decorated period in England, does possess a fair number of parallel
buildings corresponding in style to the decorated work of other
countries, although erected at a somewhat later date, and also that the
third or late pointed period is fully represented.
The wars had rendered the country backward in every respect, and it is
only natural to find it backward in architecture also.
As already mentioned, King Robert’s work at Melrose had been grievously
damaged by Richard II.; but some of it remains, and in this, as well as
other structures of the period, are exhibited beautiful examples of
decorated work.
A considerable number of churches and monastic buildings executed about
the end of the fourteenth and first half of the fifteenth centuries are
fair representatives of the decorated period. Although not so pure in
style, nor so important in point of size as the corresponding edifices
in England, they yet exhibit, on a scale commensurate with the reduced
state of the country, a worthy effort to sustain the character of its
architecture and give expression to its devotional feelings. Some of
these structures were erected in the fourteenth century and others in
the first half of the fifteenth century, and although differing somewhat
in detail from both English and foreign examples, they possess a
sufficiently close relation to decorated work to ally them with that
style and to distinguish them from the structures of the later or third
pointed period. The buildings of the latter period, as above mentioned,
have in some respects connection both with the English perpendicular and
the French Flamboyant.
It is therefore proposed to divide the Church Architecture of Scotland
during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries into two
periods, under the titles of the Middle Pointed or Decorated Period and
the Third or Late Pointed Period. The middle pointed or decorated style
corresponds to the decorated period in England and the fully developed
Gothic of France, and extends in Scotland from the middle of the
fourteenth century till about the middle of the fifteenth century. The
third or late pointed period extends from about the middle of the
fifteenth century till the Reformation in 1560, and corresponds with the
perpendicular or third pointed period in England and the Flamboyant in
France. The second pointed period includes a few fine structures, such
as the nave of Glasgow Cathedral, part of Melrose Abbey, Lincluden
College, Linlithgow Church, Crosraguel Abbey, &c., which contain good
decorated work, and are in every respect superior to the later
structures of the succeeding period, with which it seems to us erroneous
to class them.
MIDDLE POINTED OR DECORATED STYLE.
Towards the close of the thirteenth century a considerable change
occurred in the features of Gothic architecture throughout Europe. The
development of the pointed style had progressed steadily, and all the
details had become lighter and more ornate. The tracery of the windows
especially marks the decorated period. This feature, as we have seen,
was invented in the previous epoch, but now became fully developed,
especially in France. In the design of the tracery the eye, which at
first had been fixed on the form of the aperture, gradually came to
dwell on the outline of the bars of the tracery, which thereafter became
the leading feature. (Fig. 23.) The early simple circular forms of the
bar tracery by degrees assumed other geometric patterns, consisting of
triangles, squares, and similar figures, skilfully combined and
diversified with cusping or feathering. Towards the close of the period
these figures assumed a more flowing character, but without entirely
losing their distinctive geometric forms.
In England the vaulting grew lighter, and became distinguished by the
introduction of subordinate ribs or liernes, which divided the plain
surface into a greater number of panels, and ridge ribs were almost
always introduced. The points of support were also lightened, and the
buttresses were made thinner and with greater projection, and ornamented
with numerous niches and crocheted canopies and pinnacles. The
clerestory windows under the vaults were enlarged, as it was discovered
that
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Beverley Minster, Yorkshire. Compartment of
Nave, Exterior and Interior. (From Britton’s _Antiquities_.)]
the solid walls between the buttresses might be dispensed with, and
their place completely filled with window tracery. The clerestory was
thus enlarged, and the triforium reduced to a mere passage, or entirely
dispensed with. From the same cause the windows of the east and west
ends, and those of the façades of the transepts, were also enlarged to
the fullest extent, so that nearly the whole space became occupied with
tracery and stained glass.
The doorways in England, although still much smaller than those of
France, are, notwithstanding, often very fine, as, for instance, those
of York Minster (Fig. 24). The shafts of the jambs, which in the
previous period were detached and set in nooks, are now converted by
degrees into a series of mouldings wrought upon the jamb stones, and
arranged in one plane. The caps, at first distinct, gradually pass into
a series of foliaceous scrolls running along the top of the whole jamb.
The piers are similarly treated. The clustered shafts give place to
mouldings, and the caps become carved with running ornament. The plan of
the piers is frequently that of a lozenge. A four-centred arch, forming
an ogee or reversed curve, is now introduced in water tables over
doorways. The arch mouldings are still boldly cut, and are separated by
well-marked and deep hollows, but grow shallower and broader as time
advances. The carving and foliage become lighter and more naturalistic,
the ordinary leaves and flowers of the fields being beautifully wrought
in the capitals, corbels, and bosses. The detached ball flower is a
striking feature of this period. Every wall opening is cusped and
feathered, and the niches and arcades are richly decorated. The use of
small decorative buttresses on the jambs of the doors, windows, and
niches now becomes common.
In France the progression of the style is similar, but shows a livelier
and bolder development. There a stone vault is always essential, whereas
in England open wooden roofs are often adopted with fine result.
MIDDLE POINTED OR DECORATED STYLE IN SCOTLAND.
For the reasons above stated, the middle pointed work in Scotland is
somewhat varied from that of England and the Continent, especially in
details. It also extends over a longer space of time, and gradually
merges into the succeeding or third pointed style.
Until Bruce was firmly established on the throne, church building was
entirely at a standstill. But after 1314, architecture received some
encouragement from the king and began to revive. Melrose Abbey was
especially the recipient of the royal bounty, and during the fourteenth
century was, doubtless, in great measure rebuilt. It still retains much
of the decorated work of that period, and is amongst our finest
examples
[Illustration: FIG. 24.--York Cathedral. West Front. (From Britton’s
_Cathedrals_.)]
of the style. Dryburgh Abbey and Crosraguel Abbey were also encouraged
in their works of restoration by King Robert, and still show partial
specimens of middle pointed architecture. Glasgow Cathedral also still
preserves, almost unimpaired, its fine nave of the fourteenth century.
The nave and central tower were evidently completed before 1400, as in
that year the latter was destroyed by lightning.
The list of churches containing specimens of middle pointed work could
be easily extended, and will be fully gone into in the sequel.
Meanwhile, the following may be mentioned as undoubtedly exhibiting
genuine examples--viz., Sweetheart Abbey and Lincluden College, in
Kirkcudbrightshire, which contain portions of early decorated work;
Linlithgow Church, rebuilt after 1424, when it was greatly destroyed by
fire; Fortrose Cathedral; St. Giles’ Church, Edinburgh; Brechin
Cathedral; Elgin Chapterhouse.
The above buildings extend down to about 1450-60, which may be regarded
as the limit of the decorated or middle pointed period in Scotland.
The transition to the third pointed style was gradual.
Trinity Collegiate Church, which existed till 1848, in Edinburgh,
although not founded till 1462, preserved in the interior the character
of good middle pointed work, and is classed by Rickman as a “decorated”
structure, But the exterior shows signs of the later style, and this
structure, like several others, may therefore be classed as
transitional.
It must be kept in view that many of the above churches of the second
pointed period were subjected to damage by fire, and having in
consequence to undergo repairs at a later date, exhibit signs of a
mixture of styles. Thus, Melrose, Dryburgh, and St. Giles’, Edinburgh,
were destroyed by Richard II. during his expedition in 1385, and
consequently show in the subsequent restorations some work of a rather
late character, mingled with the earlier decorated features. This
mingling of the work of different dates no doubt renders somewhat
difficult the elimination of the features due to the various epochs, and
has probably contributed to the erroneous view above referred to--viz.,
that all Scottish architecture after 1300 belongs to the same style, and
should be classed as “second pointed.”
With regard to the whole of the later architecture of Scotland, however,
whether we consider the middle pointed or the third pointed periods, we
think there can be no doubt but that it is all the work of native
architects. Had the design owed its origin to either English or French
architects, it would have more closely resembled the design of the
perpendicular in England or Flamboyant in France. But being entirely
different from either of these styles, although partaking to some extent
of the features of both, and being also much later in date than the
corresponding styles of these countries, the only conclusion which can
be drawn is, that the architecture of the middle pointed and third
pointed periods in this country was wrought out by native hands. Old
forms were long adhered to and new features were slowly adopted, and
when adopted were not followed entirely or exactly in accordance with
the original model, but with certain distinct modifications in details.
The mouldings are generally rather massive and heavy. The buttresses (as
at Melrose) strongly resemble English middle pointed work. The pier and
arch mouldings are not quite so light and well marked as in England, and
the tracery of the windows, although geometric, is not always so elegant
as in the South.
Good chapterhouses and sacristies of this period still exist at Glasgow,
Crosraguel, Pluscardine, and elsewhere, which are square, and have a
central pillar supporting groined vaulting. The very elegant
chapterhouse of Elgin Cathedral is octagonal, and beautifully vaulted
with a central pillar.
THIRD OR LATE POINTED STYLE.
In the latter half of the fourteenth century, Gothic art, both in France
and England, again showed symptoms of a change of character. In France
the architects seemed to have exhausted their powers of development as
regards constructional elements, and were now occupied with the
elaboration of details. The earlier geometric tracery now assumed a very
flowing character, which, from the flame-like shapes of the bars of the
stone work, was called “Flamboyant.” In England, on the other hand, the
tracery assumed a rigid form, and from the mullions of the windows being
carried up in straight lines from the sill to the arch, the style
received the name of “perpendicular.” (Fig. 25.) In many respects,
connected with ornament and decoration, the styles of the two countries
resembled each other, but in one respect they differed widely. In France
the simple intersecting pointed vault was never departed from, but in
England the development of the vaulting into new forms made great
progress at this period. It has been mentioned that in their “decorated”
work the English had begun, in the thirteenth century, to introduce
“liernes” or intermediate ribs into the vaults. This process still
continued and advanced till the vaulting surface became covered with
ribs. (Fig. 26.) The ribs were latterly used as ornamental features,
spread over the surface of the vault, which again became the supporting
arched surface, as it was before the introduction of Gothic bearing ribs
in the twelfth century. A favourite form of this kind of vaulting is
known from its appearance as fan vaulting. In working out this kind of
vaulting, it was found desirable to bring all the ribs to the same level
at the apex, and in order to accomplish this it was found convenient to
use arches of double curvature, or four centred arches, a depressed
form which is characteristic of perpendicular work.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.--York Cathedral. View of the East End. (From
Britton’s _Cathedrals_.)]
From this peculiarity there followed many changes in style almost
unknown abroad. The use of the depressed arch in the vault soon led to
its adoption in the clerestory windows placed under the vault, and from
these it spread to the other windows, and ultimately to all the arches
of the building. From these features a perpendicular structure is at
once recognisable. The panelling of the vaults led, in sympathy, to
panelling in the wall surfaces, in the buttresses, and everywhere. A
linear system of ornamentation was thus produced, which was developed to
an extreme degree--the mouldings were thinned off till they became mere
strings, with wide shallow hollows between, and all interruption to the
stringy or liney effect thus produced was objected to. Thus the caps of
shafts were almost abolished, and the thin arch mouldings carried down
the piers without interruption from the arch to the base. The piers were
divided up with large shallow hollows or splays, and the subordination
of mouldings was lost. When caps were used they were generally small and
octagonal in shape, and stood meaningless amidst a cluster of mouldings.
Doorways were less deeply recessed than formerly, and the four-centred
arch was usually enclosed in a square moulding, the spandrils between
the square head and the arch being filled with tracery or sculpture,
often of a heraldic nature.
In France the two-centred arch was adhered to, and traceried windows
were frequently introduced over doorways. Some of the carving, both at
home and in France, is executed with great delicacy and spirit, but much
of the foliage is of a very conventional form peculiar to the period. In
running ornaments the stems frequently become more important than the
leaves, thus carrying out the thin linear character of the style.
The English architects always showed a fondness for wooden roofs, and at
this the latest period of Gothic these open timber constructions became
very common. In France, on the contrary, vaulted roofs were preferred
till the revival of classic art.
THIRD OR LATE POINTED STYLE IN SCOTLAND.
During the latter part of the fifteenth and in the sixteenth centuries
the erection of cathedrals and monasteries in Scotland was almost
entirely superseded by collegiate churches. These structures are
generally designed on a cruciform plan, with a central tower over the
crossing. They have usually a porch at the south-west and a sacristy at
the north-east angle, and occasionally one or more chantry chapels
attached. Except in the larger examples of collegiate churches, such as
St. Giles’ and Trinity College, Edinburgh, aisles are rarely introduced,
and groined vaulting, although used in the above structures, is also
uncommon. The churches are generally covered with pointed barrel vaults,
for the most part plain, but sometimes ornamented with ribs applied to
the barrel surface. The latter style of decoration is sometimes employed
in the vaulting over the
[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Winchester Cathedral. West End of the Nave.
(From Britton’s _Chronological History of English Architecture_.)]
presbytery, so as to distinguish it by its richness. This class of
vaulting carries out in its simplest elements the principle adopted at
this period in England of making the vaulting surface more important
than the ribs, and using the latter as ornaments upon the surface of the
vault.
The exterior of the churches is generally marked by rather heavy
buttresses, crowned with small and debased-looking pinnacles. The
buttresses have often a great many set-offs. In other examples
buttresses are entirely omitted. The doorways vary considerably. The
semi-circular arch, which is sometimes preserved in the earlier styles,
is now of very frequent use, not only in doorways, but also in pier
arcades and clerestories (as at Paisley and Dunkeld). Elliptic arches
and three-sided door heads are also used.
At this period we find indications of English influence in a few
perpendicular traceries, as at Melrose Abbey, and of French influence in
some Flamboyant forms, and in the three or five sided apse which
frequently forms the eastern termination of the churches. Western and
central towers are usual features, generally rather squat in form, and
sometimes surmounted with a short spire, having numerous small lucarnes
and pinnacles. Four of these towers were once finished with spires of
open work resembling a crown, but the number is now reduced to
two--viz., St. Giles’, Edinburgh, and King’s College, Old Aberdeen.
The piers are often of a plain circular form, and the arches have
frequently plain chamfers instead of mouldings. The caps of piers are
peculiar and heavy, the abacus consisting of a deep series of mouldings.
Grotesque ornaments and large flowers are common, and frequently of
rather coarse design; but in some instances, as in the cloisters of
Melrose, the ornaments are beautifully sculptured.
A revival of early enrichments, such as the dog-tooth or nail-head, is a
curious characteristic of this period, as it was also in the case of the
late domestic architecture. Other early features are also revived, such
as detached shafts, with well-marked caps and bases of early form. This
is specially observable at Iona and in Argyleshire and the Western
Islands, where, as already mentioned, a peculiar style prevailed.
In course of time, as pointed out elsewhere,[60] the ecclesiastical
elements were invaded by the features of domestic architecture, and a
mixed, but picturesque, style was developed which had more of a Scottish
than a Gothic aspect.
Many examples of Scottish structures of the third period will be
illustrated. The buildings, though comparatively small, are numerous and
interesting, as they illustrate a specially Scottish branch of Gothic
architecture. They consist largely of collegiate edifices, and amongst
them is the well-known collegiate church of Roslyn.
A number of churches showing the mixture of domestic and ecclesiastical
features which prevailed in the latter half of the sixteenth and
seventeenth century have already been illustrated, as above indicated.
That series of churches will be continued so as to exhaust the subject.
The contrast they present with the churches of the earlier centuries is
very striking, and affords much food for reflection.
[Illustration]