THE DAWN OF A NEW DAY, 1898-1917
[Sidenote: Revival of economic prosperity.]
Spaniards are in the habit of discussing their recent national
development with reference to the year 1898, which is recognized as a
turning-point in Spanish life, a change held by them to have been
decidedly for the better. Nevertheless, the way had begun to be prepared
with the accession of Alfonso XII to the throne; the splendid monument
to that king in the Retiro at Madrid can be explained only on the ground
that he symbolizes the re-establishment of good order in the peninsula,
with a government based on what the Spanish people will stand, rather
than on the full meed of an unworkable ideal. The country was tired of
domestic strife, and asked only to be left in peace, with an opportunity
to give attention to its material resources. This wish the government
granted, and all Spain profited. Roads, railways, and irrigation ditches
were built, and mining and the wine trade developed, while more recent
times have witnessed a notable industrial growth in some of the northern
cities. These matters were left very largely in the hands of foreigners,
with Spaniards either wasting their blood and treasure in the colonies,
or merely failing to participate in the economic enterprises of the
peninsula. After 1898, however, Spaniards began to join with Englishmen,
Germans, and Frenchmen in investing their capital in Spain. Many evils
remained to be overcome, but the country recuperated to such an extent
that its present wealth would compare favorably with that of the past at
almost any stage of Spanish history, although the rate of economic
progress has probably not equalled that of other countries.
[Sidenote: Conservative rule in a pseudo-Liberal state.]
On the surface the old politico-social ideas of Liberalism seemed for a
while to have died, and the country came to be ruled by parties which
supported the conservative constitution of 1876, although there was a
widespread opposition in opinions it not in power. At the present time
there is a Liberal and a Conservative party, but the difference between
the two is recognized, even by many Spaniards, as being very slight. In
1911 there was a strike on the government-owned railways, whereupon the
authorities suspended the constitutional guarantees, on the ground that
the nation was in danger. One result was that bodies of men could not
congregate,--and the strikers were helpless. In 1912 a general railway
strike was threatened. The premier, Canalejas, called out the military
reserves, and put them on the trains not only as guards but also as
train operatives,--for, since all Spaniards who have served their term
in the active army are in the reserves, the strikers were employed as
military trainmen to put down their own strike,--a thing which they
could not refuse to do, as they were under martial law. An early
_Cortes_ was promised, at which the questions of increase in wages and
decrease in the hours of labor would be taken up. The _Cortes_ was
called,--and the matter of the strike was dropped. The interesting thing
is that all of this took place while a Liberal government was in power!
It is also said that the Liberals and Conservatives agreed, a few years
ago, to alternate in office, thus showing their contempt for the spirit
of representative institutions, but the Liberals did not retire from
their control of the government in 1913, wherefore not a little
ill-concealed resentment was displayed by the organs of the Conservative
party. In fact, parties are divided on lines of the allegiance of
individuals to the chieftain (_cacique_) of their group. National
policies and projects of reform on the part of those in power get little
beyond the stage of rhetoric, while government is too largely given over
to the interplay of personal ambitions. To many the young king, Alfonso
XIII, has seemed the most liberal-minded of the higher officers of the
Spanish state, and in both word and deed he has appeared, until recently
at least, to merit the characterization. Attaining to his majority at
the age of sixteen, in 1902, he married the granddaughter of the
English Queen Victoria in 1906,--an augury in itself of liberal views. A
savage attempt was made, without success, to murder the young couple on
their wedding day; on that occasion and two others when later
assassinations were tried, Alfonso displayed such courage and coolness
as to win for himself an immense popularity; “the valiant king” (_El rey
valiente_) he is often called.
[Sidenote: Underlying resentment against the government and growth of
elements in opposition.]
The political views of the Spanish people have been undergoing a change
in recent years. Whereas the mass of the people were totally unready for
the democratic constitution of 1812, or even for that of 1837, they are
today becoming more and more radical in feeling. Everywhere there is
discontent with the present management of state affairs, and it is
customary to charge even the untoward incidents of daily life to the
fault of “the bad government” (_el mal gobierno_), --for example, when a
train is late, or over-crowded, both of which eventualities are of
frequent occurrence. Many factors have combined to bring about this
state of mind: much is traceable to social causes, to which allusion
will be made presently; the very material progress of the country,
resulting in a betterment of the condition of the poor, though their lot
is still far from being an enviable one, has awakened desires among the
masses of which their ancestors never dreamed; and the relative
prosperity of many of the _indianos_ (nabobs of the Indies), as returned
Spanish emigrants are called, has led to a widespread belief that men
can do better anywhere than under the “_mal gobierno_” of Spain. The
average Spaniard of the working classes takes little interest in his
right of suffrage (although this is more particularly true of the
country districts than it is of the cities), for he is convinced that it
makes no difference; he is helpless and hopeless in the face of a
government which seems quite apart from him. Many believe, however, that
there is a panacea for existing conditions, and groups have sprung up
representing a variety of social, economic, and political ideas, such as
single tax (_georgismo_,--from Henry George), socialism, and
republicanism. The desire for a republic has grown steadily since its
first public expression in 1854, and has now swept across the northern
provinces of Spain, from Galicia to Catalonia, cutting through the
formerly Carlist, or absolutist, country, although manifesting itself
more in the cities than elsewhere. If no serious outbreak for the
establishment of a republic has taken place, it is in large degree a
tribute to the king. Alfonso has frequently declared himself ready to
accept the wishes of the Spanish people in this matter, saying only a
few years ago that if Spain should so decide he “would be the first to
draw his sword in defence of the republic.” Too much weight should not
be given to these political gropings of the Spanish people, for the
forces of conservatism,--such as the nobles and the wealthy, the clergy,
and the devoutly faithful (notably in the rural districts),--are still
very powerful. Even the king has recently been charged with a tendency
to become reactionary. In 1917 serious internal disturbances occurred,
and it is said that Alfonso did not rise to the situation in the same
liberal spirit as formerly. Whether this is the mere unfounded
expression of party feeling, or whether the king has in truth
experienced a change of heart, it is as yet too early to say. Whatever
may be the exact composition of the elements against them, there is no
doubt that the majority of the people feel a deep resentment against the
prevailing government. In one respect this has led to consequences of a
serious character. The old regional spirit of the Catalans has
reasserted itself, and a distinct Catalan national feeling, sustained by
a revival of Catalan as a literary tongue, has manifested itself. One
event stands out from the rest in recent times, with regard to which all
elements in Spanish life have had occasion to express their political
views. That is the celebrated Ferrer case.
[Sidenote: The Ferrer case and the “Maura, si!” and “Maura, no!”]
In June, 1909, when a Conservative government was in power, with Antonio
Maura at its head, credits were voted for a campaign in Morocco against
some tribesmen who had attacked a railway leading to mines in the
control of Spanish capitalists. There was an immediate outbreak of
hostile public opinion in Spain, which in Catalonia resulted in serious
riots. The strange thing about the Catalonian manifestations, which
were most pronounced in Barcelona, was that they developed into what
seemed to be an organized assault, not on the government or on
capitalists, but on the Catholic Church. Churches, monasteries,
convents, and shrines were attacked--and nothing else. The government
soon had the situation in hand, and a number of arrests were made,
followed in some cases by sentences of death or imprisonment. Public
attention focused itself on the case of one Ferrer. Francisco Ferrer was
born in 1859, the son of a poor Catalan farmer. As a youth he was an
anarchist, pronouncing bitterly against the ideal of patriotism and
against the church. Having participated in a Catalonian rebellion of
1885, he fled to Paris, where he entered into relations with a Parisian
spinster, who soon died and left him a fortune. Later, he returned to
Barcelona, and increased his possessions as the result of successful
stock speculation. He founded a number of schools, which represented his
ideas,--still uncompromisingly against the church. Ferrer was also a
high official of the Freemasons and other secret societies. It is not to
be wondered at, either, in view of his rebellious attitude toward
society, that his regard for the marriage bond and for sexual morality
was clearly not in accord with prevailing views. At the time of the
Catalonian outbreak of 1909 he was charged with being one of the
ring-leaders. A military court-martial was held, at which he was
confronted with scores of witnesses, and it would seem that the
prosecution established its case. Ferrer was convicted, and on October
13, 1909, was shot.[68] The case of Ferrer has been taken up
internationally by various secret societies, but it has had a special
significance in Spain. There, opinion has divided, not about Ferrer or
the merits of his case, but with regard to the Conservative chieftain,
Maura, whose government was responsible for his death. Maura is taken as
the personification of the existing régime. “Maura, sí!” and “Maura,
no!” (“Maura, yes!” and “Maura, no!”) have come to be popular
watchwords, indicating whether one approves of things as they are, or
whether one stands for a new and liberalized, truly democratic Spain.
[Sidenote: Foreign policy of Spain since 1898 and attitude toward the
Great War.]
Spain’s foreign policy since 1898 has very nearly reduced itself to
three factors. First of these is the policing of a small strip of the
Moroccan coast, where Ceuta and other posts are still held by Spain.
This has involved the country in wars of a minor character with the
traditional enemy in Moslem Northwest Africa. Of greater interest is the
conscious policy of cultivating the friendship of the American countries
which were once colonies of Spain, based largely on a wish to develop a
market for Spanish goods, but not devoid of a sentiment which makes
Spain desire to associate herself with the growing lands to which she
gave the first impulse to civilization. Finally, Spain’s relations with
the two groups of European powers which entered upon the Great War in
1914 have occupied the attention of the country continuously in recent
years, and have been an issue which has divided Spaniards. Many of the
conservative elements of Spain have long been, not so much pro-German,
as anti-French, and they have been supported by those parts of the
masses which follow the lead of the church or else take no great
interest in politics. The causes of this Francophobe feeling are
numerous. The _Dos de Mayo_, Spain’s national holiday, stands for an
uprising against the French, followed by the glorious War of
Independence, although, to be sure, this has of late exercised but
little influence; many French writers have written disparagingly or in a
patronizing manner of Spain, causing a natural feeling of resentment;
Spanish American countries have asserted that France is their
intellectual mother, not Spain, and this may have had an effect, though
comparatively little, on the minds of some; mere propinquity with
France, which is the only great power bordering upon the peninsula, has
brought about a certain hostility which neighboring peoples so often
feel with regard to each other; the affronts which Spain claims to have
received at French hands in Morocco have had great weight; and the
already hostile attitude of the clergy against republican France was
enhanced when that country broke with the Catholic Church a few years
ago. As regards England, Spain has never forgotten Gibraltar. With
Germany, on the other hand, there has been little occasion for friction,
and German commercial competition with England for Spanish markets has
been welcomed as beneficial to the country. The radical and liberal
elements, which include the intellectuals, and, generally speaking, the
Liberal party have favored the _Entente_ as against the Central Powers,
and their position has been very greatly strengthened by the evident
support of the king. In part, pro-_Entente_ feeling has been a matter of
political principle, because of the liberal types of government in
France and England, the only two countries of the _Entente_ allies
(prior to American entry in the Great War) to whom Spaniards have paid
attention. In large measure, however, the Spanish point of view has been
the result of a certain practical, materialistic trait which is
ingrained in Spanish character. Thus Spaniards have pointed out that it
would be fatal for Spain to side with Germany, since her wide separation
from the latter, coupled with British naval supremacy, would make it
unlikely that German arms could be of any assistance to Spain.
Commercial and other reasons have also been adduced to show that Spain
could _gain_ nothing by an alliance with Germany. These views have
developed in the course of the Great War until Spain has become rather
more inclined to the allies than to the Germans. It is not improbable,
however, that an allied disaster might be seized upon by the pro-German
military element to swing Spain the other way, for the army is still a
factor to be reckoned with in Spanish politics. On the other hand, many
leading Spaniards have argued that there would be no advantage for Spain
if she should enter the war, whereas there has thus far been a distinct
benefit for certain elements in the population, in the shape of abnormal
war profits, through remaining neutral. Lately, however, great misery
has been occasioned as a result of Spain’s inability to procure needed
supplies from the allies and the danger from the German submarines.
[Sidenote: Spain’s intellectual renaissance.]
In no element of the national life has the well-being of Spain since
1898 been more clearly demonstrated than in the realm of things
intellectual. On the educational and scientific side (with one
exception, presently to be noted), the achievement has not been great
enough to attract attention, but in those branches of human knowledge
which are akin to the emotions Spain has embarked upon a new _siglo de
oro_ which has already placed her in the forefront of the nations in the
wealth and beauty of her contemporary literature and art. Many writers
or artists of note did their work before 1898, while others stand
athwart that year, but the most remarkable development has come in the
more recent period--a growing force which is far from having run its
course. Thus, before 1898, there were such poets as Becquer, Campoamor,
Núñez de Arce, Rosalía de Castro, and Salvador Rueda; novelists like
Alarcón, Pereda, Valera, “Clarín,” Picón, Palacio Valdés, Pardo Bazán,
and Pérez Galdós; dramatists including Ayala, Tamayo, Echegaray, Pérez
Galdós, Guimerá, and Dicenta; critics and philologists like Milá
Fontanals, Valera, “Clarín,” and Menéndez y Pelayo; essayists such as
Alfredo Calderón, Morote, Picavea, Ganivet, and Unamuno; painters like
Pradilla, Ferrán, and Muñoz Degrain; and composers of music including
Arrieta, Gastambide, Chueca, Chapí, Bretón, and Fernández Caballero.
Some of the more notable of these belong also in the post-1898 group,
and to them should be added, among others, the following: poets--Rubén
Darío (who is included in this list, though he is a Nicaraguan, because
of his influence on Spanish poetry), Villaespesa, Marquina, Ramón D.
Perés, the two Machados, Mesa, Diez Canedo, Muñoz San Román, and
Maragall; novelists--Blasco Ibáñez, Pío Baroja, “Azorín,” Silverio
Lanza, Valle Inclán, Ricardo León, Alberto Insúa, Pérez de Ayala,
Martínez Sierra, Miró, and Felipe Trigo; dramatists--Benavente, Martínez
Sierra, the brothers Álvarez Quintero, Carlos Arniches, Linares Rivas,
Marquina, Rusiñol, and Iglesias; critics and philologists--Menéndez
Pidal, Bonilla, Rodríguez Marín, Said Armesto, Américo Castro, Cejador,
Alomar, Tenreiro, and González Blanco; essayists--Ortega Gasset, Maeztu,
“Azorín,” Gómez de Baquero, Manuel Bueno, Maragall, and Zulueta;
painters--Zuloaga, Sorolla, the brothers Zubiaurre, Benedito, Chicharro,
Villegas, Nieto, Beruete, Moreno Carbonero, Bilbao, Sotomayor, Anglada,
de la Gándara, Juan Lafita, and Rusiñol; sculptors--Blay, Benlliure,
Marinas, Clará, and Julio Antonio; architects--Gaudí, Puig, Velázquez,
and Palacios; composers--Albéniz, Pedrell, Turina, Granados, Falla,
Vives, Serrano, and Quinito Valverde; and educators--Giner de los Ríos
and Cossío. Spain has also produced historians and historical scholars
of note in recent years (though several of them belong in the pre-1898
group), among whom should be reckoned Cánovas del Castillo, Danvila y
Collado, Hinojosa, Rafael Altamira, Colmeiro, Fidel Fita, Fernández
Duro, Menéndez y Pelayo, Torres Lanzas, and Fernández Guerra. Special
mention should be made of the novelists Pérez Galdós (author of the
famous _Episodios nacionales_, or National episodes,--a series of
historical novels from the Liberal point of view, covering the history
of Spain from the time of Godoy to the present,--and esteemed by many as
one of the most remarkable literary geniuses of modern times) and Blasco
Ibáñez (who has used the novel as a vehicle for an attack on the old
order of Spanish life); of the dramatists Jacinto Benavente (a man whom
many regard as deserving to rank with the greatest names of all time in
Spanish literature), Pérez Galdós (who is almost equally notable in the
drama as in the novel), the brothers Álvarez Quintero (who have so
clearly depicted modern Andalusian life), and Martínez Sierra (whose
comedies reach to the very roots of truth and beauty); of Menéndez y
Pelayo, most famous as a critic, said to have been the dominant figure
of recent years in Spanish literature; of the painters Zuloaga
(successor of El Greco, Velázquez, and Goya, whose works embrace both
the mysticism and the austerity of the Spanish national spirit) and
Sorolla (a symbolist, who has done with the brush what Blasco Ibáñez did
with the pen, and whose paintings, mainly of Valencian scenes, are full
of realism and naturalism, brilliant in expression and color); and of
Giner de los Ríos, opponent of the church, but a man of tremendous
influence on the thought of modern Spain. It is to be noted that the
leading names in the realm of art are all in the post-1898 period;
indeed, this form of intellectual manifestation was not in a flourishing
state before that time. And in the midst of all these names one must not
forget that of Santiago Ramón y Cajal, whose discoveries in histology
have made him famous throughout the world. Many characterize him as the
greatest Spaniard of the present day.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: Things which Spaniards are _not_.]
Spain clearly has entered upon a new era of her history. No man can
predict, with safety, toward what goal she is tending, although there is
some ground for a feeling of optimism. With the leading facts of Spanish
history already before the reader, it is perhaps well at this point to
give a summary account of contemporary Spanish traits and social
problems, thus providing a further basis for estimates with regard to
the possibilities of the future. It is best to begin with a statement of
some of the things which Spaniards are not,--with a view to
controverting certain widely circulated notions. Spaniards are _not_
unusually cruel or vindictive. The notion that they _are_ has arisen in
various ways. Spaniards are emotional, and under the stress of
excitement are capable of acts of great violence, but on the other hand
they very rarely plan a crime in cold blood. The bull-fight has been
charged to an innate cruelty of Spaniards, but whatever one may think of
the game, the _aficionado_, or bull-fight “fan,” is appealed to by the
skill of the bull-fighter and the courage of the bull, rather than by
the flow of blood. As regards treatment of animals, the evidence is
somewhat against the Spaniard. The superficial tourist is apt to think
that the majority of Spaniards in third class of the railway coaches are
double-dyed brigands, for they wear wretched clothing and carry huge
knives,--but the former is the result of economic necessity, and the
latter is to cut bread with--and not each others’ throats. The
historians, however, are very largely to blame, especially those who
maligned the dominant and hated Spaniards of the sixteenth century.
Spaniards themselves, with their fierce party spirit and rhetorical
gifts, products of their emotional make-up, have provided the arguments
which have been used against them,--notably in the case of Las Casas’
condemnation of the Spanish treatment of the Indians. In the second
place, they are _not_ lazy; rather, they make excellent laborers, and
work long hours without complaint. The idea that they are indolent
arises in part from the fact that the titled classes still retain some
of the traditional aversion to manual labor; in part from a certain lack
of ambition, such that many Spaniards, notably those of the south, do
not work, after they have gained enough to live on for perhaps only a
little while; partly because of a lack of responsibility which many of
them display, with the result that they do not do well when not under
supervision; and partly, again, because histories have so described
Spaniards of the past, and this time with some truth. Many of the
factors which once made manual labor unpopular are not any longer
operative, such as the prevalence of slaves, serfs, and Moslems in
industry or agriculture, wherefore the earlier stigma attaching to those
occupations has been removed. In the third place, Spaniards are not
proud and arrogant to the extent of being haughty, although they do have
a sense of personal pride which is rather to be commended than
condemned. In the fourth place, to call a man a “Spaniard” is not a
sufficient definition, for there are wide differences in blood and
language as well as in feelings in the various regions of Spain; the
serious-minded, progressive, European-blooded Catalan is certainly
farther apart from the easy-going, pleasure-loving, improvident, part
Moslem-blooded Andalusian than is the Englishman from the American, or
perhaps the southern Frenchman from the North Italian. In addition to
Castilian, or Spanish, there are the distinct languages of the Catalans
and Basques, with a great many variants, or dialects, from the Castilian
and Catalan. Nevertheless, it is true that all are “Spaniards.”
Castilian is generally understood, and, until the recent reappearance of
Catalan, was the only literary language; the people are patriotic to the
country, even though the fire of local attachments is still uncommonly
strong in them; the bull-fight and the national lottery are popular in
all parts of Spain; Spaniards read the same books, have the same
government, and, in fine, have been brought together, though widely
divergent in traits, by the circumstances of history.
[Sidenote: Intellectual and emotional traits of Spaniards.]
The keynote to an understanding of Spanish character lies in an
appreciation of the fact that Spaniards generally combine an intense
individualism and marked practicality with an emotional temperament.
Enough has already been intimated with regard to the two first-named
traits. As for that of emotionalism it becomes more operative the
farther south one goes. Some Spaniards say that the English, who are
taken as representative of the northern peoples, are in the forefront of
the nations as concerns matters of the _head_, but that the Spaniards
lead in _heart_, and they are well content to have it that way. Yet it
is far from true that Spaniards are lacking in _head_; rather, they are
brilliantly intellectual, and even the man in the street often seems to
have a faculty for seeing and expressing things clearly, with little or
no study; their logical-mindedness is displayed in the rhetorical skill
with which they set forth their opinions. It is true, however, that
there is a certain lack of intellectual stamina in Spaniards; they will
not use the brains with which nature has abundantly endowed them. Thus,
big business and scientific discoveries (except in the practical realm
of their applications) have been left to the foreigners. On the
emotional, or _heart_, side one encounters numerous evidences. Spaniards
are devotedly fond of children,--almost too much so, for they seem
unable to refuse them anything. Thus, a child gets milk by crying, toys
galore, and stays up at night until he wants to go to bed; the effects
on national discipline are possibly not of the best, but the error, if
such it is, springs from the heart. Spaniards, past and present, have
been great in emotional expression, in the fields of literature and art.
It is a novelty for Americans to find that the educated young men of
Spain talk quite as easily about literature and art as they do about
women,--and they move from one subject to the other without any marked
change in the tenor of the conversation. Spanish crimes are usually the
result of an emotional impulse. Similarly, the emotions play rather too
prominent a part in the Spaniard’s associations with women! Courtesy is
almost universal among Spaniards, who will go to considerable personal
inconvenience in order to assist a stranger; to be sure, one is not safe
in reckoning on the promises to render favors later,--for by that time
the impulse may have passed. The Spanish fondness for the bull-fight and
the lottery also springs from the emotional stir which goes with them.
[Sidenote: Spanish women.]
The above applies principally to the men. The women should be considered
apart, and this is much more necessary in dealing with Spain than it
would be in treating of the United States, where women come nearer to
having an equal liberty with men. Opinions differ as to the personal
appearance of Spanish women, and first impressions of the foreigner are
apt to be against them. This is largely because the people of the
wealthy or moderately well-to-do classes do not appear in the street
nearly so frequently as in the United States or in northern Europe. The
women of the working classes toil harder, on the average, than do
ours,--for more of them have to help earn the family living as well as
bring up and take care of the children,--and they are not able to dress
well, with the natural result that they are rarely prepossessing. This
in part accounts also for the belief of foreigners that Spanish beauty
fades,--which is not the case with those who are able to live in fairly
easy circumstances any more than it is in other countries. Among
Spaniards it is often said that the Valencian women are the handsomest,
closely followed by the Andalusians, who rank as the most witty. It is
to be noted that the Moslem element in Spanish blood is very strong in
these sections. Another popular misconception as to Spanish _señoritas_
(young ladies) is that they are so dainty that they would almost melt in
one’s hand. In fact they are unusually self-contained in manner, and if
they have any pronounced defect it is one which does not go with
daintiness,--that of a loud, often metallic voice. On the other hand
there is most decidedly an all-pervading, unconscious grace in Spanish
women. Women other than those of the working classes find very little to
do. Servants are extraordinarily cheap,--one can get a nurse-girl in
Seville for about ten cents a day; so there is little occasion to do
housework. Spanish women are not assiduous readers, do not even sew or
knit to any marked degree, and comparatively few of them sing or play
the piano. They are fond of a walk or ride in the afternoon, accompanied
by the children and the nurse-girls, and enjoy social gatherings at
night. In fine, their life is passed largely in pleasant conversation,
with very little variety; indeed, they require little that is novel, for
they are simple in their tastes, and are easily entertained. The Spanish
husband is not nearly so domesticated as the American species. Instead
of remaining at home at night he quite regularly goes out,--and even may
occupy a different place at the theatre from the group of seats where
his wife and daughter are found. This is the expected thing, and Spanish
women do not appear to wish it otherwise. They seem to consider that the
men have done them a great favor by marrying them, and take the attitude
of desiring to repay them for the rest of their lives. The husband is
devoted to his wife and the children, but he would commit suicide before
he would carry a baby in the street. Despite the fact that the brains of
most Spanish women may be said to lie fallow, they are often brilliant
talkers, sharing with the men the intellectual potentialities of the
race. They rarely travel, and know very little beyond the bounds of
their home town or city and the nearest watering-place. They are usually
very religious, but not in an aggressive way; in a country where there
is virtually no competition with the Catholic Church there is no
stimulus to make their religion anything but a purely personal matter
for the individual. This helps to account for the almost complete lack
of religious discussion in the Spanish circles one meets with. Young
ladies rarely go into the street unless accompanied by their mother or
some older person. Whenever they do appear they are stared at by the
men, but the practice seems to be regarded as proper and in a measure
complimentary. They are hedged around with safeguards which prevent
their seeing the young man of their choice alone, except perhaps as
separated by the narrow grating of a window, until the day of their
marriage. According to all reports these measures fulfill their intended
purpose, for the material bars are supplemented by the inherited
instincts of the women themselves. Aside from prostitutes Spanish women
have a nation-wide reputation for good moral conduct. Once married the
size of the family depends, as many put it, “As God wills!” A family of
from five to seven children is not considered large, and there are many
families which are very much larger.
[Sidenote: The aristocracy and the _latifundia_.]
Assuming that it would be desirable, can Spain advance any farther along
the highway of democracy? If she would do so, she must contend with the
aristocracy, which in fact rules the country. The modern Spanish
aristocracy is composed of the nobility, their relatives, rich
merchants, the clergy, and the military. The richer members of the
aristocracy, especially those of central and southern Spain, control the
greater part of the best Spanish lands, which they cultivate just enough
to ensure wealth to themselves. Thousands of acres are given over to the
raising of bulls for the bull-fights, and even the late Duke of Veragua,
a descendant of Columbus, was engaged in this industry. One often
wonders why Spanish towns are so far away from the railway station,
especially in level tracts where it would be normal to expect a growth
toward the railroad. The usual answer is that the land belongs to a
personage of the realm, who would not think of selling it, and does not
care to develop it himself. The agrarian problem is particularly acute
in Andalusia, where the evil of _latifundia_, springing out of the later
reconquests from the Moslems, is more in evidence than elsewhere.
[Sidenote: Life of men of the better classes.]
The life of the men of the better classes is singularly free from care.
They arise late, and go to their favorite café or club to read the
newspaper. In the afternoon they frequent their club, passing the time
in discussion or in general conversation. Late in the afternoon they go
for a drive along the _paseo_, or driveway, the same place every day,
where the principal object is to see, or be seen by, the others who are
doing the same thing. In the evening they return to the club. Perhaps at
9:30 or 10 o’clock they go to a play, for the theatre begins late,
following this by a visit to their favorite café and a late departure
for home. The program varies little from day to day. In the summer they
go to a watering-place, but it usually amounts only to a change of
cafés. These men rarely drink to excess, and they are the most charming
people in the world to talk to, but they never study and, if possible to
avoid it, never do any work. Unknowingly perhaps, for they are bred to
this type of life by centuries of training, they are a drain on the
land, the most serious element in the vested interests which stand in
the way of effective reform. Those of this class who have to work are
provided with sinecures at state expense. The social, economic, and
political betterment of Spain cannot proceed very far while the
aristocracy is in control. On the other hand the experience of the past
has not demonstrated that democracy could maintain order, and this the
present régime does. Furthermore, the aristocracy is by no means an
exclusive caste, but is open to the entry of all.
[Sidenote: Social problems of contemporary Spain.]
In addition to the wealth and political influence of the aristocracy
other factors in Spanish life abound to aid and abet in their
maintenance of control. One of these is emigration. Spaniards do not
expect to rise from poverty to great wealth, as men do in America, for
so few of them rarely can, under the existing system, that there is not
the stimulus of other men’s successes to spur them on. The more
ambitious of the poor and moderately well-to-do, therefore, make their
way to the Americas, especially to Argentina, and, prior to the recent
era of civil war, to Mexico. The poorest and the least ambitious, who
are less likely than the others to give trouble, remain behind. A second
aid is the lottery. The lottery, which has its agencies in every hamlet
and city of Spain, is government owned and operated, paying some of the
highest prizes offered in the world at the present time. Few human
passions are so strong as that of gambling, and Spain has surrendered to
the lottery. The poor people welcome this insidious system, believing
it to be almost the only avenue of advance to the envied ease of the
wealthy, and invest their spare savings in a ticket. Hope and even
expectation of getting a lucky number have come to be a national
disease. A third abettor of the aristocracy is the bull-fight. It is not
the cruelty, but rather the corrupting influence of this sport which
should occupy those who protest against it. The game is so emotional, so
wildly exciting, that it grips the people to the exclusion of almost
every other interest; in Seville, one can almost be certain, if he hears
men quarreling at the top of their voices, that they are disputing the
merits of this bull-fighter or that, for that is the absorbing factor in
life, every hour in the day, in every day of the year. Men who have
caught the fever of the bull-fight rarely have interest in national
reform; they do not want it, as it might sweep away the sport which is
the major part of their life. A fourth factor would seem to be the
extensive character of charitable enterprises. Thousands depend upon the
unused food of the army, and line up each day to receive it. Enormous
sums are also provided by the church or by charitable organizations to
enable the poor to get meals free or at slight cost. The object, no
doubt, is benevolent, but the result is that many men will not work.
Especially is this true in the mild climate of southern Spain, where not
a few contrive to exist without homes to sleep in and on the
dispensations of charity. A fifth factor is the extreme poverty of the
masses. Wages are unthinkably low. Men who can barely keep body and soul
together are not the ones who agitate reform. A sixth aid in the
maintenance of things as they are is the lack of a good public school
system. Schools are inadequate and teachers poorly paid. Few Spaniards
get beyond the primary grade, and many do not even go that far. The need
of education is undoubtedly the _sine qua non_ of any effective Spanish
advancement. To change the form of government, without an accompanying
or a preliminary instruction of the masses, would be, as a French writer
puts it, “to change the label of a bottle, without transforming the
contents.” It is also necessary if any appreciable reform is to be made
in the social and economic system of the country. None realizes this
better than the men who, like Altamira, Azcárate, Costa, Giner de los
Ríos, Posada, and Unamuno, stand for the new Spain, as distinct from the
old,--for a country which shall break with the past to the extent which
may be required in order to place itself in the current of modern world
progress. Their ideal is not impossible of achievement, despite the
forces which are against them, for the Spanish people, at bottom, are
admirable material, still virile and altogether sane.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
[Sidenote: Writers on the history of Spain whose works are in Spanish,
French, and German.]
The principal aim of this volume is to be of service to the general
reader in English-speaking America. On this account the entries which
appear below have been restricted rigidly to works in English. It was a
temptation to include some of the more notable foreign works, such for
example as those by Altamira, Bonilla, Cánovas del Castillo, Colmeiro,
Danvila, Desdevises du Dézert, Diercks, Dozy (the _Recherches_),
Fernández de Navarrete, Fernández Duro, Fernán-Núñez, Ferrer del Río,
Fita, Foulché-Delbosc, Haebler, Hinojosa, Lafuente, Lembke, Mariéjol,
Marvaud, Menéndez Pidal, Menéndez y Pelayo, Mignet, Morel-Fatio,
Oliveira Martins, Ranke, Romey, Rosseeuw St. Hilaire, Rousseau, Salcedo,
and Tapia, but the reader will be able to go to their works and to many
others by using the aids which are provided here.
[Sidenote: Bases for selection and exclusion of works in English.]
[Sidenote: Relation of the works cited to the field of Spanish history.]
A complete bibliography of the works in English on the history of Spain
would reach enormous proportions. It has therefore been deemed advisable
to narrow the field by excluding the following classes of material:
catalogues of books and manuscripts; volumes of source material;
periodicals about Spain not devoted primarily to history; articles in
periodicals; works on other subjects (such for example as the writings
of Mommsen and other historians of the Roman Empire) which, however,
contain much material on the history of Spain; works (such as those of
Motley or Helps) on the activities of Spain outside the peninsula,
whether in Europe or the Americas; and books which may be regarded as
out of date. Works published many years ago are not omitted, however, if
they are translations of important foreign works, the writings of
notable historians, or volumes which are unique in their field. No
attempt has been made to give an exhaustive list of all the items coming
within the classes eligible for entry. Thus there might be additions to
the lives of notable persons, to the histories of art and literature, or
to the already long list of recent descriptive works. The plan has been
rather to be representative, giving some of the works which will serve
to introduce the reader to the subject. No claim is made that the works
cited cover the subject of Spanish history adequately; indeed, if the
most broadly inclusive basis for entry of works in English had been
chosen they would not do so. They are particularly disappointing to the
American reader, in that they represent the point of view of England or
continental Europe rather than that of the Spanish gift to America.
Furthermore, many periods are but scantily covered from any standpoint,
while others, such as those of the Catholic Kings and the House of
Austria, have an over-supply of writings upon them. It is to be noted,
however, that books of a given period have a number of preliminary
chapters on the years immediately preceding it. Thus, Coppée has some
two hundred pages on the Visigothic era, Plunket nearly a hundred pages
on the reign of Henry IV, and most of the histories of the nineteenth
century begin with the accession of Charles IV. Concluding chapters,
too, will often reach over into the next succeeding period,--as in the
case of Scott, who devotes sixty-nine pages to the Moriscos under the
kings of the House of Austria. Moreover, many of the volumes in the
section devoted to works of travel and description, especially those
dealing with particular localities, give much of their space to the
record of the past, thus supplementing the writings which are more
properly historical in character.
[Sidenote: Methods of entry.]
In the works selected for entry an indication is given of the dates of
the first and the latest editions. In the case of translations the date
of the original publication in the foreign tongue is also stated. The
place of publication is not given for the latest edition if it is the
same as that of the first. No attempt has been made to record minor
variations in title in different editions, such for example as “Philip
the Second” for “Philip II,” but striking changes have been noted. The
presence of bibliographical apparatus in the works cited is indicated by
the abbreviation “Bib,” thus enabling the reader to know what are the
volumes which may take him to materials not mentioned here. Not only are
the books with formal bibliographies or lists of works so characterized,
but also those which have fairly ample bibliographical data in the
preface. The practice has not been followed, however, where the
information as to sources is confined to footnotes, although many
writers, Lea for example, have valuable references scattered through
their volumes.
I. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL AIDS
Aside from the partial bibliographies in the books listed below and the
single periodical mentioned in this section there is no work in English
on the bibliography of Spanish history. The bibliographical sections of
the _Cambridge medieval history_ and the _Cambridge modern history_
(items 10 and 29 below) will be found particularly helpful. Three works
in foreign tongues are worth noting. The bibliography in Altamira’s
_Historia de España_ is perhaps the best general list in Spanish. The
two-volume _Catalogue de l’histoire d’Espagne et de Portugal_ (Paris.
1883-85) of the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris, based on the works at
the disposition of readers in the great national library at the French
capital, is valuable for the older books. The sections on Spain in the
German annual bibliography of historical writings, the _Jahresberichte
der Geschichtswissenschaft_ (published at Berlin since 1880) cover
publications since 1878. The only item in English follows:
1. _Hispanic American historical review._ Baltimore. 1918. Quarterly.
This periodical begins publication in February, 1918. Will contain
material on Spain and Portugal, including bibliographical notices,
though primarily devoted to Hispanic America.
II. GENERAL HISTORIES OF SPAIN
In addition to the items of this paragraph, attention is directed to the
works on special subjects, in section IX, many of which range over
several or all of the various periods of Spanish history.
2. Dunham, Samuel Astley.... _Spain and Portugal._ 5v. London.
1832[-33]. Takes to the close of the eighteenth century.
3. Hale, Edward Everett, and Susan Hale.... _Spain._ New York, [c
1886].
4. Harrison, James Albert. _Spain._ Boston. [c 1881]. Republished
under title _Spain in history_. New York and Akron, O. [1898].
5. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp. _The Spanish people, their origin,
growth and influence._ London and New York. 1901. 1914. Bib.
6. Mariana, Juan de. _The general history of Spain. From the first
peopling of it by Tubal, till the death of King Ferdinand, who
united the crowns of Castile and Aragon. With a continuation to the
death of King Philip III._ Tr. [fr. the Sp. ed. of 1669 or 1670]
ed. by Capt. John Stevens. London. 1699. Orig. ed. in Latin.
Toledo. 1592. First Sp. ed. Toledo. 1601. Later editions have
continuations, all except the first by other writers, bringing the
history to the date of publication. Latest Sp. ed. Madrid. 1854.
7. Perkins, Clara Crawford. _Builders of Spain._ 2v. in 1. New
York. 1911.
III. ANCIENT SPAIN, TO 711
8. Bouchier, Edmund Spencer. _Spain under the Roman Empire._
Oxford. 1914. Bib.
9. Burke, Ulick Ralph. _A history of Spain, from the earliest times
to the death of Ferdinand the Catholic._ 2v. London. [1894-] 1895.
1900.
10. _Cambridge medieval history._ 3v. New York. 1911-18. Bib.
11. Van Nostrand, John James. _The reorganization of Spain by
Augustus._ (University of California, _Publications in history_, v.
IV, no. 2). Berkeley. 1916. Bib.
IV. MEDIEVAL SPAIN, 711-1479
Items 9 and 10 belong also in this section.
12. Beasley, Charles Raymond. _James the First of Aragon._ Oxford.
1890.
13. Clarke, Henry Butler. _The Cid Campeador, and the waning of the
crescent in the west._ New York and London. 1902.
14. Condé, José Antonio. _History of the dominion of the Arabs in
Spain._ Tr. ed. by Mrs. Jonathan Foster. 3v. London. 1854-55. Orig.
Sp. ed. Madrid. 1820-21. Usually regarded as untrustworthy.
15. Coppée, Henry. _History of the conquest of Spain by the
Arab-Moors._ 2v. Boston. 1881.
16. Dozy, Reinhart Pieter Anne. _Spanish Islam: a history of the
Moslems in Spain._ Tr. ed. by Francis Griffin Stokes. London. 1913.
Bib. Orig. Fr. ed. Leyde. 1861.
17. Drane, Augusta Theodosia. _The history of St. Dominic, founder
of the Friars Preachers._ London and New York. 1891.
18. Guiraud, Jean. _Saint Dominic._ Tr. ed. by Katharine de Mattos.
London. 1901. New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago. 1913. Bib. Orig.
Fr. ed. Paris. 1899.
19. Ibn’Abd al-Hakām. _Ibn Abd-el-Hakem’s History of the
conquest of Spain._ Tr. (fr. the Arabic) ed. by John Harris Jones.
Göttingen. 1858. Orig. ms. written in ninth century.
20. Lane-Poole, Stanley.... _The Moors in Spain._ New York and
London. [1886]. New York. 1911.
21. Makkari, Ahmed ibn Mohammed al. _The history of the Mohammedan
dynasties in Spain._ Ext. and tr. [fr. ms. copies in the British
Museum] ed. by Pascual de Gayangos. 2v. London. 1840-43. Orig. ms.
in Arabic written early in the seventeenth century.
22. Merriman, Roger Bigelow. _The rise of the Spanish empire in the
old world and the new._ 4v. New York and London. 1918-. Bib. Two
volumes are announced for publication in 1918 (_The middle ages_
and _The Catholic Kings_). Two more will follow (_The Emperor_ and
_Philip the Prudent_).
23. Miron, E. L. _The queens of Aragon, their lives and times._
London. 1913. Bib.
24. Scott, Samuel Parsons. _History of the Moorish empire in
Europe._ 3v. Philadelphia and London. 1904. Bib.
25. Swift, Francis Darwin. _Life and times of James I., the
conqueror, king of Aragon, Valencia, and Majorca._ Oxford. 1894.
26. Watts, Henry Edward.... _The Christian recovery of Spain, being
the story of Spain from the Moorish conquest to the fall of Granada
(711-1492 A.D.)._ New York. 1901.
27. Whishaw, Bernhard and Ellen M. _Arabic Spain, sidelights on her
history and art._ London. 1912. Bib.
28. Yonge, Charlotte Mary. _The story of the Christians and Moors
of Spain._ London and New York. 1903.
V. ERA OF THE CATHOLIC KINGS, 1479-1517
Items 9, 14, 15, 20-22, 24, 26, and 28 belong also in this section. Many
of the items of section IX are applicable here.
29. _Cambridge modern history._ 14v. New York and London. 1902-12.
Bib.
30. Hare, Christopher. _A queen of queens_ [Isabella (1474-1504)]
_& the making of Spain._ New York. 1906.
31. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp. _Queens of old Spain._ New York.
1906. London. 1911.
32. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp. _Spain, its greatness and decay
(1479-1788)._ Cambridge. 1898. 1913. Bib.
33. Irving, Washington. _Conquest of Granada._ New York. 1829.
1910. Bib. Orig. ed. entitled _A chronicle of the conquest of
Granada_.
34. Lea, Henry Charles. _The Moriscos of Spain; their conversion
and expulsion._ Philadelphia. 1901.
35. Plunket, Ierne L. _Isabel of Castile and the making of the
Spanish nation, 1451-1504._ New York and London. 1915. Bib.
36. Prescott, William Hickling. _History of the reign of Ferdinand
and Isabella the Catholic._ 2v. in 1. New York. 1838. 3v.
Philadelphia. [1902].
37. Sabatini, Rafael. _Torquemada and the Spanish inquisition._
London. [1913]. Bib.
VI. THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, 1516-1700
Items 22, 29, 31, 32, and 34 belong also in this section. All of the
items in section IX have a bearing here.
38. Armstrong, Edward. _The Emperor Charles V._ 2v. London and New
York. 1902. London. 1910. Bib.
39. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _The life of Cervantes._ London and
New York. 1905. Bib.
40. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Murillo, a biography and
appreciation._ London and New York. 1907.
41. Calvert, Albert Frederick, _and Mrs._ Catherine Gasquoine
(Hartley) Gallichan. _El Greco; an account of his life and works._
London and New York. 1909.
42. Calvert, Albert Frederick, _and Mrs._ Catherine Gasquoine
(Hartley) Gallichan. _Velazquez; an account of his life and works._
London and New York. 1908.
43. Castro y Rossi, Adolfo de. _The Spanish Protestants and their
persecution by Philip II; a historical work._ Tr. ed. by T. Parker.
London and Edinburgh. 1851. (_History of religious intolerance in
Spain_). 1853. Orig. Sp. ed. Cádiz. 1851.
44. Coloma, Luis. _The story of Don John of Austria._ Tr. ed. by
Lady Moreton. London and New York. 1912.
45. Colvill, Helen Hester. _Saint Teresa of Spain._ New York and
London. 1909. Bib.
46. Dunlop, John Colin. _Memoirs of Spain during the reigns of
Philip IV and Charles II, from 1621 to 1700._ 2v. 1834.
47. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James. _The life of Miguel de Cervantes de
Saavedra._ London. 1892. Bib.
48. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James. _Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: a
memoir._ Oxford. 1913. Bib.
49. Froude, James Anthony. _The Spanish story of the Armada and
other essays._ New York. 1892. London. 1901.
50. Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. _Prince Charles and the Spanish
marriage._ 2v. London. 1869.
51. Gayarré, Charles Etienne Arthur. _Philip II of Spain._ New
York. 1866.
52. Gómara, Francisco López de. _Annals of the Emperor Charles V._
Tr. [fr. an unpublished ms. of, probably, 1557-58] and Sp. orig.
ed. by Roger Bigelow Merriman. Oxford. 1912.
53. Graham, _Mrs._ Gabriela (de La Balmondière) Cunninghame. _Santa
Teresa, being some account of her life and times._ 2v. London.
1894. 1907.
54. Hughes, Thomas Aloysius. _Loyola and the educational system of
the Jesuits._ New York. 1892. Bib.
55. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp. _The court of Philip IV. Spain in
decadence._ New York. 1907.
56. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp. _Philip II. of Spain._ London. 1897.
1911. Bib.
57. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp. _Two English queens and Philip._
London. [1898].
58. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp. _The year after the Armada, and
other historical studies._ London and New York. 1896.
59. Joly, Henri. _Saint Ignatius of Loyola._ Tr. ed. by Mildred
Partridge. London. 1899. 1906. Orig. Fr. ed. Paris. 1898.
60. Justi, Karl. _Diego Velasquez and his times._ Tr. ed. by A. H.
Keane. London. 1889. Orig. Ger. ed. Bonn. 1889.
61. Lovat, Alice Mary (Weld-Blundell) Fraser, _baroness_. _The life
of Saint Teresa, taken from the French of “A Carmelite nun.”_
London. 1912.
62. Loyola, _Saint_ Ignacio de. _The autobiography of St.
Ignatius._ Tr. ed. by J. F. X. O’Conor. New York. 1900. Original
completed in 1555.
63. Lyon, F. H. _Diego de Sarmiento de Acuña, conde de Gondomar._
Oxford. 1910.
64. McCrie, Thomas. _History of the progress and suppression of the
Reformation in Spain in the sixteenth century._ Edinburgh. 1829.
65. Prescott, William Hickling. _History of the reign of Philip the
Second._ 3v. Boston. 1855-58. Philadelphia. 1916.
66. Rennert, Hugo Albert. _The life of Lope de Vega (1562-1635)._
Glasgow and Philadelphia. 1904. Bib.
67. Robertson, William. _The history of the reign of the Emperor
Charles the Fifth._ 3v. [Philadelphia]. 1770. Philadelphia. [1902].
68. Rose, Stewart. _Ignatius Loyola and the early Jesuits._ London.
1870. 1891. Bib.
69. Sandoval, Prudencio de. _The history of Charles the vth,
emperor and king of Spain, the great hero of the House of Austria:
containing the most remarkable occurrences that happen’d in the
world for the space of 56 years._ Tr. ed. by Capt. John Stevens.
London. 1703. Orig. Sp. ed. Antwerp. 1681.
70. Stevenson, Robert Alan Mowbray. _Velasquez._ London and New
York. 1899. Bib.
71. Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William. _The cloister life of the
Emperor Charles the Fifth._ London. 1852. 1891.
72. Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William. _Don John of Austria; or
Passages from the history of the 16th century, 1547-1578._ 2v.
London. 1883.
73. Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William. _Velazquez and his works._
London. 1855.
74. Teresa, _Saint_. _Saint Theresa. The history of her
foundations._ Tr. [fr. the Sp.] ed. by Sister Agnes Mason.
Cambridge. 1909. Orig. Sp. ed. Antwerp. 1630.
75. Teresa, _Saint_. _The life of St. Teresa of Jesus, of the Order
of Our Lady of Carmel._ Tr. ed. by David Lewis. London. 1870. 1904.
Orig. Sp. ed. Salamanca. 1588.
76. Teresa, _Saint_. _St. Teresa of Jesus of the Order of Our Lady
of Carmel, embracing the life, relations, maxims and foundations
written by the saint, also, a history of St. Teresa’s journeys and
foundations._ Tr. ed. by John J. Burke. New York. 1911. Orig. Sp.
ed. (except the _Foundations_). Salamanca. 1588. Orig. Sp. ed. of
the _Foundations_. Antwerp. 1630.
77. Thompson, Francis. _Saint Ignatius Loyola._ London. 1909. 1910.
78. Watson, Robert, and William Thomson. _The history of the reign
of Philip the Third, king of Spain._ 2v. London. 1783. 1808.
VII. THE HOUSE OF BOURBON, 1700-1808
Items 29 and 32 belong also in this section. Many of the items in
section IX are applicable here.
79. Addison, Joseph. _Charles the Third of Spain._ Oxford. 1900.
80. Armstrong, Edward. _Elizabeth Farnese, “the Termagant of
Spain.”_ London. 1892. Bib.
81. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Goya, an account of his life and
works._ London and New York. 1908.
82. Coxe, William. _Memoirs of the kings of Spain of the House of
Bourbon, from the accession of Philip the Fifth to the death of
Charles the Third._ 3v. London. 1813. 5v. 1815.
83. D’Auvergne, Edmund B. _Godoy; the queen’s favorite._ Boston.
[1913].
84. Hill, Constance. _Story of the Princess des Ursins in Spain._
New York. 1899.
85. Parnell, Arthur. _The war of the succession in Spain during the
reign of Queen Anne, 1702-1711._ London. 1888. Bib.
86. Ripperdá, Joan Willem van. _Memoirs of the Duke de Ripperdá:
1st. embassador from the states-general to his most catholick
majesty, then duke and grandee of Spain; afterwards bashaw and
prime minister to Muly Abdalla, emperor of Fez and Morocco, etc.
containing account of the remarkable events ... between 1715 and
1736._ London. 1740.
87. Stokes, Hugh. _Francisco Goya; a study of the work and
personality of the eighteenth century Spanish painter and
satirist._ New York. 1914. Bib.
VIII. THE DAWN OF LIBERALISM, 1808 TO DATE
Item 29 belongs also in this section.
88. Bollaert, William. _Wars of succession of Portugal and Spain,
from 1826 to 1840: with résumé of the political history ... to the
present time._ 2v. London. 1870.
89. Challice, Rachel. _The secret history of the court of Spain
during the last century._ London. 1909. Bib.
90. Clarke, Henry Butler. _Modern Spain, 1815-1898._ Cambridge.
1906. Bib.
91. D’Auvergne, Edmund B. _A queen at bay; the story of Christina
and Don Carlos._ London. 1910. Bib.
92. Hannay, David. _Don Emilio Castelar._ London. 1896.
93. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp.... _Modern Spain, 1788-1898._ New
York and London. 1900.
94. Latimer, _Mrs._ Elizabeth (Wormeley). _Spain in the nineteenth
century._ Chicago. 1897. 1898.
95. Oman, Charles William Chadwick. _A history of the peninsular
war._ 5v. Oxford. 1902-14. Bib.
96. Oman, Charles William Chadwick. _Wellington’s army, 1809-1814._
London. 1912. Bib.
97. Strobel, Edward Henry. _Spanish revolution, 1868-1876._ Boston.
1898.
98. White, George F. _A century of Spain and Portugal (1788-1898)._
London. [1909]. Bib.
99. Whitehouse, Henry Remsen. _The sacrifice of a throne, being an
account of the life of Amadeus, duke of Aosta, sometime king of
Spain._ New York. 1897.
IX. HISTORICAL WORKS ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS
Many of the items in sections III to VIII might appropriately be entered
here. Conversely, as already indicated, the items of this section have a
bearing on various or all of the periods of Spanish history, but it has
been deemed best to give them separate entry, because of the obviously
restricted character of the subject-matter of these volumes.
100. Caffin, Charles Henry. _The story of Spanish painting._ New
York. 1910.
101. Castro y Rossi, Adolfo de. _The history of the Jews in Spain,
from the time of their settlement in that country till the
commencement of the present century._ Tr. ed. by Edward D. G. M.
Kirwan. Cambridge and London. 1851. Orig. Sp. ed. Cádiz. 1847.
102. Clarke, Henry Butler. _Spanish literature; an elementary
handbook._ London. 1893. 1909. Bib.
103. Dieulafoy, Marcel Auguste.... _Art in Spain and Portugal._ New
York. 1913.
104. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James. _Chapters on Spanish literature._
London. 1908.
105. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James. _A history of Spanish literature._
New York. 1898. New York and London. 1915. Bib.
106. Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp. _Spanish influence on English
literature._ London. 1905.
107. Lea, Henry Charles. _Chapters from the religious history of
Spain connected with the Inquisition._ Philadelphia. 1890.
108. Lea, Henry Charles. _A history of the Inquisition of Spain._
4v. New York and London. 1906-7.
109. Lindo, Elias Hiam. _The history of the Jews of Spain and
Portugal, from the earliest times to their final expulsion from
those kingdoms, and their subsequent dispersion._ London. 1848.
110. Markham, Sir Clements Robert. _The story of Majorca and
Minorca._ London. 1908.
111. Sayer, Capt. Frederick. _The history of Gibraltar and of its
political relation to events in Europe._ London. 1862.
112. Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William. _Stories of the Spanish
painters until Goya._ London. 1910.
113. Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William. _Annals of the artists of
Spain._ 3v. London. 1848. Bib.
114. Ticknor, George. _History of Spanish literature._ 3v. New
York. 1849. Boston. [1891].
115. Webster, Wentworth. _Gleanings in church history, chiefly in
Spain and France._ London. 1903. Bib.
116. Williams, Leonard. _The arts and crafts of older Spain._ 3v.
London. 1907. Bib.
X. WORKS OF TRAVEL AND DESCRIPTION
Of works published prior to 1900, only those of unusual reputation,
whether because of the high station of the men who wrote them or the
remarkable character of the books themselves, have been included. No
attempt has been made to enter all works published in English since
1900, but the list is long enough and the scope of the material covered
sufficiently broad, it is believed, for the purposes of the general
reader who wishes to know something about contemporary Spain.
117. Amicis, Edmondo de. _Spain and the Spaniards._ Tr. [fr. 10th
It. ed.] ed. by Stanley Rhoads Yarnall. 2v. Philadelphia. 1895.
Orig. It. ed. Florence. 1873.
118. Andújar, Manuel. _Spain of to-day from within._ New York and
Chicago. [1909].
119. Baedeker, Karl. _Spain and Portugal._ Leipsic. 1898. 1913.
Bib.
120. Bates, Katharine Lee. _Spanish highways and byways._ New York
and London. 1912.
121. Bell, Aubrey F. G. _The magic of Spain._ London and New York.
1912 [1911].
122. Bensusan, Samuel Levy. _Home life in Spain._ New York and
London. 1910.
123. Borrow, George Henry. _The Bible in Spain._ London. 1843. New
York. 1908.
124. Borrow, George Henry. _Zincali; or, An account of the gypsies
of Spain._ 2v. London. 1841. 1v. London and New York. [1914].
125. Boyd, _Mrs._ Mary Stuart. _The fortunate isles; life and
travel in Majorca, Minorca and Iviza._ New York. 1911.
126. Browne, Edith A.... _Spain._ London. 1910.
127. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _The Alhambra, being a brief record
of the Arabian conquest of the peninsula with a particular account
of the Mohammedan architecture and decoration._ London and New
York. 1907.
128. Calvert, Albert Frederick. Catalonia & the Balearic Isles; an
historical and descriptive account. London and New York. 1910.
129. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _The Escorial; a historical and
descriptive account of the Spanish royal palace, monastery and
mausoleum._ London and New York. 1907.
130. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Granada, present and bygone._
London. 1908.
131. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Impressions of Spain._ London.
1903.
132. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Leon, Burgos and Salamanca; a
historical and descriptive account._ London and New York, 1908.
133. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Madrid; an historical description
and handbook of the Spanish capital._ London and New York. 1909.
134. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Moorish remains in Spain; being a
brief record of the Arabian conquest of the peninsula with a
particular account of the Mohammedan architecture and decoration in
Cordova, Seville & Toledo._ London and New York. 1906.
135. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Royal palaces of Spain; a
historical & descriptive account of the seven principal palaces of
the Spanish kings._ London and New York. 1909.
136. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Sculpture in Spain._ London and
New York. 1912.
137. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Seville; an historical and
descriptive account of “the Pearl of Andalusia.”_ London and New
York. 1907.
138. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Southern Spain._ London. 1908.
139. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Spanish arms and armour, being a
historical and descriptive account of the royal armoury of Madrid._
London and New York. 1907.
140. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Toledo, an historical and
descriptive account of the “City of generations.”_ London and New
York. 1907.
141. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Valencia and Murcia, a glance at
African Spain._ London and New York. 1911.
142. Calvert, Albert Frederick. _Valladolid, Oviedo, Segovia,
Zamora, Ávila, & Zaragoza; an historical & descriptive account._
London and New York. 1908.
143. Calvert, Albert Frederick, and _Mrs._ Catherine Gasquoine
(Hartley) Gallichan. _The Prado; a description of the principal
pictures in the Madrid gallery._ London and New York. 1907.
144. Calvert, Albert Frederick, and Walter M. Gallichan. _Cordova,
a city of the Moors._ London and New York. 1907.
145. Chapman, Abel, and Walter J. Buck. _Unexplored Spain._ London.
1910.
146. Chapman, Abel, and Walter J. Buck. _Wild Spain ... Records of
sport with rifle, rod, and gun; natural history and exploration._
London. 1893.
147. Chatfield-Taylor, Hobart Chatfield. _The land of the
castanet._ Chicago. 1896. New York. 1906.
148. Clark, Keith. _The spell of Spain._ Boston. 1914. Bib.
149. Collier, William Miller. _At the court of His Catholic
Majesty._ Chicago. 1912.
150. Collins, W. W. _Cathedral cities of Spain._ London and New
York. 1909.
151. Crockett, Samuel Rutherford. _The adventurer in Spain._
London. 1903.
152. D’Este, Margaret. _With a camera in Majorca._ New York. 1907.
153. Dickinson, Duncan. _Through Spain._ London. [1914].
154. Elliott, _Mrs._ Maud (Howe). _Sun and shadow in Spain._
Boston. 1908. 1911.
155. Ellis, Henry Havelock. _The soul of Spain._ Boston and New
York. [1908].
156. Fitz-Gerald, John Driscoll. _Rambles in Spain._ New York.
[1910].
157. Flitch, John Ernest Crawford. _A little journey in Spain;
notes of a Goya pilgrimage._ London. 1914.
158. Flitch, John Ernest Crawford. _Mediterranean moods, footnotes
of travel in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, and
Sardinia._ London. 1911.
159. Ford, Richard. _Gatherings from Spain._ London. 1846. London
and New York. [1906]. Bib. Also issued under the title _The
Spaniards and their country_.
160. Ford, Richard. _Handbook for travellers in Spain._ 2v. London.
1845. 1898.
161. Franck, Harry Alverson. _Four months afoot in Spain._ New
York. 1911.
162. Gade, John Allyne. _Cathedrals of Spain._ Boston and New York.
1911. Bib.
163. Gallichan, _Mrs._ Catherine Gasquoine (Hartley). _The
cathedrals of southern Spain._ London [n.d. Not earlier than 1912].
164. Gallichan, _Mrs._ Catherine Gasquoine (Hartley). _Moorish
cities in Spain._ London. 1906.
165. Gallichan, _Mrs._ Catherine Gasquoine (Hartley). _Spain
revisited, a summer holiday in Galicia._ London. [1911?].
166. Gallichan, _Mrs._ Catherine Gasquoine (Hartley). _The story of
Santiago de Compostela._ London and New York. 1912.
167. Gallichan, Walter M. _The story of Seville._ London. 1903.
168. Gautier, Théophile. _Wanderings in Spain._ London. 1853. Orig.
Fr. ed. (Tra los montes) Paris. 1843. 2d. Fr. ed. (_Voyage en
Espagne_) Paris. 1845.
169. Hart, Jerome A. _Two Argonauts in Spain._ San Francisco. 1904
[1903].
170. Hay, John. _Castilian days._ Boston. 1871. Cambridge. 1903.
171. Higgin, L. _Spanish life in town and country._ London. 1902.
New York and London. [1911].
172. Howells, William Dean. _Familiar Spanish travels._ New York
and London. 1913.
173. Irving, Washington. _The Alhambra._ 2v. Philadelphia. 1832.
1v. Boston and New York, [c 1915].
174. Kennedy, Bart. _A tramp in Spain, from Andalusia to Andorra._
London. 1892. 1904.
175. Llewellyn, Owen, _and_ L. R. Hill. _The south-bound car._
London. 1907.
176. Lomas, John. _In Spain._ London. 1908.
177. Lowell, James Russell. _Impressions of Spain._ Boston and New
York. 1899.
178. Luffmann, Charles Bogue. _Quiet days in Spain._ London. 1910.
179. Luffmann, Charles Bogue. _A vagabond in Spain._ London and New
York. 1895.
180. Lynch, Hannah. _Toledo, the story of an old Spanish capital._
London. 1898. 1910.
181. Marden, Philip Sanford. _Travels in Spain._ Boston and New
York. 1910.
182. Marriott, Charles. _A Spanish holiday._ New York. 1908.
183. Meakin, Annette M. B. _Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain._
London. [1909]. Bib.
184. Nixon-Roulet, Mary F. _The Spaniard at home._ Chicago. 1910.
185. O’Connor, Vincent Clarence Scott. _Travels in the Pyrenees,
including Andorra and the coast from Barcelona to Carcassone._
London. 1913.
186. O’Reilly, Eliza Boyle. _Heroic Spain._ New York. 1910.
187. Penfield, Edward. _Spanish sketches._ New York. 1911.
188. Rudy, Charles. _The cathedrals of northern Spain, their
history and their architecture._ Boston. 1906.
189. Seymour, Frederick H. A. _Saunterings in Spain; Barcelona,
Madrid, Toledo, Cordova, Seville, Granada._ London. 1906.
190. Shaw, Rafael. _Spain from within._ New York. 1910.
191. Slater, Ernest, _pseud._ Paul Gwynne. _The Guadalquivir, its
personality, its people and its associations._ London. 1912.
192. Street, George Edmund.... _Some account of Gothic architecture
in Spain._ 2v. London. 1865. 1914.
193. Tyler, Royall. _Spain, a study of her life and arts._ New
York. 1909. Bib.
194. Villiers-Wardell, _Mrs._ Janie. _Spain of the Spanish._ New
York. 1909. 1914.
195. Ward, G. H. B. _The truth about Spain._ London, New York,
Toronto, and Melbourne. 1911.
196. Wigram, Edgar T. A. _Northern Spain, painted and described._
London. 1906.
197. Williams, Leonard. _Granada, memories, adventures, studies and
impressions._ Philadelphia. 1906.
198. Williams, Leonard. _The land of the Dons._ London. 1902.
199. Williams, Leonard. _Toledo and Madrid, their records and
romances._ London. 1903.
200. Wood, Charles William. _Glories of Spain._ London and New
York. 1901.
201. Wood, Ruth Kedzie. _The tourist’s Spain and Portugal._ New
York. 1913.
202. Wood, Walter. _A corner of Spain._ New York and London. 1910.
203. Zimmerman, Jeremiah. _Spain and her people._ Philadelphia.
1902. London. 1906.
INDEX
Abbasside family, 42, 43.
Abdallah, 45.
Abd-er-Rahman I, 42, 43, 49, 50.
Abd-er-Rahman II, 44.
Abd-er-Rahman III, 45, 47, 49, 50, 54, 57.
Abdul Malik, 46, 58.
Aben-Hayyán, 103.
Abu Abdallah. _See_ Boabdil.
Abul Cassim Mohammed, 69.
Abul Hassan, 204.
Academy, the. _See Real Academia Española._
Academy of Fine Arts. _See Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San
Fernando._
Academy of History. _See Real Academia de la Historia._
Achila, 32.
Acosta, 347.
Acquaviva, 356.
Acuña, Fernando de, 203.
_Adelantados_, 90, 93, 154-156, 197, 199, 200, 222.
Adrian, Cardinal. _See_ Adrian VI.
Adrian VI, Pope, 238, 239, 317.
Affonso Enríquez of Portugal, 75, 76.
Africa, 6, 8, 10, 17, 19, 28, 32, 39, 40, 42-45, 69-71, 77, 121, 136,
172, 196, 205, 206, 208, 214, 217, 223, 235, 236, 241, 242, 249, 250,
252, 260, 265, 268, 277, 279, 280, 379, 390, 513. _See_ Algiers,
Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis.
Ágreda, María de Jesús, 310.
Agrippa, 18.
Alans, 26-28.
Alarcón, the navigator, 349.
Alarcón, the novelist, 515.
Alarcos, battle of, 71, 76.
Alaric, 27.
Álava, 117, 134, 135, 197-200.
Alba, dukes of, 251, 252, 323, 428.
Albéniz, 516.
Alberoni, 374, 375, 377, 434, 439, 444, 451.
Albigenses, 79, 80.
Alburquerque, 118, 119.
_Alcabala_, the, 157, 175, 216, 225, 227, 237, 278, 295, 297, 336, 453.
Alcalá, ordinance of, 142, 160, 163, 226, 441; university of, 230, 312,
340, 474.
_Alcaldes_, 92, 93, 154, 159, 174, 222, 432, 433, 446, 473.
Alcántara, order of, 94, 219, 220.
Alcaraz, 450.
Alcudia, 430; Duke of: _See_ Godoy.
Alegre, 482.
Alexander III, Pope, 76.
Alexandrian school, 102, 103.
Alfieri, 482.
Alfonso, Prince, 115.
Alfonso (another), Prince, 123, 124.
Alfonso I of Aragon, 74, 75, 78, 79.
Alfonso II of Aragon, 79, 110.
Alfonso III of Aragon, 127, 128.
Alfonso IV of Aragon, 129.
Alfonso V of Aragon, 132, 148, 167, 170, 188-191, 207, 212.
Alfonso I of Asturias and León, 54, 55.
Alfonso II of Asturias and León, 55, 56.
Alfonso III of Asturias and León, 57.
Alfonso IV of Asturias and León (925-930). Omitted.
Alfonso V of Asturias and León, 58.
Alfonso VI of León and Castile, 70-74, 95.
Alfonso VII of León and Castile, 74-76.
Alfonso VIII of Castile, 71, 75-77, 79, 106, 112, 135.
Alfonso IX of León, 76, 77, 106.
Alfonso X of Castile (and León), 112-116, 142, 144, 146, 152, 153, 155,
156, 160-164, 174, 181, 185, 226.
Alfonso XI of Castile (and León), 116-119, 129-131, 135, 138, 153, 156,
157, 159, 162, 163, 165, 174.
Alfonso XII of Spain, 503, 505, 506, 508.
Alfonso XIII of Spain, 506, 509-511.
Algarve, 113, 407; Prince of: _See_ Godoy.
Algeciras, 10, 32.
Algiers, 242, 356, 390.
Alhambra, the, 201, 205.
Alicante, 450, 468.
Aljubarrota, battle of, 121.
Almansor, 45, 46, 48, 51, 54, 57, 58.
Almería, city and province of, 2, 69, 71.
Almohades, ix, 70, 71, 75-77, 84, 85, 87, 102, 104, 113. _See_ Moslems.
Almoravides, 69, 70, 72, 73, 84, 87, 102, 104. _See_ Moslems.
Alomar, 515.
Altamira, Rafael, 335, 516, 525.
Alvarado, 347.
Álvarez, General, 491.
Álvarez, the sculptor, 485.
Álvarez Quintero, the brothers, 515, 516.
Amadeo, King, of Spain, 503, 504.
_Amadís de Gaula_, 145, 185, 232, 355.
Amalia, Queen, of Spain, 472.
Amelot, 374, 434.
American Revolution, 383, 384, 399.
Americans. _See_ United States.
Americas, the. _See_ Spanish America.
_Amigos del País_, 462, 474.
Andalusia and the Andalusians, 2, 3, 9, 11, 19, 38, 39, 44, 67, 71, 79,
138, 156, 180, 203, 204, 211, 229, 268, 280, 284, 327, 364, 365, 431,
460, 462, 464, 466, 490, 516, 518, 520, 522.
Anglada, 516.
Anian, Strait of, 476.
Anjou, House of, 128, 132, 207. _See_ Charles of Anjou.
Anson, George, 381.
Antonio, Julio, 516.
Antonio, Nicolás, 347.
Antonio of Crato, 251-253.
Arabs, the, 32, 39-52, 59, 71, 84, 107, 108, 182, 183, 185, 188, 200,
248, 277, 278, 309, 363. _See_ Moslems.
Aragón, Alfonso de, 216.
Aragon (kingdom and province of) and the Aragonese, 2, 44, 45, 54, 56,
58, 64-66, 68, 71, 74, 75, 78-82, 96-101, 106, 109-111, 115, 117, 119,
120, 122, 124-134, 146-150, 155, 166-173, 176-179, 187-193, 195, 203,
206, 208, 209, 211-215, 217, 219, 221-224, 227, 229, 231, 234, 235, 244,
252, 253, 263, 268, 272-277, 280, 288-290, 296, 301, 311, 325, 411, 412,
422, 427, 429, 431, 432, 435, 453, 460, 476.
Aranda, Count of, 389, 393, 394, 402, 420, 423, 428, 435, 436, 451, 472.
Aranjuez, 408, 423, 450, 492.
Archivo General de Indias, 476, 481.
Argentina, 389, 523.
Argote y Góngora. _See_ Góngora.
Arian creed, 27, 30, 31, 36.
Aristotle, 103, 184.
Arjona, 71.
Arlegui, 482.
Armada, the Spanish, 253, 255, 256, 287.
_Armada de Barlovento_, 299.
Armenteira, 164.
Arniches, Carlos, 515.
Arriaga, _Cofradía_ of, 135, 197.
Arriaga, Julián de, 436.
Arricivita, 482.
Arrieta. Bartolomé de, 300, 441.
Arrieta, the composer, 515.
Arteaga, 479.
Arthur, King, of England, 185.
Artois, 235.
Asia, 7, 262. _See_ Asia Minor.
Asia Minor, 8, 129. _See_ Asia.
_Asiento_, the, 370, 371, 380, 381, 385, 456.
Asso, 481.
Assyria and the Assyrians, 7, 10.
Astorga, 20.
Asturias, Princes of, 121, 426.
Asturias and the Asturians, 11, 53-57, 60-64, 135, 180, 327, 431,
434-436, 460.
Ataulf, 27, 28.
Athanagild, 29.
Athens, 129, 131, 190.
Atlantic Ocean, 1, 229, 260, 328, 385.
_Audiencias_, 155, 156, 222, 292, 293, 311, 321, 429-433, 437.
Augsburg, Diets of, 243.
Augustinians, 312, 314.
Augustus, 18, 20.
Austerlitz, battle of, 407.
Austria, House of. _See_ Hapsburg.
Austria and the Austrians, 207, 235, 236, 244, 368, 369, 372, 375-379,
381, 402, 407, 496.
_Autos de fe_, 223, 224.
Avendaño, Francisco de, 353.
Averröes, 103, 110, 188.
Avignon, 120, 131, 168.
Ávila, 23, 239, 464.
Ayacucho, battle of, 488.
Ayala, Pedro Lópes de. _See_ López de Ayala.
Ayala, the dramatist, 515.
Ayala, the navigator, 479.
Ayora, Gonzalo de, 226.
_Ayuntamientos_, 159, 290, 413, 426, 429, 432, 433.
Az-Zahra, palace of, 49.
Azcárate, 525.
Azcoytia, 450.
“Azorín,” 515.
Bacon, Francis, 342.
Badajoz, city and province of, 2, 20, 69-71, 405.
Baegert, 482.
Bahama Islands, 397, 398.
Baja California, 476.
Balearic Islands, 19, 69, 81,100. _See_ Ibiza, Majorca, Minorca.
Baltic Sea, 189.
Barba, Alonso, 350.
Barbarossa, 242.
Barbary Coast. _See_ Africa, Algiers, Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis.
Barca family, 12-14.
Barcelona, city of, 12, 22, 28, 64, 99, 125, 133, 147-149, 168-170, 172,
173, 177-179, 188, 215, 216, 221, 229, 263, 264, 286, 329, 372, 417,
423, 429, 431, 451, 460, 466, 484, 512; counts of, 56, 58, 65, 75, 77,
78, 79, 133; university of, 188, 312,350.
Barlovento. _See_ _Armada de Barlovento_.
Baroja, Pío, 515.
_Barraganía_, 88, 96, 144, 164, 196, 216, 281, 305, 315.
Basle, treaty of, 403.
Basque provinces, the, and the Basques, 8, 43, 55, 58, 134, 135, 175,
192, 196-200, 213, 288, 423, 430, 432-434, 461, 465, 518. _See_ Álava,
Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya.
Bavaria, Prince of, 270.
Bayeu, 485.
Baylén, battle of, 490.
Bayonne, 409, 489-491.
Beaumarchais, 483.
Beaumont, 482.
Becquer, 515.
_Behetrías_, 197-199.
Belgium. _See_ Catholic Netherlands, Low Countries.
Benavente, Jacinto, 515, 516.
Benedict XIII, Pope, 131, 168.
Benedict XIV, Pope, 453.
Benedictines, 472.
Benedito, 516.
Beni-Casi family, 44.
Benimerines, 113, 114, 117, 131, 136.
Benlliure, 516.
Berbers, the, 8, 14, 19, 32, 40-43, 45-47, 49, 50, 69-71, 84, 200, 241.
_See_ Moslems.
Berenguela, Queen, of Castile, 76, 77, 90.
Berruguete, 362.
Beruete, 516.
Bethencourt, Juan de, 122.
Biblioteca Nacional, 476.
Bilbao, city of, 329, 468.
Bilbao, the painter, 516.
Biron, 388.
Biscay, Bay of, 260.
Black Prince, the, 120.
Black Sea, 27.
Blanche of Bourbon, 118, 119.
Blanche of Navarre, 123, 134.
Blay, 516.
“Blue Lady.” _See_ Ágreda.
Boabdil, 204, 205.
Bobastro, 44, 45.
Boccaccio, 184, 185, 356.
Bodega, 479.
Bogotá, 478.
Bologna, 452.
Bonaparte. _See_ Joseph, Napoleon.
Bonilla, Adolfo, 515.
Borgia, Alfonso. _See_ Calixtus III.
Borja, Cardinal, 318.
Borja, town of, 450.
Boston, 393.
Bougainville, 388.
Bourbon, House of, 118, 270, 284, 370, 384-386, 393, 397, 399, 404, 405,
407, 410, 421, 425, 426, 429, 432, 434, 438, 443, 445, 452, 454, 455,
469, 482, 497, 500, 503.
Bracamonte, Rubín de, 122.
Braciano, Duke of, 373.
Braga, 20.
Braganza, House of, 251, 265, 267.
Bravo Murillo, 500, 501.
Brazil, 252, 392.
Bretón, 515.
Bruges, 176, 326, 337.
Buckingham, Duke of, 284.
Bueno, Manuel, 516.
Buenos Aires, 388.
Burgos, 57, 329, 330, 409; ordinances of, 160.
Burgoyne, 395.
Burgundy, 235, 236, 244, 262.
Burriel, 481, 482.
Byng, 376, 377.
Byzantine Greeks. _See_ Byzantine Romans.
Byzantine Romans, 29-31, 33, 36-38, 50, 52, 129, 190.
_Caballeros_, 85, 86, 97, 137, 138, 141, 148, 159, 166, 170, 185, 192,
194, 211, 273, 433.
Cabezón, 366.
Cáceres, 2, 244.
Cádiz, city and province of, 2, 10, 32, 38, 255, 328, 392, 423, 468-470,
484, 492, 493, 496.
Cæpio, 17.
Cæsar, 18, 185.
Calatrava, order of, 75, 94, 139, 219, 220.
Calderón, Alfredo, 515.
Calderón de la Barca, Pedro, 355.
California, 156, 232, 349, 361, 481; Gulf of, 349.
Calixtus III, Pope, 190, 191.
_Cámara de Castilla_, 292, 321, 412, 431, 433.
_Camarilla_, the, 495, 501.
Campillo, 434, 480.
Campoamor, 515.
Campomanes, 415, 418, 435, 450, 459, 461, 480, 481.
Canalejas, 509.
Canary Islands, 6, 122, 206, 293, 431, 453.
Canellas, 97.
Cangas de Onís, 53.
Cano, Alonso, 362, 366.
Cano, Melchor, 314, 316.
Cánovas del Castillo, 516.
Canstadt man, 6.
Cantabrian Mountains, 2, 491.
Cantabrians, 8.
Capmany, 481.
Caribbean Sea, 253, 385, 387.
Carlism, 497-501, 503-505, 511.
Carlos, Don, 497, 498, 503.
Carmona, 69.
Carpetana Mountains. _See_ Carpeto-Vetónica Mountains.
Carpeto-Vetónica Mountains, 2, 3, 54.
Carpio, Bernardo del, 55.
Carranza, Bartolomé, 307.
_Carreratge_, 168, 169, 173, 199.
Carrillo, Alonso de, 183.
Cartagena in America, 380.
Cartagena in Spain, 12, 13, 23, 27.
Carthage and the Carthaginians, 7, 10-15.
Carvajal, 224.
_Casa de Contratación_, 231, 328, 341, 348, 349, 468.
Castaños, 490.
Castelar, 505.
Castellanos, Juan de, 347.
Castellón de Ampurias, 11.
Castile and the Castilians, 1-5, 38, 57, 58, 60-64, 66, 68, 69, 71-78,
81, 82, 84-99, 104-125, 129, 131-147, 149, 151-167, 169-176, 180-190,
192, 197-199, 203-206, 209-221, 223, 224, 226-231, 235, 237-240, 242,
249-253, 262-266, 274-277, 280, 288-290, 292, 296, 301, 311, 325, 327,
346, 364, 369, 372, 426, 427, 429-432, 441, 453, 460, 464; language of,
106, 184, 185, 189, 190, 197, 231, 308, 341, 346, 351-353, 357, 358,
476, 481, 518. _See_ New Castile, Old Castile.
Castro, Américo, 515.
Castro, Juana de, 119.
Castro, Rosalía de, 515.
“Catalan vengeance,” the, 129.
Catalonia and the Catalans, 2, 11, 13, 56, 58, 59, 64-66, 77-82, 96-100,
109, 110, 125, 127, 129-134, 146-150, 168-173, 176-179, 184, 187, 189,
190, 192, 203, 206, 210-212, 221, 227, 231, 258, 262-265, 267, 272, 275,
276, 280, 288-290, 296, 299, 301, 311, 328, 359, 370-374, 379, 380, 422,
426, 427, 429-431, 432, 441, 453, 460, 466, 511, 512, 518; language of,
110, 189, 190, 231, 429, 511, 518.
Catherine of Aragon, 207.
Catholic Kings. _See_ Ferdinand II of Aragon, Isabella I of Castile.
Catholic Netherlands, 250, 262, 372, 378. _See_ Low Countries.
Catholic Reaction. _See_ Counter-Reformation.
Catholicism, 22, 27, 29-31, 36, 80, 216, 243, 246-248, 250, 251,
253-255, 261, 264, 281, 288, 302-304, 306, 308, 313, 315, 316, 319, 343,
355, 359, 443, 445, 448, 455-457, 494, 501, 502, 512, 514, 521. _See_
Arian creed, Church.
Cavanilles, 478.
Cavo, 482.
Cejador, 515.
Celtiberian Mountains, 2.
Celtiberians, the, 8, 9.
Celts, the, 8, 9.
_Censos_, 281, 416, 452.
Cerda, Fernando de la. _See_ Fernando.
Cerdagne, 134, 206, 207, 235, 262.
Cervantes de Salazar, 347.
Cervantes y Saavedra, Miguel de, 334, 353, 355-357, 359, 483.
Ceuta, 268, 513.
Chaldea and the Chaldeans, 7,10; language of, 230.
Champagne, Count of, 82.
_Chancillerías._ _See Audiencias._
_Chanson de Roland_, 43.
Chapí, 515.
Chappe d’Autereche, 476.
Charlemagne, 43, 55, 185.
Charles, Prince, 247, 256.
Charles, the Archduke. _See_ Charles VI (the Emperor).
Charles V, the Emperor. _See_ Charles I of Spain.
Charles VI, the Emperor, 270, 369-372, 376-381, 444.
Charles of Anjou, 126.
Charles of Valois, 127.
Charles of Viana, 132-134.
Charles I of England, 284.
Charles IV of France, 134.
Charles VIII of France, 206, 207.
Charles I of Spain, 209, 216, 219, 234-250, 256-258, 263, 275-277,
283-287, 289, 293, 296, 298, 300, 306-308, 311, 314, 316-320, 322, 326,
335, 339, 345, 346, 352, 353, 363.
Charles II of Spain, 258, 268-271, 285, 288, 289, 333, 369, 384.
Charles III of Spain, 376-380, 382-386, 389-392, 394-399, 403, 411, 412,
414, 415, 419, 420, 422-424, 427, 431-433, 435, 436, 438, 439, 445, 447,
449-454, 456, 461-465, 467, 472-475, 478, 479, 481, 485, 486, 495.
Charles IV of Spain, 384, 399-404, 407-409, 412, 415, 419, 422, 423,
425, 427, 435, 436, 439, 446, 447, 456, 463, 469, 473, 477, 486, 488,
498.
Charolais, 235.
Charron, 343.
Chatham, Lord. _See_ Pitt.
Chicharro, 516.
Chièvres, 237.
Chile, 478.
Chindaswinth, 31, 35.
Chinese, the, 353.
Choiseul, 389.
Christians, 22, 23, 39-41, 43-47, 49, 53-60, 67-73, 75-77, 84, 85, 87,
88, 97, 102, 103, 105, 106, 108, 110, 124, 135, 136, 142, 143, 147, 150,
172, 180, 182, 192, 193, 195, 200, 201, 205, 213, 214, 236, 248, 249,
266, 274-278, 280, 307, 338, 342, 362, 421. _See_ Church.
Chueca, 515.
Church, the, 22, 23, 26, 27, 35-37, 41, 42, 47, 49, 53-55, 60-63, 65,
66, 85-88, 90, 91, 93-98, 100, 105, 111, 114, 117, 123, 124, 127, 131,
137-141, 143, 144, 146, 155-160, 163-165, 169, 172, 173, 182-184, 188,
197, 210, 212, 216, 217, 222, 225, 227, 237, 239, 248, 249, 252, 266,
273-278, 283, 289, 293, 295, 297, 303-323, 325, 334, 340-343, 347,
351-353, 365, 366, 401, 412, 415, 416, 418, 422, 426-428, 430, 437, 441,
443-460, 462, 464, 472, 473, 476, 477, 479, 480, 485, 493, 494, 496,
500, 501, 504, 505, 511-513, 522. _See_ Albigenses, Alcántara,
Augustinians, Benedictines, Calatrava, Catholicism, Christians,
Cistercians, Cluny, Counter-Reformation, Dominicans, Franciscans,
Illuminism, Inquisition, Jesuits, _Limpieza de sangre_, Mozárabes,
Mysticism, Nobles, Papal States, Priscillianism, Protestantism,
Quietism, Reformation, Santiago, Templars.
Churriguera, 362.
Cicero, 184.
Cid, the, 72-74, 106.
Cieza de León, 347.
Cistercians, 75, 164.
Cities. _See_ Towns.
Ciudad Real, town and province of, 2, 450.
Ciudadela, 195.
Civita Vecchia, 452.
Clará, 516.
“Clarín,” 515.
Clavigero, 482.
Clement V, Pope, 167.
Clement VII, Pope, 167, 168.
Clergy. _See_ Church.
Clovis, 29.
Cluny, monks of, 65, 66, 72, 86, 95, 96, 98, 106. _See_ Church.
Cobos, Bernabé, 347.
Coello, 366.
_Cofradías_, 144, 145, 182, 281, 417. _See_ Arriaga.
Coimbra, 54.
Colmeiro, 516.
Colonna, 184.
Columbus, Christopher, 232, 522.
Columbus, Ferdinand, 347.
Comenius, 343.
Commons, House of, 493.
_Compilación de Canellas_, 97.
Compostela, Santiago de, 55, 63, 74, 75, 93, 95, 105, 106, 165, 174,
238, 263.
_Comunales_, 93.
_Comunidades_, the, 239, 248, 250.
_Concejo._ _See_ Towns, Villa.
Condé, 261.
_Consejo de Castilla._ _See Consejo Real._
_Consejo Real_, 154, 203, 221, 264, 290-293, 311, 317, 320, 321, 329,
331, 418, 425, 426, 428, 431, 433, 435, 445, 450, 468, 475.
_Consejos_, the, 292, 297, 430, 431, 433, 441, 468. _See Cámara, Consejo
Real._
_Consell_, the. _See_ Barcelona.
Conservatives, the, 506, 509, 512. _See_ Moderates.
Constance of Aragon, 130.
Constance of Sicily, 126.
Constantinople, 129, 132, 195, 249.
Constanza, Princess, 121.
Constitutions, 493, 494, 496, 498-502, 504-506, 509, 510.
_Consulados_, 109, 177, 178, 328, 329, 331, 468, 469.
_Consumo_, the, 157.
Convention, the French, 403.
_Conversos_, the. _See_ Marranos.
Copernicus, 349.
Córdoba, Gonzalo de, 208, 226.
Cordova, 24, 43-45, 47, 49, 50, 53, 68, 69, 77, 103, 224.
Coria, 54.
Corneille, 482.
Cornejo, 481.
Cornwall, Earl of, 112.
_Corregidores_, 90, 159, 198, 199, 220, 238, 290, 329, 429, 432, 466,
473.
Corsica, 8, 128, 171, 452.
_Cort_, the, 93, 154, 155.
_Cortes_, the, 85, 89-93, 97, 99-101, 114, 117, 123, 128, 133, 140, 141,
147, 148, 158, 160, 161, 163, 165-168, 170, 171, 173, 178, 209, 217,
220, 221, 226, 237-239, 252, 263, 277, 288, 289, 294, 297, 299, 301,
302, 305, 311, 320, 321, 413, 425-429, 473, 492-498, 501-505, 509.
Cortés, Hernando, 296, 347, 350.
Coruña, 238, 255, 263, 450.
Cossío, 516.
Costa, 525.
Counter-Reformation, 306, 312, 342. _See_ Church, Protestantism,
Reformation.
Counts, 61, 62, 65, 90, 211, 221, 273.
Covadonga, battle of, 53, 54.
Cowley, 388.
Cristina, Queen, of Spain, 497-500.
Cromagnon man, 6, 7.
Cromwell, 262, 393.
Cruz, Juan de la, Saint, 310.
Cruz, Ramón de la, 484, 487.
_Cruzada_, the, 225, 292, 295, 444, 445.
Cuba, 488, 500, 506.
Cuenca, town and province of, 2, 450, 460.
Cueva, Beltrán de la, 123.
Dante, 185.
Danube River, 27.
Danvila y Collado, 516.
Daoiz, Luis, 410.
Darío, Rubén, 515.
Daroca, 450.
Daza, Juan de, 224.
Denia, 69.
Denmark, 189, 308, 330, 379.
Depósito Hidrográfico, 479.
Deputation of the _Cortes_. _See Generalitat._
Descartes, 343.
Díaz, Juan, 308.
Díaz, Rodrigo, or Ruy. _See_ Cid.
Díaz de Montalvo, Alfonso, 226, 300, 301, 441.
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal, 347.
Dicenta, 515.
Diderot, 428.
Diez Canedo, 515.
_Diezmos_, 140, 225, 295, 452.
Diocletian, 19, 22.
Directory, the French, 404.
Dominic, Saint, 80, 96.
Dominicans, 80, 96, 173, 304, 314, 316, 358. _See_ Church.
_Don Quixote_, 355-357.
_Donativos_, 295.
Dorantes de Carranza, 347.
_Dos de Mayo_, the, 399, 410, 486, 489, 513.
_Dos novenas_, 140.
Douro River, 2, 17, 54, 58.
Doz, 476.
Drake, Francis, 253, 255.
Dukes, 211, 221, 273.
Dupont, 490.
Dutch, the. _See_ Protestant Netherlands.
East Indies, 262.
Ebro River, 2, 3, 7, 408, 490.
Echegaray, 515.
Edward, Prince. _See_ Black Prince.
Edward I of England, 112.
Edward III of England, 120, 121.
Egmont, Port, 388, 389.
Egypt and the Egyptians, 8, 39, 42, 43. _See_ Gypsies.
El Greco, 364, 366, 485, 516.
El Zagal, 204.
Elche, 169.
Elhuyar brothers, 478.
Elisa, 479.
Elizabeth, Queen, of England, 253-255.
Elvira, 22, 45.
Emporium, 11.
_Encomienda_, 60, 138.
Encyclopedia, the, 428.
England and the English, 92, 105, 112, 113, 120, 121, 134, 158, 175,
176, 203, 207, 209, 235, 236, 241, 244, 246, 247, 253-256, 259, 260,
262, 267, 269, 270, 299, 330, 337, 342, 346, 359, 368-372, 376, 377,
379-401, 403-407, 425, 429, 435, 440, 450, 451, 456, 458, 459, 469-471,
483, 489, 491, 499, 508, 514, 518, 519.
Engracia, Saint, 22.
Ensenada, Marquis of, 434-436, 439, 440, 480.
Enzina, Juan del, 232, 353.
Épila, battle of, 130.
Erasmus, 342.
Escarano, 393, 396.
Escoiquiz, 406, 409.
Escorial, the, 255, 362.
Espagnoletto. _See_ Ribera (the painter).
Espartero, 499, 502.
_Espéculo_, the, 162.
Espinosa, 482.
Esquivel, 350.
Estudios Reales de San Isidro, 341.
Etruria, 405, 407, 410.
Etruscans, the ancient, 24.
Eulalia, Saint, 22.
Euric, 28, 29, 34.
Europe and Europeans, 1, 3, 6, 21, 28, 38, 44, 45, 49-51, 60-62, 64, 67,
86, 91, 94, 102, 103, 105-108, 110, 112, 139, 148, 165, 181, 182, 186,
188, 195, 202, 203, 206, 209, 219, 230, 234, 236, 240-246, 248-251, 254,
257-262, 265, 266, 269, 270, 284, 286, 298, 300, 303, 306, 315, 324,
328, 330, 334, 336-338, 350, 352, 355, 356, 358-360, 368-370, 376,
380-384, 391, 392, 394, 401-403, 407, 415, 419, 426, 449, 466, 471,
478, 480-482, 492, 495, 496, 500, 513, 520.
Évora, 266.
Evreux, House of, 134.
_Expolios_, 319, 321.
Extremadura, 1, 2, 44, 45, 212, 228, 280, 431, 460, 464.
Fachenetti concordat, 320.
Fadrique of Sicily, 128, 129.
Falkland Islands, 388, 389, 400.
Falla, 516.
Family Compact, the, 379, 383, 386, 389, 390, 395, 400.
Far East, the, 265, 353, 488.
Farnese, Alexander, 251.
Farnesio, Isabel, 374-382, 404, 418, 445, 449, 451.
Ferdinand I, the Emperor, 235, 244.
Ferdinand II, the Emperor, 260.
Ferdinand of Antequera. _See_ Ferdinand I of Aragon.
Ferdinand of Aragon. _See_ Ferdinand II of Aragon.
Ferdinand I of Aragon, 122, 131, 132, 168, 170, 189.
Ferdinand II of Aragon, 111, 124, 133, 134, 148, 154, 191, 202-215,
217-230, 234, 235, 272, 276, 277, 287, 290, 292-294, 300, 306, 316, 325,
332, 335, 350.
Ferdinand of Bourbon, Prince, 382.
Ferdinand I of Castile, 71, 73, 75.
Ferdinand II of León (1157-1188). Omitted.
Ferdinand III of Castile (and León), 68, 76, 77, 80, 81, 91, 95, 111,
158, 162.
Ferdinand IV of Castile (and León), 115-117.
Ferdinand V of Spain. _See_ Ferdinand II of Aragon.
Ferdinand VI of Spain, 378, 381, 382, 391, 412, 418, 422, 431, 435, 439,
445, 449, 474, 478, 484.
Ferdinand VII of Spain, 406-409, 477, 486, 488, 492-498.
Ferdinand of Naples, 132.
Fernán González, 57.
Fernán-Núñez, Count of, 472, 481.
Fernández. _See_ Moratín.
Fernández Caballero, 515.
Fernández de Oviedo, 347.
Fernández Duro, 516.
Fernández Guerra, 516.
Fernando de la Cerda, 113, 115.
Ferrán, 515.
Ferrara, 452.
Ferrer, Francisco, 511, 512.
Ferrer, Jaime, 189.