near the close of the twelfth century, and in Scotland for some time
thereafter. At that period a further and completer development awaited
the architecture of the Middle Ages. We have seen that the
“subordination” of all the parts had been achieved, together with the
use of the groined vault, with its accompanying buttresses and
pinnacles, in the round arched style. The employment of the round arch
was, however, found to involve many practical difficulties in connection
with the vaulting. The bays of the nave, so long as they were _square_
in plan, could be conveniently vaulted with intersecting semi-circular
groins; but when they were of an oblong form, the width being greater
than the length (as was often found necessary in order to suit the
vaulting of the side aisles), the round arch was found very inconvenient
in consequence of the large arch which spanned the nave rising to a
greater height than the smaller arch of the side walls. It was
endeavoured to overcome this difficulty by stilting the arch of the side
vault so as to make its apex of the same height as the main transverse
vault; but this scheme interfered with the lines of the groins or
intersection of the vaults in such a manner as to render it unworkable.
It therefore became necessary to seek for a more flexible form of arch,
which would enable the apex of all the arches of the vaults, whatever
their span, to rise to any required height. This useful form was
discovered in the pointed arch, which had long been in use in Provence,
and which the builders of the North of France now found themselves
forced to adopt by the exigencies of their vaults, and which ultimately
led to the development of the pointed style.
The new life and growth of architecture which, as we have seen, sprung
into existence in the twelfth century, had been adopted with eagerness
by the builders of the Royal Domain of France. Not being trammelled by
the traditions of an ancient and long-used system, these architects had
thrown themselves with energy into the new development of architecture,
and it was in this locality that the application of the pointed arch to
the difficulties of the vaulting seems to have been first successfully
carried out.
As early as 1144 the pointed vaulting of the side chapels of the
Cathedral of St. Denis was completed by the Abbé Suger. Some time
elapsed until the effect of this new system of vaulting was fully
realised, either in France or England; but when its advantages were at
last seized, the pointed arch was speedily adopted. At first it was
applied in both countries, for the sake of strength, to the main bearing
arches; but gradually the round arch was superseded, and the pointed
form adopted, for the sake of harmony, in all wall openings. The pointed
style thus became completed in its main elements towards the close of
the twelfth century. The pointed form of the vaulting gradually ruled
every other feature. The large windows of the clerestory, being near the
vaults, naturally assumed the same pointed form as the wall ribs, and
the other windows and the doorways speedily followed, in sympathy with
the general movement.
The fresh vigour of the mouldings and foliage begun under the Normans
went on improving in the pointed style, and the energy and devotion of
the builders in France and England wrought out in each country a
separate pointed architecture, each founded on the use of the pointed
arch, but each showing original and distinct elements.
In France there is visible, in the early pointed architecture, a
constant effort to attain to some new development--a restless striving
after novel and more expanded forms, leading to great magnitude and
height in the churches, many of which were, in consequence, never
finished. In England, while novelties of design are sought after, there
is more contentment and completeness in the architecture. There is not
the same soaring ambition and striving after spacious buildings and
lofty vaults; consequently, the English cathedrals and large churches
are more frequently finished, a greater amount of attention being
devoted to rendering the structure complete and varied in its different
parts than in the production of one great and striking result. The
English cathedrals are thus more picturesque, while those of France are
grander in appearance. The former effect is produced by the multiplicity
and variety, as well as the completeness, of all the parts, many of the
English cathedrals (as Salisbury, Fig. 19) having double transepts,
eastern lady chapels, large vaulted cloisters, detached chapter-houses,
&c.; while the grand effect of the French cathedrals arises from their
great size and height, and the apparent unity and simplicity of the
design. In one respect the cathedrals and churches of the two countries
greatly differ. Owing to
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Salisbury Cathedral. View from the North-East.
(From Britton’s _Cathedrals_.)]
their immense height, the French churches require a vast quantity of
lofty buttresses and pinnacles, which, to the eye accustomed to those of
England, produce a feeling of confusion and unrest. The great flying
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--(From Viollet le Duc’s _Dictionnaire_.)]
buttresses of the multangular chevet of the French cathedrals tend to
increase this feeling, and to give the impression of an unfinished
building still surrounded with huge piles of scaffolding. The plain
rectangular east end of most of the English cathedrals, and the
comparative simplicity of the easily intelligible buttresses and
pinnacles, give an air of repose and peacefulness to these edifices
which is sought for in vain in most French examples. The portals of
France are amongst the chief glories of its churches. The doorways of
the English churches, although sometimes beautiful in detail, never
attempt to reach the magnitude or splendour of those of France. But the
side porches of the English churches are often of great size and beauty.
When attention is directed to the details of pointed architecture,
constructional characteristics are found to pervade their design. In
France, there is visible in every element of early pointed work a
continuous effort to indicate its intention and purpose. Constructional
utility rules everything, each member is designed to perform its
function in the most perfect manner, and ornament is employed to express
that idea. By means of the square or angular abacus of the caps and
bases of the shafts, which are always set so as to show what member they
carry, an effort is made to express the motive of the design, and the
caps are carved with spirited foliage, signifying by its upward tendency
the vigour with which they perform their duty. (Fig. 20.) The shafts of
the piers, also, are so arranged and grouped and set at such heights as
to declare at once the function they perform in supporting certain ribs
and mouldings of the arches and vaults, and the tracery of the windows
gives expression to the ideas which have guided its design. The
constructional principles of the French architecture are especially
distinct in the naked, but vigorous, churches of the early Cistercians
in France.
The details of the early English work, while equally beautiful with
French work, are not quite so expressive of growth and vigour. The
foliage is conventional in the extreme, and less suggestive of vitality
and development. The abacus of the caps, which is almost invariably
round, does not so fully express their purpose in the design, while the
mouldings with which the caps are usually ornamented fail to show the
life and spirit of the carved and foliaged caps of France. (Fig. 21.) In
the same way the introduction of tracery in the English windows lags
behind that of France. In the latter country window tracery was fully
developed by 1250, while in England the lancet form, single or grouped,
was still adhered to. In variety of clustered columns and in richness of
mouldings, however, the English style held its own.
The characteristics of the first or early pointed style in France and
England are as distinct and apparent as those of the Norman. The general
effect of the exterior (Fig. 22) is lighter than in the latter style,
though still solid. The buttresses have greater projection and less
breadth than the Norman ones, and are often lightened by having the
outer angles chamfered. The water tables of the set-offs are also
steeper, the pinnacles are thinner and loftier, and the buttresses are
crowned with gablets and finials. In late examples the flying buttress
is introduced. The windows are invariably pointed. They are narrow and
lofty, and from their acute shape are known as “lancet” windows. Each
single window is distinct, but sometimes two or three are brought close
together and are included within one arch head, so as to form a group.
As the style advanced the arch head of such a group was perforated with
a trefoil or quatrefoil figure. Circular windows are also common, and
these came to be filled with
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Salisbury Cathedral. (From Britton’s
_Antiquities_.)]
radiating shafts and trefoiled arch heads. Out of these two forms there
gradually arose a simple kind of tracery towards the close of the
period. The trefoiled head of the lancet is also a distinct evidence of
early pointed work. The doorways are deeply recessed, and have generally
free shafts in the jambs, with mouldings between. The arch mouldings are
usually in square orders and boldly cut. In the interior the piers of
the arches are much less massive than the Norman piers, and are often
composed of clustered shafts standing free, and set round a circular or
octagonal pillar. The Norman square abacus continued to
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Lincoln Cathedral. Compartment of the Nave,
Exterior and Interior. (From Britton’s _Chronological History of English
Architecture_.)]
be used in transition and early first pointed work; but later, in
England, the caps of each shaft have a round abacus, and the cap itself
usually consists of mouldings, with a bell-shaped form beneath. When
foliage is employed it is invariably of the conventional form above
referred to; but in France the cap-à-crochet is almost universal. The
arch mouldings are deeply cut, and their lighter form is easily
distinguished from the heavy Norman rolls.
The ornaments of the mouldings are also very distinctly marked, the
dog-tooth being conspicuous in all early pointed work.
Tall towers and spires supersede the more massive and lower towers of
the Normans. In the vaults, the ribs are simple--only the cross
springers and diagonal ribs being used--a longitudinal and transverse
ridge rib is, however, occasionally employed.
FIRST POINTED STYLE IN SCOTLAND.
In Scotland, as might be expected, from its remoteness from the centre
of origin, and from the fact that the pointed style was imported into
this country through England, pointed architecture is not only somewhat
later in appearing, but is to some extent modified in its developments.
The main characteristics of the early pointed style of this country are,
however, founded on those of England, and show no traces of any direct
influence from France.
The principal difference between Scottish and English work is that the
former is later and not so completely and purely pointed in style as the
latter, the round arch and other Norman forms lingering with us in some
cases long after the pointed style had been adopted.
During the thirteenth century the importation and settlement of
Anglo-Normans in Scotland, begun in the previous century, still
continued, and amicable relations between England and Scotland were
fairly maintained. The Norman Conquest, which had been effected with so
much violence in England, proceeded by more gentle means in Scotland, at
least for a time. The ancient Culdee ecclesiastics having been absorbed
or displaced and their revenues appropriated, the Church became
gradually settled and established under the authority of Rome, and a
stream of Englishmen continued to flow in to fill all the posts of
honour and emolument in the ecclesiastical sphere; cathedrals,
monasteries, and parish churches arose under the fresh and vigorous
impulse of the new order of things. The style of architecture practised
in England during the thirteenth century was introduced into Scotland,
and the edifices erected here could scarcely be distinguished in
character of design from those of the early English period in England.
The pointed Gothic style, which, as we have seen, had its origin in the
North of France about the middle of the twelfth century, appeared in
England about 1170, but can scarcely be said to have reached Scotland
till after the close of the twelfth century. The Abbey of Arbroath,
founded by William the Lion in 1178, contains a few traces of transition
work, passing later into first pointed; and other structures containing
a good deal of Norman design were erected in Scotland as late as 1210.
The Anglicising process, begun in the twelfth century, was continued in
the thirteenth century. The Orders of the Cathedrals were founded on
those of England. “Thus the Chapter of Glasgow took that of Salisbury as
its guide; Dunkeld copied from the same type, venerable in its
associations with the name of St. Osmund, whose ‘use of Sarum’ obtained
generally throughout Scotland. Elgin or Murray sent to Lincoln for its
pattern, and transmitted it, with certain modifications, to Aberdeen and
Caithness. So it was also with the Monasteries--Canterbury was the
mother of Dunfermline, Durham of Coldingham; St. Oswald’s at Oxstall,
near Pontefract, was the parent of Scone, and through that house of St.
Andrews and Holyrood. Melrose and Dundrennan were daughters of Rievaux
in the North Riding; Dryburgh was the offspring of Alnwick, Paisley of
Wenlock.”[56]
Building in Scotland appears to have gone on in the thirteenth century
as busily and with the same enthusiasm as in the previous century. But
being far from the seat of the origin of the pointed style, and having
received the principles of that style at second hand through England,
time was required for its adoption in the North, and even when cordially
welcomed there, some of the features of the earlier Romanesque still
lingered and were slowly dispossessed.
The pointed arch, for example, although generally adopted, did not
entirely displace, as it had done in the South, the round form of the
Normans, a feature which, especially in doorways, continued to be
employed not only in the thirteenth century, but throughout the whole
course of Gothic art in Scotland. In other respects, the thirteenth
century style in this country corresponds very closely with that of
England. Its features are, however, generally speaking, plainer and the
structures are smaller. But the forms of the doors, windows, buttresses,
piers, &c., and the mouldings and enrichments are similar in character.
The wall openings frequently have the shafts detached and carrying
moulded caps, with round abacus, and the arch mouldings are arranged in
orders, each set on a rectangular plan over the shafts. The piers are
usually solid, with bold clustered mouldings and rounded caps. The
windows are almost invariably of the lancet form, either single or
arranged in couplets or triplets in the wall.
As time progressed, these detached lancets were brought together into
groups, the wall space was gradually thinned off, so as to form mullions
between them, and frequently all are enclosed within a single arch. This
naturally led to the panel or shield in the arch being perforated with a
circle, trefoil, or other aperture, and toward the close of the period
there were indications of the introduction of the earlier form of
tracery. We have fine examples of the first arrangement at Dunblane, and
of the embryo tracery at Glasgow.
As in the twelfth century a large extension was given to monastic
churches and parish churches, so it is to the thirteenth century that we
are indebted for the commencement and partial erection of most of our
cathedrals.
The style of this period is fully represented in our cathedrals by the
splendid crypt and choir of Glasgow, the beautiful nave of Dunblane, the
fine, but now dilapidated, transept of Dryburgh, and the aisleless choir
of Brechin. In Elgin Cathedral we have a noble example of the later
design of the period, and the choir and western portal of Kirkwall form
a worthy completion to that fine old Norman edifice. Dornoch once
possessed the small and elegant cathedral of the North, erected by St.
Gilbert, which has now, however, been almost completely rebuilt.
The conventual establishments of the thirteenth century, although
chiefly of older foundation, still contain a large proportion of the
work of this period. Arbroath Abbey comprises in its ruins some good
transitional and early pointed work. Holyrood Abbey, besides a good deal
of the transition style, had one of the finest west doorways of the
period, and still retains a very striking north-west tower. The first
pointed architecture is also well represented at the abbeys of
Dundrennan, Pluscardine, and Inchmahome, besides smaller specimens in
other monasteries. Kilwinning Abbey, now reduced to a portion of the
south transept, shows some beautiful work. The Maison Dieu at Brechin is
also very pure first pointed, and at Culross, Restennet, Inchcolm, and
Coldingham are many interesting fragments of this date.
The thirteenth century parish churches are, for the most part, of small
dimensions and simple design. They generally consist of a single oblong
chamber, without choir or aisles, and are unprovided with towers. Of
these simple buildings a considerable number are to be found in the
Western Highlands and Islands. They are usually of the plainest
description, the windows being simple lancets, with wide internal splay,
though they have occasionally a double window with a mullion, and a
single plain doorway. A large number of these chapels will be described,
but, from the absence of any distinctive features connected with them,
it will be found difficult to assign most of them to any definite
period.
The chapel at Dunstaffnage Castle, and the Church of St. Columba[57] at
Skipness, are somewhat exceptional, from the amount of dog-tooth
ornament exhibited by the former, and the two-light traceried windows at
the east end of the latter, which clearly indicate their thirteenth
century origin; while at other churches on the West Coast the lancet
windows and similar first pointed features lead to the conclusion that
many of them belong to the same period. These island chapels are,
doubtless, survivals of the first pointed structures which were erected
in the thirteenth century throughout the country, but which have been
subsequently removed to make way for larger churches.
As the most of the Scottish cathedrals and large monastic churches were
planned during this or the preceding century, it may be well here to
mention some particulars regarding their arrangements.
In most of the conventual edifices the choir, including the presbytery,
is short as compared with the nave. Thus, at Arbroath, the arcades of
the choir are as 3 to 9 in relation to those of the nave; at Jedburgh,
as 2 to 9; at Melrose, as 2 to 8, in the present ruined condition of the
church, but originally probably as 2 to 12; at Dryburgh, as 2 to 6.
Kelso is a remarkable exception, the choir having been much longer than
the nave, the latter being of a single bay. The cathedrals, however,
show a proportion more in accordance with the usual practice in England.
Elgin Cathedral has in the choir (including the presbytery) 6 bays, and
the same number in the nave; St. Andrews had 5 in the choir to 12 in the
nave, Glasgow has 5 to 8, Dunblane has 6 to 8, Dunkeld has 4 to 7.
Another peculiarity of the Scottish churches is that in several the
choir is without aisles, as at Brechin, Dunkeld, and Sweetheart Abbey;
and in others, as at Melrose, Iona, Elgin, St. Andrews, &c., the side
aisles do not extend so as to include the presbytery, the object
evidently being to admit of side lights in the latter, which thus
becomes a kind of rectangular apse.
Transepts are frequently, if not entirely, absent, as at Glasgow, where
the transept is very short, and at Dunblane and Dunkeld, where there are
none. When a transept exists, as at Melrose, Pluscardine, &c., there is
frequently a side aisle on the eastern side only, for the purpose of
containing chapels with altars facing in that direction. This
arrangement was common in Cistercian churches, but in Scotland it is not
confined to that Order. In some churches where there is a transept, the
shortness of the choir has made it necessary to carry the choir screen
across the intersection and some distance down the nave. This is very
apparent at Melrose, where the rood screen enclosing the choir crosses
the nave about the centre, and is evidently part of the original design,
as the rood screen has formed a portion of the structure of the nave
piers.
Elgin Cathedral and Melrose Abbey have double aisles--the former on each
side of the nave, and the latter on the south side only, where the outer
aisle is divided into a series of chapels. In St. Giles’, Edinburgh, a
series of chapels forming a large second south aisle extends beyond the
usual south aisle. The above double aisles are, however, all of later
than thirteenth century date.
The minor features of the first pointed style will be considered in
detail in describing the various structures of the thirteenth century.
Meanwhile, it may be mentioned that the doorways of this period,
although not so rich in ornament as the Norman work, are still important
objects in the design. The western portal of Kirkwall Cathedral is
especially fine, being the only example of a design comprising triple
western doorways in Scotland. The west doorway of Elgin Cathedral is
very beautiful, and is, like that of Glasgow Cathedral, a double doorway
with a central mullion. There are also examples of fine doorways in the
smaller churches, such as Lanark, and interesting specimens in the minor
doorways of the cathedral and monastic churches.
The lancet form of the windows has already been referred to. We may
instance the east windows of Glasgow Cathedral and the beautiful windows
of Elgin and Dunblane Cathedrals as splendid examples. In the latter
cathedral the interior arcade of the clerestory shows the advancing
progress of the style; and at New Abbey the double and triplet forms of
window are seen passing into tracery. In the clerestory of this abbey
the advanced ornament of the period is observable, the simple form of
the early moulded capitals being replaced by the later foliaged design.
No towers of importance remain in the style of the thirteenth century,
most of those attached to the churches of that style having been erected
at a later date.
ARCHITECTURE OF FOURTEENTH, FIFTEENTH, AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES IN
SCOTLAND.