NAME. | JAPANESE | CHRISTIAN
| ERA.[211] | ERA.
---------------------------+-----------+-----------
Taikwa | 1305 | 645
Hakuchi | 1310 | 650
(Blank) | 1315-1331 | 655-671
Sujaku | 1332 | 672
Hakuhō | 1332 | 672
Shuchō | 1346 | 686
(Blank) | 1347-1360 | 687-700
Daihō [Taihō] | 1361 | 701
Keiun | 1364 | 704
Wadō | 1368 | 708
Reiki | 1375 | 715
Yōrō | 1377 | 717
Jinki [Shinki] | 1384 | 724
Tembiō | 1389 | 729
Tembiō shōhō | 1409 | 749
Tembiō hoji | 1417 | 757
Tembiō jingo | 1425 | 765
Jingo keiun | 1427 | 767
Hōki | 1430 | 770
Tenō | 1441 | 781
Enriaku | 1442 | 782
Daidō | 1466 | 806
Kōnin | 1470 | 810
Tenchō | 1484 | 824
Jōwa [Shōwa] | 1494 | 834
Kajō [Kashō] | 1508 | 848
Ninju | 1511 | 851
Saikō | 1514 | 854
Tenan | 1517 | 857
Jōgwan [Jōkwan] | 1519 | 859
Gwangiō [Genkei] | 1537 | 877
Ninna [Ninwa] | 1545 | 885
Kwampei | 1549 | 889
Shōtai | 1558 | 898
Engi | 1561 | 901
Enchō | 1583 | 923
Jōhei [Shōhei] | 1591 | 931
Tengiō [Tenkei] | 1598 | 938
Tenriaku | 1607 | 947
Tentoku | 1617 | 957
Ōwa | 1621 | 961
Kōhō | 1624 | 964
Anna | 1628 | 968
Tenroku | 1630 | 970
Ten-en | 1633 | 973
Jōgen | 1636 | 976
Tengen | 1638 | 978
Eikwan | 1643 | 983
Kwanna | 1645 | 985
Eien | 1647 | 987
Eiso [Eisho] | 1649 | 989
Shōriaku | 1650 | 990
Chōtoku | 1655 | 995
Chōhō | 1659 | 999
Kwankō | 1664 | 1004
Chōwa | 1672 | 1012
Kwannin | 1677 | 1017
Ji-an | 1681 | 1021
Manju | 1684 | 1024
Chōgen | 1688 | 1028
Chōriaku | 1697 | 1037
Chōkiū | 1700 | 1040
Kwantoku | 1704 | 1044
Eijō [Eishō] | 1706 | 1046
Tengi [Tenki] | 1713 | 1053
Kōhei | 1718 | 1058
Jiriaku | 1725 | 1065
Enkiū | 1729 | 1069
Jōhō [Shōhō] | 1734 | 1074
Jōriaku [Shōreki] | 1737 | 1077
Eiho | 1741 | 1081
Otoku | 1744 | 1084
Kwanji | 1747 | 1087
Kahō | 1754 | 1094
Eichō | 1756 | 1096
Jōtoku [Shōtoku] | 1757 | 1097
Kōwa | 1759 | 1099
Chōji | 1764 | 1104
Kajō [Kashō] | 1766 | 1106
Tennin | 1768 | 1108
Tenei | 1770 | 1110
Eikiū | 1773 | 1113
Genei | 1778 | 1118
Hōan | 1780 | 1120
Tenji | 1784 | 1124
Daiji | 1786 | 1126
Tenjō [Tenshō] | 1791 | 1131
Chōjō [Chōshō] | 1792 | 1132
Hōen | 1795 | 1135
Eiji | 1801 | 1141
Kōji | 1802 | 1142
Tenyō | 1804 | 1144
Kiū-an | 1805 | 1145
Nimbiō | 1811 | 1151
Kiūju | 1814 | 1154
Hōgen | 1816 | 1156
Heiji | 1819 | 1159
Eiriaku | 1820 | 1160
Ōhō | 1821 | 1161
Chōkwan | 1823 | 1163
Eiman | 1825 | 1165
Ninan | 1826 | 1166
Ka-ō | 1829 | 1169
Jō-an [Shōan] | 1831 | 1171
Angen | 1835 | 1175
Jishō | 1837 | 1177
Yōwa | 1841 | 1181
Ju-ei | 1842 | 1182
Genriaku | 1844 | 1184
Bunji | 1845 | 1185
Kenkiū | 1850 | 1190
Shōji | 1859 | 1199
Kennin | 1861 | 1201
Genkiū | 1864 | 1204
Kenei | 1866 | 1206
Jōgen [Shōgen] | 1867 | 1207
Kenriaku | 1871 | 1211
Kempō | 1873 | 1213
Jōkiū [Shōkiū] | 1879 | 1219
Jō-ō | 1882 | 1222
Gennin | 1884 | 1224
Karoku | 1885 | 1225
Antei | 1887 | 1227
Kwangi | 1889 | 1229
Jō-ei | 1892 | 1232
Tempuku | 1893 | 1233
Bunriaku | 1894 | 1234
Katei | 1895 | 1235
Riakunin | 1898 | 1238
En-o | 1899 | 1239
Ninji | 1900 | 1240
Kwangen | 1903 | 1243
Hōji | 1907 | 1247
Kenchō | 1909 | 1249
Kōgen | 1916 | 1256
Shōka | 1917 | 1257
Shōgen | 1919 | 1259
Bunō | 1920 | 1260
Kōchō | 1921 | 1261
Bunei | 1924 | 1264
Kenji | 1935 | 1275
Kōan | 1938 | 1278
Shō-ō | 1948 | 1288
Einin | 1953 | 1293
Shōan | 1959 | 1299
Kengen | 1962 | 1302
Kagen | 1963 | 1303
Tokuji | 1966 | 1306
Enkiō [En-kei] | 1968 | 1308
Ōchō | 1971 | 1311
Shōwa | 1972 | 1312
Bumpō | 1977 | 1317
Gen-ō | 1979 | 1319
Genkō | 1981 | 1321
Shōchū | 1984 | 1324
Kariaku | 1986 | 1326
Gentoku | 1989 | 1329
Shōkiō [Shōkei] | 1992 | 1332
Kemmu | 1994 | 1334
Rekiō | 1998 | 1338[212]
Kōei | 2002 | 1342[212]
Jōwa | 2005 | 1345[212]
Kwanō | 2010 | 1350[212]
Bunna | 2012 | 1352[212]
Embun | 2016 | 1356[212]
Kōan | 2021 | 1361[212]
Jōji | 2022 | 1362[212]
Ōan | 2028 | 1368[212]
Eiwa | 2035 | 1375[212]
Kōreki | 2039 | 1379[212]
Eitoku | 2041 | 1381[212]
Shitoku | 2044 | 1384[212]
Kakei | 2047 | 1387[212]
Koō | 2049 | 1389[212]
Engen | 1996 | 1336[213]
Kōkoku | 2000 | 1340[213]
Shōhei | 2006 | 1346[213]
Kentoku | 2030 | 1370[213]
Bunchū | 2032 | 1372[213]
Tenju | 2035 | 1375[213]
Kōwa | 2041 | 1381[213]
Genchū | 2044 | 1384[213]
Meitoku | 2050 | 1390
Ō-ei | 2054 | 1394
Shōchō | 2088 | 1428
Eikiō | 2089 | 1429
Kakitsu | 2101 | 1441
Bunan | 2104 | 1444
Hōtoku | 2109 | 1449
Kōtoku | 2112 | 1452
Kōshō | 2115 | 1455
Chōroku | 2117 | 1457
Kwanshō | 2120 | 1460
Bunshō | 2126 | 1466
Ōnin | 2127 | 1467
Bummei | 2129 | 1469
Chōkō | 2147 | 1487
Entoku | 2149 | 1489
Mei-ō | 2152 | 1492
Bunki | 2161 | 1501
Eishō | 2164 | 1504
Dai-ei [Taiei] | 2181 | 1521
Kōroku | 2188 | 1528
Tembun | 2192 | 1532
Kōji | 2215 | 1555
Eiroku | 2218 | 1558
Genki | 2230 | 1570
Tenshō | 2233 | 1573
Bunroku | 2252 | 1592
Keichō | 2256 | 1596
Genna | 2275 | 1615
Kwanei | 2284 | 1624
Shōhō | 2304 | 1644
Kei-an | 2308 | 1648
Jō-ō [Shō-ō] | 2312 | 1652
Meireki | 2315 | 1655
Manji | 2318 | 1658
Kwambun | 2321 | 1661
Empō | 2333 | 1673
Tenna | 2341 | 1681
Jōkiō | 2344 | 1684
Genroku | 2348 | 1688
Hō-ei | 2364 | 1704
Shōtōku | 2371 | 1711
Kiōhō | 2376 | 1716
Gembun | 2396 | 1736
Kwampō | 2401 | 1741
Enkiō | 2404 | 1744
Kwannen | 2408 | 1748
Hōreki | 2411 | 1751
Meiwa | 2424 | 1764
Anei | 2432 | 1772
Temmei | 2441 | 1781
Kwansei | 2449 | 1789
Kiōwa | 2461 | 1801
Bunkwa | 2464 | 1804
Bunsei | 2478 | 1818
Tempō | 2490 | 1830
Kōkwa | 2504 | 1844
Ka-ei | 2508 | 1848
Ansei | 2514 | 1854
Manen | 2520 | 1860
Bunkiū | 2521 | 1861
Genji | 2524 | 1864
Kei-ō | 2525 | 1865
Meiji | 2528 | 1868
Taishō | 2572 | 1912
---------------------------+-----------+----------
The names of these periods are made by the various combinations of
68 Chinese words of good omen.
===================================================
There are, moreover, other expressions which more closely resemble
such common Occidental phrases as the Victorian Era, the Elizabethan
Era, the Age of Pericles, except that in the impersonal Orient such
expressions are named more often from places. In Japanese history,
for instance, it is very common to read of the Nara Epoch, the Heian
Epoch, the Muromachi Period, the Kamakura Period, the Yedo Era, the
Tōkyō Period (Modern Japan). Personal names are applied, however, in
such cases as the Hōjō Era, the Ashikaga Period, the Tokugawa Era, the
Fujiwara Period.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES.[214]
1. Jimmu (660-585 B. C.)
2. Suizei (581-549)
3. Annei (548-511)
4. Itoku (510-477)
5. Kōshō (475-393)
6. Kōan (392-291)
7. Kōrei (290-215)
8. Kōgen (214-158)
9. Kaikwa (157-98)
10. Sujin (97-30)
11. Suinin (29 B. C.-70 A. D.)
12. Keikō (71-130 A. D.)
13. Seimu (131-190)
14. Chūai-(192-200)
[15. _Jingō_[214] (201-269)]
16. Ōjin (270-310)
17. Nintoku (313-399)
18. Richū (400-405)
19. Hanzei (406-411)
20. Ingyō (412-453)
21. Ankō (454-456)
22. Yūryaku (457-479)
23. Seinei (480-484)
24. Kensō (485-487)
25. Ninken (488-498)
26. Muretsu (499-506)
27. Keitai (507-531)
28. Ankan (534-535)
29. Senkwa (536-539)
30. Kimmei (540-571)
31. Bidatsu (572-585)
32. Yōmei (586-587)
33. Sujun (588-592)
34. _Suiko_ (593-628)
35. Jomei (629-641)
36. _Kōgyoku_ (642-645)
37. Kōtoku (645-654)
38. _Saimei_ (655-661)
39. Tenchi (668-671)
40. Kōbun (672)
41. Temmu (673-686)
42. _Jitō_ (690-696)
43. Mommu (697-707)
44. _Gemmyō_ (708-715)
45. _Genshō_ (715-723)
46. Shōmu (724-748)
47. _Kōken_ (749-758)
48. Junnin (758-764)
49. _Shōtoku_ (765-770)
50. Kōnin (770-781)
51. Kwammu (782-806)
52. Heizei (806-809)
53. Saga (809-823)
54. Junna (823-833)
55. Nimmyō (833-850)
56. Montoku (850-858)
57. Seiwa (859-876)
58. Yōzei (877-884)
59. Kōkō (884-887)
60. Uda (888-897)
61. Daigo (897-930)
62. Sujaku (931-946)
63. Murakami (946-967)
64. Reizei (968-969)
65. Enyū (970-984)
66. Kwazan (985-986)
67. Ichijō (987-1011)
68. Sanjō (1012-1016)
69. Go-Ichijō[215] (1016-1036)
70. Go-Sujaku (1037-1045)
71. Go-Reizei (1045-1068)
72. Go-Sanjō (1068-1072)
73. Shirakawa (1073-10861
74. Horikawa (1087-1107)
75. Toba (1108-1123)
76. Sutoku (1123-1141)
77. Konoye (1142-1155)
78. Go-Shirakawa (1155-1158)
79. Nijō (1159-1165)
80. Rokujō (1165-1168)
81. Takakura (1168-1180)
82. Antoku (1180-1185)
83. Go-Toba (1186-1198)
84. Tsuchimikado (1198-1210)
85. Juntoku (1211-1221)
86. Chūkyō (1221)
87. Go-Horikawa (1221-1232)
88. Shijō (1233-1242)
89. Go-Saga (1242-1246)
90. Go-Fukakusa (1246-1259)
91. Kameyama (1260-1274)
92. Go-Uda (1274-1287)
93. Fushimi (1288-1298)
94. Go-Fushimi (1298-1301)
95. Go-Nijo (1301-1308)
96. Hanazono (1308-1318)
97. Go-Daigo (1318-1338)
98. Go-Murakami (1339-1368)
[99. Chōkei (1368-1372)]
100. Go-Kameyama (1373-1392)
101. Go-Komatsu (1392-1412)
102. Shōkō (1412-1428)
103. Go-Hanazono (1428-1464)
104. Go-Tsuchimikado (1464-1500)
105. Go-Kashiwabara (1500-1526)
106. Go-Nara (1526-1557)
107. Ogimachi (1567-1586)
108. Go-Yōzei (1587-1611)
109. Go-Mizuno-o (1612-1629)
110. _Myōshō_ (1630-1643)
111. Go-Kōmyō (1643-1654)
112. Go-Saiin (1655-1663)
113. Reigen (1663-1687)
114. Higashiyama (1687-1709)
115. Nakano-mikado (1709-1735)
116. Sakuramachi (1735-1747)
117. Momozono (1747-1762)
118. _Go-Sakuramachi_ (1762-1770)
119. Go-Momozono (1771-1779)
120. Kōkaku (1779-1817)
121. Ninkō (1817-1846)
122. Kōmei (1846-1867)
123. Mutsuhito (1867-1912)
124. Yoshihito (1912- )
N.B.—Nos. 36 and 38 were the same empress; likewise Nos. 47 and 49.
We append also a list of the sovereigns of the “Northern Court” during
the separation, as follows:
1. Kōgon (1331-1333)
2. Kōmyō (1336-1348)
3. Sukō (1349-1352)
4. Go-Kōgon (1352-1371)
5. Go-Enyu (1371-1382)
6. Go-Komatsu (1383-1392)
In 1392 Go-Komatsu became emperor over the reunited empire.
MINISTERIAL CHANGES IN JAPAN
The following table shows the Cabinet changes that have taken place
since constitutional government was instituted:
==============+====================+============
PREMIER. | TERM OF OFFICE. | YRS. MOS.
--------------+--------------------+------------
Yamagata | Dec. ’89-Apr. ’91 | 1 4
Matsukata | May ’91-July ’92 | 1 2
Itō | Aug. ’92-Aug. ’96 | 4 0
Matsukata | Sept. ’96-Dec. ’97 | 1 3
Ito | Jan. ’98-June ’98 | 0 5
Okuma-Itagaki | June ’98-Oct. ’98 | 0 4
Yamagata | Nov. ’98-Sept. ’00 | 1 10
Itō | Oct. ’00-May ’01 | 0 7
Katsura | June ’01-Dec. ’05 | 4 6
Saionji | Jan. ’06-July ’08 | 2 6
Katsura | July ’08-Aug. ’11 | 3 2
Saionji | Sept. ’11-Dec. ’12 | 1 3
Katsura | Dec. ’12-Feb. ’13 | 0 2
Yamamoto | Feb. ’13- |
==============+====================+============
In connection with this table, we wish to call attention to the fact
that the average duration of eleven Ministries is less than two years;
and that the average was considerably raised by the unusual length of
the two Ministries which covered the periods of the wars with China
and Russia, when political rivalries were buried. It is quite probable
that, if foreign wars had not occurred to unify the nation, those
Ministries would not have had a duration so greatly in excess of the
average, especially as, at the outbreak of the wars, party feeling
was running very high. In that case the general average would have
been reduced by an increase in the number of cabinets. It should also
be noticed that three of these Ministries (both Matsukata and the
second Itō) came to an end on account of collision with the Diet, and
that four Ministries (the Kuroda, the first and third Itō, and the
first party Cabinet of Ōkuma and Itagaki) were broken up by internal
dissensions; and the last Katsura (February, 1913) was forced out by
popular revolt.
JAPAN’S HOUSE OF PEERS
Among its 373 members only 57 sit by hereditary right; namely, 14
Princes of the Blood, 13 Princes, and 30 Marquises. Among the remaining
members, 150 are elected by the Counts, Viscounts, and Barons, 121 are
Imperial nominees,—that is to say, men who have earned distinction
by eminent services or attainments,—and 45 represent the highest
tax-payers in the prefectures.
THE POLITICAL PARTIES OF JAPAN[216]
The idea of popular representation in the government of Japan may
be said to have had its birth with the Restoration, although some
thoughtful men had been turning their minds in that direction at
an earlier date. His Imperial Majesty the present Emperor, in his
oath on the occasion of his succession to the throne, made known his
enlightened desire that men should meet in council from all parts
of the country and all affairs of state be determined in accordance
with public opinion. This pronouncement may be regarded as the
starting-point of the movement for parliamentary representation.
The germ of the present House of Peers and House of Representatives
is found in the _Gi-sei_, a department of the government which was
organized as early as June, 1868. The _Kō-gi-jō_, which was opened in
the following year, was representative, not of the people, but of the
governing authorities in the various localities. The members of the
_Sa-In_, which replaced the _Kō-gi-jō_ (or _Shūgi-in_) in September,
1871, were nominated by the Emperor and the council of state.
The history of political parties in Japan may conveniently be divided
into four periods: (1) From the Restoration up to 1882, while as
yet they were in embryo; (2) from the year 1882, when they for the
first time took actual shape, until 1888; (3) from the organization
of the _Daidō-Danketsu_ in 1887 until 1898; (4) the period since the
amalgamation of the two strongest parties to form the constitutional
party in 1898.
During the early seventies discussion went on regarding the
advisability of the formation of a popular assembly. In 1874 was formed
the first political society, the _Aikoku-tō_, or patriotic society,
from which later sprang the Liberal Party (_Jiyu-tō_). In the previous
year a division had taken place in the ranks of the higher officials of
the government. The one party was composed of those who desired rapid
progress in domestic matters and a vigorous foreign policy; the other
desired steady progress at home and conciliation abroad. The latter
party retained control of the government, and the former went into
opposition. Among the most important of the radical party was Itagaki
of Kōchi Prefecture. He organized the first local society, and devoted
himself constantly to the attainment of his end of bringing about
parliamentary institutions in the country. We thus have Kōchi, and
later on Hizen, working for the extension of the power of the people,
while the government was in the main conducted by Satsuma and Chōshū
men.
The agitation for popular representation, although checked for a time
by the Satsuma Rebellion, gained strength in 1879 and 1880, and the
government became convinced that the question could not longer be
postponed. On the 12th of October, 1881, the Emperor promulgated the
famous ordinance in which the promise was given that a parliament
should actually be established in 1890. As a preparatory measure, Itō,
in company with a number of junior officials, was despatched to Europe
early in 1882 to study the political systems of the West. The promise
of a parliament served to give a more definite purpose to the various
political associations, and the year 1882 saw the formal organization
of the three parties which, under various names, have continued
almost uninterruptedly to occupy the field until the present time.
The _Jiyu-tō_ was the first organized, although not the first to be
properly registered as a political association.
It is noticeable that the utterances of the various political parties
when they first came into existence present in the main no features of
a distinctive nature. All put forth excellent doctrines, but usually
of extreme vagueness. The same characteristic has been noticeable
throughout their history except when some temporary question of urgency
has arisen. This is no doubt the reason why the grouping has constantly
changed, one merging into another, and secessions occurring without
apparent cause. 1883 and the following years saw a falling off in the
interest in political parties,—doubtless a natural result of the over
excitement which had just preceded, and of the apparent certainty of a
parliament after 1890. The interest in politics and in parties revived,
however, as the date assigned for the granting of the constitution
approached.
Since the opening of the first Diet, the efforts of the parties have
in general been directed towards the securing of control of the
administration,—the establishment of parliamentary government. Except
during the period of the war with China, when all party differences
were for the time set aside, the parties have all been in more or
less constant opposition to the government. Until within the last
year or two, however, no party has possessed for any considerable
length of time an absolute majority of the membership of the Lower
House, sufficient to enable it to control the votes of that body.
Political parties have now become a distinct power in the land which
no statesman can afford entirely to neglect. From small and unruly
beginnings, they have gradually progressed in influence and in
organization. As by degrees they have been getting rid of their unruly
and dangerous elements, and learning to a greater extent the lesson of
responsibility, they have more and more gained the popular confidence.
Possessing practically the power of the purse,—for in the Diet the
House of Representatives has the first say as to the details of the
budget presented by the government,—they have always to be reckoned
with....
That there have been no distinct and well-defined party issues may be
traced to the fact that feudalism gave place so suddenly to a modern
state of society. The leaders of thought and those who have taken up
the work of national rejuvenation have all been men of progressive
tendencies. That the parties have frequently opposed the government in
cases where opposition for its own sake has been the only recognizable
principle cannot be denied. It must be remembered that they have all
along been struggling for a share in the administration. The political
parties have well illustrated the intensely democratic character of the
Japanese people side by side with marked reverence for the Emperor. The
desire for equality and the revolt against the controlling influence of
a narrow coterie has all along been exhibited....
I[217] may perhaps take this opportunity to mention two characteristics
of Japanese political parties which have impressed themselves upon me
in the course of my own, as yet comparatively slight, study of the
politics of this country. As in so many other aspects of Japanese life,
so also in politics, I think we can see a curious blending of Old Japan
with the very latest and most advanced which the West has to offer.
It was a remark of the most influential, if not the greatest, English
political philosopher of the nineteenth century, John Stuart Mill,
that, even if we could be assured that an autocrat, an all-powerful
individual ruler, would govern more wisely than a popular government,
we ought, nevertheless, to prefer the popular government for the
educative effect which the effort to govern produces upon the people.
Now it will be found that there has been very much conscious or
unconscious following of this idea in the progress of popular
government in Japan. In marked contrast to the history of popular
government in the West, where parliaments have been forced on the
government from below for the protection of popular rights, popular
representation has been granted from above in this country, and the
people have grown up to it, or are in process of growing. The truth of
this is not affected by the fact that contest between rival clans has
been an ever controlling factor in the domestic politics of the country
since Restoration days. The agitation of the parties has been not so
much directed against the measures of the government as against the
fact that the government is not controlled by the representatives of
the people.
The element of Old Japan in the political parties is seen in the nature
of political allegiance. What holds the parties together is men rather
than measures. In Old Japan personal allegiance to one’s feudal lord
was one of the strongest feelings of the individual, and sufficed to
give a distinct character to the life of the time. The most important
elements of feudalism, the political and economic organization of
the society which was founded upon it, have passed away, but the
sentimental part remains in the personal allegiance of men to their
party leaders of to-day. What would the _Seiyukai_ have been without
Prince Itō, or the Progressive party without Count Ōkuma? No doubt
other leaders would be forthcoming if these were not present, the names
of the parties might be retained, but the membership would almost
certainly undergo enormous changes.
ARMY STATISTICS OF JAPAN[218]
Surgeon-Major Koike, in a lecture delivered before the Medical Union
in the salon of the Musical College in Uyeno, gave some interesting
figures relating to the casualties in the North-China campaign as
compared with the China-Japan war of 1894-1895. These will be most
easily understood by putting them into tabular form.
Total number of patients in the North-China campaign 22,080
Total number of deaths out of the above aggregate 1,137
(This, of course, is exclusive of those killed in the field; it shows
only the sick and wounded.)
=============================================+=============+============
| NORTH-CHINA | CHINA-JAPAN
| CAMPAIGN. | WAR.
---------------------------------------------+-------------+------------
Percentage of deaths | 5.1 | 8.1
Number of sick to each wounded man | 5.5 | 4.1
Number of deaths from sickness to each death | |
from wounds | 2.3 | 9.7
Percentage of deaths among wounded men | 3.2 | 3.9
Percentage of deaths among diseased men | 4.2 | 8.4
=============================================+=============+============
_Return of the Hiroshima Reserve Hospital_
NORTH-CHINA
CAMPAIGN.
Percentage of deaths among wounded men 2.1
Percentage of deaths among sick men 3.3
_Comparative Figures (General)_
Total percentage of deaths among wounded men:
Satsuma Rebellion 17.0
China-Japan War 9.7
North-China Campaign 4.6
_Comparative Figures Showing the Percentage of Sick during the
Occupation of Peking in the Winter_
Russian troops 8.75 (typhoid, dysentery, syphilis).
French troops 5.42 (typhoid, syphilis).
German troops 5.33 (typhoid, syphilis, dysentery).
British troops 5.22 (sunstroke, diarrhœa, dysentery, and
typhoid).
American troops 4.18 (dysentery, sunstroke, and syphilis).
Japanese troops 2.51 (kakke and typhoid).
STATISTICS OF RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.[219]
(Feb., 1904—May, 1905.)
Killed on field 43,892
Wounded with colors 145,527
Died of those wounds 9,054
Sick, including wounds, accidents, etc.,
not received on firing-line 162,556
Died of sickness and disease 7,433
Contagious diseases 10,565
Died of contagious diseases 4,557
Killed and died from wounds 52,946
Died from all diseases 11,992
JAPANESE NAVAL INCREMENT[220]
Writing about naval increment, the “Nichi Nichi Shimbun” notes the
increase of the Japanese Navy during recent years as follows:—
TOTAL TONNAGE.
1897 100,000
1898 134,000
1899 154,000
1900 204,000
1901 232,000
In the immediate future, the total tonnage will be raised
to the _post-bellum_ figure of 250,000 tons.[221] Everybody agrees that
Japan must not rest there. She has to keep up with the rapid additions
made by other countries to their naval forces. That is not a matter of
serious difficulty so far as ships are concerned: they can always be
bought with money. But the men to man them is another problem. After
the Restoration any number of recruits were obtainable for the army,
as was natural in a country where a military feudalism had existed for
centuries. The navy, however, could not be so easily supplied, maritime
enterprise having been effectually checked under the Tokugawa rule.
Difficulties about seamen may now be said to have been overcome. But
that is not true of officers. Our contemporary here gives the following
table:—
NUMBER OF OFFICERS AND TOTAL FORCE,
YEAR. MEN ACTUALLY SERVING. INCLUDING RESERVES.
1895 14,463 17,140
1900 28,308 32,981
This shows an increment of only 100 per cent, whereas
the increase of tonnage in the same time was 400 per cent.[222]
The great difficulty is to get a supply of officers for the lower
ranks—midshipmen and lieutenants. The only college for educating
these officers is at Edajima, where not more than 600 cadets can be
accommodated. There, then, a change must be effected. It will probably
take the form of organizing another naval college at Yokosuka, and
making arrangements that the preliminary education of candidates shall
be effected in the middle schools.
JAPAN’S MERCANTILE MARINE[223]
The “Tōkyō Keizai” publishes some interesting statistics bearing on the
development of our mercantile marine. It was 1870 or thereabouts that
the Japanese began to turn their attention to the carrying trade in the
modern sense of the term, but its growth was slow until the Chinese
War of 1894-1895. The following table gives the figures for the eleven
years from 1892 to 1902 inclusive:
YEAR. TONS.
1892 214,000
1893 325,000
1894 320,000
1895 386,000
1896 417,000
1897 486,000
1898 648,000
1899 796,000
1900 863,000
1901 917,000
1902 934,000[224]
From the comparative statistics published by our contemporary, it
is noticed that, while in 1892 our mercantile fleet was the thirteenth
in the world in point of tonnage, it had risen by 1901 to the eighth
position. It is interesting to observe that it is rapidly coming up
to the same relative status as that occupied by our naval fleet whose
position is the seventh among the navies of the world.[225]
[Illustration: “SHIKISHIMA” IN NAVAL REVIEW, KŌBE]
TREATY OF COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION BETWEEN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
Signed at Washington, 22nd day of the 11th month, 27th year of Meiji.
Ratifications exchanged at that City, 21st day of the 3rd month, 28th
year of Meiji.
His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and the President of the United
States of America being equally desirous of maintaining the relations
of good understanding which happily exist between them, by extending
and increasing the intercourse between their respective States, and
being convinced that this object cannot better be accomplished than
by revising the Treaties hitherto existing between the two countries,
have resolved to complete such a revision, based upon principles of
equity and mutual benefit, and, for that purpose, have named as their
Plenipotentiaries, that is to say: His Majesty the Emperor of Japan,
Jushii Shinichiro Kurino, of the Order of the Sacred Treasure of the
Fourth Class, and the President of the United States of America, Walter
Q. Gresham, Secretary of State of the United States; who, after having
communicated to each other their full powers, found to be in good and
due form, have agreed upon and concluded the following Articles:—
ART. I.—The subjects or citizens of each of the two High Contracting
Parties shall have full liberty to enter, travel, or reside in any part
of the territories of the other Contracting Party, and shall enjoy full
and perfect protection for their persons and property.
They shall have free access to the Courts of Justice in pursuit and
defence of their rights; they shall be at liberty equally with native
subjects or citizens to choose and employ lawyers, advocates, and
representatives to pursue and defend their rights before such Courts,
and in all other matters connected with the administration of justice
they shall enjoy all the rights and privileges enjoyed by native
subjects or citizens.
In whatever relates to rights of residence and travel; to the
possession of goods and effects of any kind; to the succession to
personal estate, by will or otherwise, and the disposal of property of
any sort and in any manner whatsoever which they may lawfully acquire,
the subjects or citizens of each Contracting Party shall enjoy in the
territories of the other the same privileges, liberties, and rights,
and shall be subject to no higher imposts or charges in those respects
than native subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most
favoured nation. The subjects or citizens of each of the Contracting
Parties shall enjoy in the territories of the other entire liberty of
conscience, and, subject to the laws, ordinances, and regulations,
shall enjoy the right of private or public exercise of their worship,
and also the right of burying their respective countrymen according to
their religious customs, in such suitable and convenient places as may
be established and maintained for that purpose.
They shall not be compelled, under any pretext whatsoever, to pay any
charges or taxes other or higher than those that are, or may be, paid
by native subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most
favoured nation.
The subjects or citizens of either of the Contracting Parties residing
in the territories of the other shall be exempted from all compulsory
military service whatsoever, whether in the army, navy, national guard,
or militia; from all contribution imposed in lieu of personal service;
and from all forced loans or military exactions or contributions.
ART. II.—There shall be reciprocal freedom of commerce and navigation
between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties.
The subjects or citizens of each of the Contracting Parties may trade
in any part of the territories of the other by wholesale or retail
in all kinds of produce, manufactures, and merchandize of lawful
commerce, either in person or by agents, singly or in partnerships with
foreigners or native subjects or citizens; and they may there own or
hire and occupy houses, manufactories, warehouses, shops, and premises
which may be necessary for them, and lease land for residential and
commercial purposes, conforming themselves to the laws, police and
customs regulations of the country like native subjects or citizens.
They shall have liberty freely to come with their ships and cargoes
to all places, ports, and rivers in the territories of the other,
which are or may be opened to foreign commerce, and shall enjoy,
respectively, the same treatment in matters of commerce and navigation
as native subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most
favoured nation without having to pay taxes, imposts, or duties, of
whatever nature or under whatever denomination levied in the name
or for the profit of the Government, public functionaries, private
individuals, corporations, or establishments of any kind, other or
greater than those paid by native subjects or citizens or subjects or
citizens of the most favoured nation.
It is, however, understood that the stipulations contained in this and
the preceding Article do not in any way affect the laws, ordinances,
and regulations with regard to trade, the immigration of labourers,
police and public security which are in force or which may hereafter be
enacted in either of the two countries.
ART. III.—The dwellings, manufactories, warehouses, and shops of
the subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting Parties in
the territories of the other, and all premises appertaining thereto
destined for purposes of residence or commerce, shall be respected.
It shall not be allowable to proceed to make a search of, or a
domiciliary visit to, such dwellings and premises, or to examine or
inspect books, papers, or accounts, except under the conditions and
with the forms prescribed by the laws, ordinances, and regulations for
subjects or citizens of the country.
ART. IV.—No other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation
into the territories of the United States of any article, the produce
or manufacture of the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan,
from whatever place arriving; and no other or higher duties shall be
imposed on the importation into the territories of His Majesty the
Emperor of Japan of any article, the produce or manufacture of the
United States, from whatever place arriving than on the like article
produced or manufactured in any other foreign country; nor shall any
prohibition be maintained or imposed on the importation of any article,
the produce or manufacture of the territories of either of the High
Contracting Parties, into the territories of the other, from whatever
place arriving, which shall not equally extend to the importation
of the like article, being the produce or manufacture of any other
country. This last provision is not applicable to the sanitary and
other prohibitions occasioned by the necessity of protecting the safety
of persons, or of cattle, or plants useful to agriculture.
ART. V.—No other or higher duties or charges shall be imposed in
the territories of either of the High Contracting Parties on the
exportation of any article to the territories of the other than such
as are, or may be, payable on the exportation of the like article to
any other foreign country; nor shall any prohibition be imposed on the
exportation of any article from the territories of either of the two
High Contracting Parties to the territories of the other which shall
not equally extend to the exportation of the like article to any other
country.
ART. VI.—The subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting
Parties shall enjoy in the territories of the other exemption from
all transit duties, and a perfect equality of treatment with native
subjects or citizens in all that relates to warehousing, bounties, and
drawbacks.
ART. VII.—All articles which are or may be legally imported into
the ports of the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan in
Japanese vessels may likewise be imported into those ports in vessels
of the United States, without being liable to any other or higher
duties or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles were
imported in Japanese vessels; and, reciprocally, all articles which
are, or may be, legally imported into the ports of the territories
of the United States in vessels of the United States may likewise be
imported into those ports in Japanese vessels, without being liable to
any other or higher duties or charges of whatever denomination than
if such articles were imported in vessels of the United States. Such
reciprocal equality of treatment shall take effect without distinction,
whether such articles come directly from the place of origin or from
any other place.
In the same manner, there shall be perfect equality of treatment in
regard to exportation, so that the same export duties shall be paid,
and the same bounties and drawbacks allowed, in the territories of
either of the High Contracting Parties on the exportation of any
article which is or may be legally exported therefrom, whether such
exportation shall take place in Japanese vessels or in vessels of the
United States, and whatever may be the place of destination, whether a
port of either of the High Contracting Parties or of any third Power.
ART. VIII.—No duties of tonnage, harbour, pilotage, lighthouse,
quarantine, or other similar or corresponding duties of whatever
nature, or under whatever denomination levied in the name or for the
profit of Government, public functionaries, private individuals,
corporations, or establishments of any kind, shall be imposed in the
ports of the territories of either country upon the vessels of the
other country which shall not equally and under the same conditions be
imposed in the like cases on national vessels in general or vessels
of the most favoured nation. Such equality of treatment shall apply
reciprocally to the respective vessels, from whatever port or place
they may arrive, and whatever may be their place of destination.
ART. IX.—In all that regards the stationing, loading, and unloading of
vessels in the ports, basins, docks, roadsteads, harbours, or rivers of
the territories of the two countries, no privilege shall be granted to
national vessels which shall not be equally granted to vessels of the
other country; the intention of the High Contracting Parties being that
in this respect also the respective vessels shall be treated on the
footing of perfect equality.
ART. X.—The coasting trade of both the High Contracting Parties is
excepted from the provisions of the present Treaty, and shall be
regulated according to the laws, ordinances, and regulations of Japan
and of the United States, respectively. It is, however, understood that
Japanese subjects in the territories of the United States and citizens
of the United States in the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of
Japan shall enjoy in this respect the rights which are, or may be,
granted under such laws, ordinances, and regulations to the subjects or
citizens of any other country.
A Japanese vessel laden in a foreign country with cargo destined for
two or more ports in the territories of the United States and a vessel
of the United States laden in a foreign country with cargo destined
for two or more ports in the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of
Japan, may discharge a portion of her cargo at one port, and continue
her voyage to the other port or ports of destination where foreign
trade is permitted, for the purpose of landing the remainder of her
original cargo there, subject always to the laws and custom-house
regulations of the two countries.
The Japanese Government, however, agrees to allow vessels of the United
States to continue, as heretofore, for the period of the duration
of this Treaty, to carry cargo between the existing open ports of
the Empire, excepting to or from the ports of Ōsaka, Niigata, and
Ebisuminato.
ART. XI.—Any ship-of-war or merchant vessel of either of the High
Contracting Parties which may be compelled by stress of weather, or
by reason of any other distress, to take shelter in a port of the
other, shall be at liberty to refit therein, to procure all necessary
supplies, and to put to sea again, without paying any dues other than
such as would be payable by national vessels. In case, however, the
master of a merchant vessel should be under the necessity of disposing
of a part of his cargo in order to defray the expenses, she shall be
bound to conform to the regulations and tariffs of the place to which
he may have come.
If any ship-of-war or merchant vessel of one of the High Contracting
Parties should run aground or be wrecked upon the coasts of the
other, the local authorities shall inform the Consul-General, Consul,
Vice-Consul, or Consular Agent of the district of occurrence,
or, if there be no such Consular officers, they shall inform the
Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, or Consular Agent of the nearest
district.
All proceedings relative to the salvage of Japanese vessels wrecked
or cast on shore in the territorial waters of the United States shall
take place in accordance with the laws of the United States; and,
reciprocally, all measures of salvage relative to vessels of the United
States wrecked or cast on shore in the territorial waters of His
Majesty the Emperor of Japan shall take place in accordance with the
laws, ordinances, and regulations of Japan.
Such stranded or wrecked ship or vessel, and all parts thereof, and
all furnitures and appurtenances belonging thereunto, and all goods
and merchandize saved therefrom, including those which may have been
cast into the sea, or the proceeds thereof, if sold, as well as all
papers found on board such stranded or wrecked ship or vessel, shall
be given up to the owners or their agents, when claimed by them. If
such owners or agents are not on the spot, the same shall be delivered
to the respective Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, or Consular
Agents upon being claimed by them within the period fixed by the
laws, ordinances, and regulations of the country, and such Consular
officers, owners, or agents shall pay only the expenses incurred in
the preservation of the property, together with the salvage or other
expenses which would have been payable in the case of a wreck of a
national vessel.
The goods and merchandize saved from the wreck shall be exempt from all
the duties of the Customs unless cleared for consumption, in which case
they shall pay the ordinary duties.
When a ship or vessel belonging to the subjects or citizens of one of
the High Contracting Parties is stranded or wrecked in the territories
of the other, the respective Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls,
and Consular Agents shall be authorized, in case the owner or master,
or other agent of the owner, is not present, to lend their official
assistance in order to afford the necessary assistance to the subjects
or citizens of the respective States. The same rule shall apply in
case the owner, master, or other agent is present, but requires such
assistance to be given.
ART. XII.—All vessels which, according to Japanese law, are to be
deemed Japanese vessels, and all vessels which, according to United
States law, are to be deemed vessels of the United States, shall, for
the purposes of this Treaty, be deemed Japanese vessels and vessels of
the United States, respectively.
ART. XIII.—The Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consular Agents of each
of the High Contracting Parties, residing in the territories of the
other, shall receive from the local authorities such assistance as can
by law be given to them for the recovery of deserters from the vessels
of their respective countries.
It is understood that this stipulation shall not apply to the subjects
or citizens of the country where the desertion takes place.
ART. XIV.—The High Contracting Parties agree that, in all that concerns
commerce and navigation any privilege, favour, or immunity which either
High Contracting Party has actually granted, or may hereafter grant,
to the Government, ships, subjects, or citizens of any other State,
shall be extended to the Government, ships, subjects, or citizens of
the other High Contracting Party, gratuitously, if the concession in
favour of that other State shall have been gratuitous, and on the same
or equivalent conditions if the concession shall have been conditional;
it being their intention that the trade and navigation of each country
shall be placed, in all respects, by the other on the footing of the
most favoured nation.
ART. XV.—Each of the High Contracting Parties may appoint
Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, Pro-Consuls, and Consular
Agents, in all the ports, cities, and places of the other except in
those where it may not be convenient to recognize such officers.
This exception, however, shall not be made in regard to one of the High
Contracting Parties without being made likewise in regard to every
other Power.
The Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, Pro-Consuls, and Consular
Agents may exercise all functions, and shall enjoy all privileges,
exemptions, and immunities which are, or may hereafter be, granted to
Consular officers of the most favoured nation.
ART. XVI.—The subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting
Parties shall enjoy in the territories of the other the same protection
as native subjects or citizens in regard to patents, trademarks, and
designs, upon fulfilment of the formalities prescribed by law.
ART. XVII.—The High Contracting Parties agree to the following
arrangement:—
The several Foreign Settlements in Japan shall, from the date this
Treaty comes into force, be incorporated with the respective Japanese
communes, and shall thenceforth form part of the general municipal
system of Japan. The competent Japanese authorities shall thereupon
assume all municipal obligations and duties in respect thereof, and the
common funds and property, if any, belonging to such Settlements shall
at the same time be transferred to the said Japanese authorities.
When such incorporation takes place, existing leases in perpetuity
upon which property is now held in the said Settlements shall be
confirmed, and no conditions whatever other than those contained in
such existing leases shall be imposed in respect of such property. It
is, however, understood that the Consular Authorities mentioned in the
same are in all cases to be replaced by the Japanese Authorities. All
lands which may previously have been granted by the Japanese Government
free of rent for the public purposes of the said Settlements shall,
subject to the right of eminent domain, be permanently reserved free
of all taxes and charges for the public purposes for which they were
originally set apart.
ART. XVIII.—The present Treaty shall, from the date it comes into
force, be substituted in place of the Treaty of Peace and Amity
concluded on the 3rd day of the 3rd month of the 7th year of Kayei
corresponding to the 31st day of March, 1854; the Treaty of Amity and
Commerce concluded on the 19th day of the 6th month of the 5th year
of Ansei, corresponding to the 29th day of July, 1858; the Tariff
Convention concluded on the 13th day of the 5th month of the 2nd year
of Keio, corresponding to the 25th day of June, 1866; the Convention
concluded on the 25th day of the 7th month of the 11th year of Meiji,
corresponding to the 25th day of July, 1878, and all Arrangements
and Agreements subsidiary thereto concluded or existing between the
High Contracting Parties, and from the same date such Treaties,
Conventions, Arrangements, and Agreements shall cease to be binding,
and in consequence, the jurisdiction then exercised by Courts of the
United States in Japan and all the exceptional privileges, exemptions,
and immunities then enjoyed by citizens of the United States as a part
of, or appurtenant to, such jurisdiction, shall absolutely and without
notice cease and determine, and thereafter all such jurisdiction shall
be assumed and exercised by Japanese Courts.
ART. XIX.—This Treaty shall go into operation on the 17th day of July,
1899, and shall remain in force for the period of twelve years from
that date.
Either High Contracting Party shall have the right, at any time after
eleven years shall have elapsed from the date it goes into operation,
to give notice to the other of its intention to terminate the same,
and at the expiration of twelve months after such notice is given this
Treaty shall wholly cease and determine.
ART. XX.—This Treaty shall be ratified and the ratifications thereof
shall be exchanged at Tokyo or Washington as soon as possible, and not
later than six months after its signature.
In witness whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the
present Treaty in duplicate and have thereunto affixed their seals.
Done at the City of Washington the 22nd day of the 11th month of the
27th year of Meiji, corresponding to the 22nd day of November in the
eighteen hundred and ninety-fourth year of the Christian era.
(Signed) SHINICHIRO KURINO. (L. S.)
WALTER Q. GRESHAM. (L. S.)
[Amendment to the Foregoing Treaty Proposed by the Government of the
United States of America and Ratified with the Treaty.]
ART. XIX.—Clause 2, after the word “time” insert the word “thereafter”
and strike out all after the word “time” down to and including the word
“operation,” so that the clause will read: “Either High Contracting
Party shall have the right, at any time thereafter, to give notice to
the other of its intention to terminate the same, and at the expiration
of twelve months after such notice is given this Treaty shall wholly
cease and determine.”
_Protocol_
The Government of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and the Government
of the United States of America, deeming it advisable in the interests
of both Countries to regulate certain special matters of mutual
concern, apart from the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed this
day, have, through their respective Plenipotentiaries, agreed upon the
following stipulations:—
1.—It is agreed by the Contracting Parties that one month after the
exchange of the ratifications of the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation
signed this day, the Import Tariff now in operation in Japan in respect
of goods and merchandize imported into Japan by the citizens of the
United States shall cease to be binding. From the same date the General
Statutory Tariff of Japan, shall, subject to the provisions of Article
IX. of the Treaty of March 31, 1854, at present subsisting between
the Contracting Parties, so long as said Treaty remains in force, and
thereafter, subject to the provisions of Article IV. and Article XIV.,
of the Treaty signed this day, be applicable to goods and merchandize,
being the growth, produce, or manufacture of the territories of the
United States upon importation into Japan.
But nothing contained in this Protocol shall be held to limit or
qualify the right of the Japanese Government to restrict or to prohibit
the importation of adulterated drugs, medicines, food, or beverages;
indecent or obscene prints, paintings, books, cards, lithographic
or other engravings, photographs or any other indecent or obscene
articles; articles in violation of patent, trademark, or copyright laws
of Japan; or any other article which for sanitary reasons or in view of
public security or morals, might offer any danger.
2.—The Japanese Government, pending the opening of the country
to citizens of the United States, agrees to extend the existing
passport system in such a manner as to allow citizens of the United
States, on the production of a certificate of recommendation from
the Representative of the United States at Tōkiō, or from any of the
Consuls of the United States at the open ports in Japan, to obtain upon
application passports available for any part of the country and for any
period not exceeding twelve months, from the Imperial Japanese Foreign
Office in Tōkiō, or from the Chief Authorities in the Prefecture in
which an open port is situated, it being understood that the existing
Rules and Regulations governing citizens of the United States who visit
the interior of the Empire are to be maintained.
3.—The undersigned Plenipotentiaries have agreed that this Protocol
shall be submitted to the two High Contracting Parties at the same time
as the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed this day, and that when
the said Treaty is ratified the agreements contained in the Protocol
shall also equally be considered as approved, without the necessity of
a further formal ratification.
It is agreed that this Protocol shall terminate at the same time the
said Treaty ceases to be binding.
In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the
same and have affixed thereto their seals.
Done at Washington the 22nd day of the 11th month of the 27th year of
_Meiji_, corresponding to the 22nd November, in the eighteen hundred
and ninety-fourth year of the Christian era.
(Signed) SHINICHIRO KURINO. (L. S.)
WALTER Q. GRESHAM. (L. S.)
IMPERIAL RESCRIPT ON THE NEW TREATIES
Governing Our realm by the abiding aid of Our ancestors’ achievements,
which have enabled Us to secure the prosperity of Our people at home
and to establish relations of close amity with the nations abroad, it
is a source of heartfelt gratification to Us that, in the sequel of
exhaustive planning and repeated negotiations, an agreement has been
come to with the Powers, and the revision of the Treaties, Our long
cherished aim, is to-day on the eve of becoming an accomplished fact;
a result which, while it adds materially to the responsibilities of
Our empire, will greatly strengthen the basis of Our friendship with
foreign countries.
It is Our earnest wish that Our subjects, whose devoted loyalty in the
discharge of their duties is conspicuous, should enter earnestly into
Our sentiments in this matter, and, in compliance with the great policy
of opening the country, should all unite with one heart to associate
cordially with the peoples from afar, thus maintaining the character of
the nation and enhancing the prestige of the empire.
In view of the responsibilities that devolve upon Us in giving effect
to the new Treaties, it is Our will that Our Ministers of State, acting
on Our behalf, should instruct Our officials of all classes to observe
the utmost circumspection in the management of affairs, to the end that
subjects and strangers alike may enjoy equal privileges and advantages,
and that, every source of dissatisfaction being avoided, relations of
peace and amity with all nations may be strengthened and consolidated
in perpetuity.
(Imperial Sign Manual.)
(Signatures of all the Cabinet Ministers.)
(Dated) June 30th, 1899.
SCHOOLS IN JAPAN[226]
The latest returns compiled by the educational authorities show that
education in Japan is in a satisfactory condition. For instance the
percentage of the children newly admitted to primary schools throughout
the country out of every 100 of those who had attained the school-going
age last month [March, 1903] was 93.78 for boys, 81.08 for girls, and
88.05 for boys and girls together, which show respectively an increase
of 3.23, 9.18, and 6.38 against the figures for last year. Again, the
different schools throughout the country totalled 29,335, while the
teachers totalled 110,104, the attendance 5,265,006, and the graduates
911,621, representing respectively an increase of 473; 11,977; 339,333;
and 112,737 as compared with the figures for the preceding year. [In
1909-10, these totals were 34,659; 172,228; 7,170,470; and 899,288.]
NUMBER OF SCHOOLS, ETC. IN JAPAN IN 1900-1901.[227]
By the government establishments are meant all institutions under the
control of the Department of Education.
Statistical items relating to the Higher Normal School for Females are
included among those for the Higher Normal School, and those relating
to the three institutes for the training of technical teachers among
those for technical schools.
=======================+===============================+
| NO. OF SCHOOLS. |
+----+--------+--------+--------+
|GOV.|PUBLIC. |PRIVATE.| TOTAL. |
-----------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+
Elementary schools | 2 | 26,485 | 369 | 26,856 |
Blind and dumb schools | 1 | 1 | 9 | 11 |
Normal schools | .. | 52 | ... | 52 |
Higher normal schools | 2 | ... | ... | 2 |
Middle schools | 1 | 183 | 34 | 218 |
Higher female schools | 1 | 44 | 7 | 52 |
Higher schools | 7 | ... | ... | 7 |
Imperial universities | 2 | ... | ... | 2 |
Special schools | 3 | 4 | 41 | 48 |
Technical schools | 9 | 265 | 23 | 297 |
Miscellaneous schools | .. | 122 | 1,195 | 1,317 |
-----------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+
Total | 28 | 27,156 | 1,678 | 28,862 |
=======================+====+========+========+========+
1899| 27 | 27,051 | 1,639 | 28,717 |
1898| 22 | 26,799 | 1,600 | 28,421 |
1897| 22 | 26,753 | 1,677 | 28,452 |
1896| 21 | 26,621 | 1,762 | 28,404 |
=======================+====+========+========+========+
=======================+====================================+
| INSTRUCTORS AND TEACHERS. |
+-------+--------+---------+---------+
| GOV. |PUBLIC. | PRIVATE.| TOTAL. |
-----------------------+-------+--------+---------+---------+
Elementary schools | 31 | 91,767 | 1,101 | 92,899 |
Blind and dumb schools | 15 | 15 | 25 | 55 |
Normal schools | ... | 958 | ... | 958 |
Higher normal schools | 110 | ... | ... | 110 |
Middle schools | 22 | 3,067 | 659 | 3,748 |
Higher female schools | 19 | 525 | 114 | 658 |
Higher schools | 345 | ... | ... | 345 |
Imperial universities | 291 | ... | ... | 291 |
Special schools | 128 | 81 | 734 | 943 |
Technical schools | 238 | 1,382 | 137 | 1,757 |
Miscellaneous schools | ... | 90 | 4,273 | 4,363 |
-----------------------+-------+--------+---------+---------+
Total | 1,199 | 97,885 | 7,043 | 106,127 |
=======================+=======+========+=========+---------+
1899| 1,128 | 92,286 | 6,692 | 100,106 |
1898| 983 | 86,634 | 5,346 | 92,963 |
1897| 913 | 81,632 | 5,310 | 87,855 |
1896| 785 | 77,720 | 5,509 | 84,014 |
=======================+=======+========+=========+=========+
=======================+==========================================+
| STUDENTS AND PUPILS. |
+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+
| GOV. | PUBLIC. | PRIVATE.| TOTAL. |
-----------------------+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+
Elementary schools | 1,124 | 4,622,930 | 59,544 | 4,683,598 |
Blind and dumb schools | 231 | 196 | 194 | 621 |
Normal schools | ... | 15,639 | ... | 15,639 |
Higher normal schools | 803 | ... | ... | 803 |
Middle schools | 321 | 64,051 | 13,943 | 78,315 |
Higher female schools | 306 | 9,746 | 1,932 | 11,984 |
Higher schools | 5,684 | ... | ... | 5,684 |
Imperial universities | 3,240 | ... | ... | 3,240 |
Special schools | 968 | 1,447 | 10,985 | 13,400 |
Technical schools | 1,730 | 23,599 | 2,126 | 27,455 |
Miscellaneous schools | ... | 4,817 | 80,117 | 84,934 |
-----------------------+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+
Total | 14,407 | 4,742,425 | 168,841 | 4,925,673 |
=======================+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+
1899| 13,230 | 4,339,490 | 160,614 | 4,513,334 |
1898| 11,788 | 4,086,323 | 149,230 | 4,247,341 |
1897| 10,839 | 4,005,164 | 152,714 | 4,168,717 |
1896| 9,321 | 3,872,794 | 148,858 | 4,030,973 |
=======================+========+===========+=========+===========+
=======================+====================================+
| GRADUATES. |
+-------+---------+--------+---------+
| GOV. | PUBLIC. |PRIVATE.| TOTAL. |
-----------------------+-------+---------+--------+---------+
Elementary schools | 318 | 736,907 | 8,580 | 745,805 |
Blind and dumb schools | 14 | 8 | 12 | 34 |
Normal schools | ... | 7,323 | ... | 7,323 |
Higher normal schools | 180 | ... | ... | 180 |
Middle schools | 40 | 5,584 | 2,163 | 7,787 |
Higher female schools | 91 | 1,832 | 637 | 2,560 |
Higher schools | 1,019 | ... | ... | 1,019 |
Imperial universities | 633 | ... | ... | 633 |
Special schools | 138 | 210 | 1,687 | 2,035 |
Technical schools | 349 | 4,406 | 249 | 5,004 |
Miscellaneous schools | ... | 721 | 15,783 | 16,504 |
-----------------------+-------+---------+--------+---------+
Total | 2,782 | 756,991 | 29,111 | 788,884 |
=======================+-------+---------+--------+---------+
1899| 2,454 | 655,112 | 27,201 | 684,767 |
1898| 2,129 | 600,528 | 23,486 | 626,143 |
1897| 2,146 | 550,738 | 20,912 | 573,796 |
1896| 1,819 | 507,969 | 20,419 | 530,207 |
=======================+=======+=========+========+=========+
JAPAN’S UNIVERSITY FOR WOMEN[228]
The most remarkable occurrence in Japan in the opening year of the
Twentieth Century was the establishment of a University for Women.
What does this mean? It means that the Twentieth Century is to be the
century for women in Japan and perhaps in other parts of the Orient,
just as the Nineteenth Century was the century for women in the
Occident. This new University will be the centre of woman’s activity,
social, educational, economical (and perhaps political?), in the future
in Japan.
About ten years ago Mr. Naruse began to think about establishing a
university for girls and went to America to inspect female institutions
of learning. There he spent three years going about from place to
place, and thus made a thorough observation and study of colleges
for women in the United States of America. In 1894 he was encouraged
to start the enterprise, in which his special friends were such men
as Marquis Itō, Marquis Saionji, Counts Ōkuma and Itagaki, and Baron
Utsumi, then Mayor of Ōsaka, now Home Minister.
Among the first promoters of the enterprise were well-to-do persons of
Ōsaka, such as Mr. Dogura and Mrs. Hiroöka (of the Mitsui family). The
idea was, and still is, to secure 300,000 _yen_, of which half should
be used for property and half for endowment. It was also decided not to
begin to build unless at least 100,000 yen had been raised. The money
was obtained quite rapidly; and in this Mr. Naruse’s skill and tact
were remarkable. Many not in sympathy with the idea of higher female
education (like Baron Katō, ex-President of the Imperial University),
were won over by Mr. Naruse’s presentation of the cause.
The problem of location was thoroughly discussed in Ōsaka, and at last
it was unanimously agreed that Tōkyō, being the capital, was the most
convenient place, because the institution was not local, for either
Ōsaka or Tōkyō alone, but was national, for all Japan.
The faculty number forty-six in all, among whom are several professors
of the Imperial University. The President is, of course, Mr. Naruse;
and the Dean is Professor S. Aso, a Dōshisha alumnus. There are also
several ladies; and it is the purpose to have as many lady teachers as
possible.
There are three departments in the University course:
1. Department of Domestic Science.
2. Department of Japanese Literature.
3. Department of English Literature.
In the first department the greater part of the time is devoted to
various branches of Applied and Domestic Science; in the second and
third departments the largest number of hours is given up to Japanese
and English respectively. Ethics, Sociology, Psychology, Education
(including Child-Study) and Calisthenics are required studies in all
departments; and Drawing, Music, and Science of Teaching, are electives
in all cases.
The boarding-department includes seven “Houses,” each with a matron and
a head cook. The girls live just as at home, and take turns in cooking.
This school is not, of course, to be compared with foreign
universities, or the Imperial University; nor is it a copy of other
universities; but it is intended to make this university just suited to
the needs of the time and the social conditions of Japanese women. The
standard will be gradually elevated. In the system of female education,
it is a university, at least in germ.
It is the purpose as soon as possible to increase the number of
courses; to add, for instance, pedagogy (including sociology,
psychology, etc.), music, science, art, and calisthenics. It is
intended also to extend the preparatory course downward, so that it
shall include, not a _Kōtō Gakkō_ only as at present, but also a _Shō
Gakkō_ (Grammar School) and a kindergarten. Thus the system of female
education will be complete in all its grades: from three to six in
the kindergarten; six years in the grammar school; five years in the
secondary school (_Kōtō Jō Gakkō_); three years in the university; with
a post-graduate course of three years. Then surely the institution will
be worthy to be called a university.
STATISTICS OF CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN[229]
Under the title, “The Present State of Christianity,” the “Tōkyō Maishū
Shinshi” publishes a number of statistics culled from the Rev. D. S.
Spencer’s “Tidings from Japan.” Here is the “Maishū Shinshi’s” summary
of Mr. Spencer’s report:
===============+===============+==============+============
MISSIONS. | MISSIONARIES. | NATIVE |
| | PASTORS AND | MEMBERS.[230]
| | EVANGELISTS. |
---------------+---------------+--------------+------------
Protestant | 789 | 494 | 50,512
Roman Catholic | 229 | 98 | 55,824
Greek Church | 4 | 152 | 27,245
===============+===============+==============+============
These figures, when compared with those of ten years ago, do not, as
far as the Greek Church and the Roman Catholic Church are concerned,
indicate remarkable progress, but to Protestants they are on the
whole encouraging. There are 23 Protestant denominations working in
Japan, but the most important sects are the Congregationalists, the
Presbyterians, the Episcopalians, the Methodists, and the Baptists. The
statistics for the 5 principal missions are as follows:—
===============+=============+=========+=========+==========+==========
MISSIONS. | FOREIGN | JAPANESE| ADULT |INCLUDING |BAPTISMS
|MISSIONARIES.| PASTORS.| MEMBERS.|CHILDREN. | LAST
| | | | | YEAR.
---------------+-------------+---------+---------+----------+----------
Congregational | 71 | 45 | 10,856 | 11,548 | 880
Presbyterian | 153 | 79 | 10,156 | 11,651 | 1,213
Episcopalian | 224 | 47 | 9,968 | 10,997 | 846
Methodist | 233 | 125 | 9,283 | 9,711 | 1,598
Baptist | 56 | 9 | 2,213 | 2,213 | 328
===============+=============+=========+=========+==========+==========
The following table gives other interesting particulars:
================+===========+=================+===========
MISSIONS. | CHURCHES. | SELF-SUPPORTING | CHURCH
| | CHURCHES. | PROPERTY.
| | | _Yen._
----------------+-----------+-----------------+-----------
Congregational | 81 | 34 | 125,794
Presbyterian | 71 | 23 | 218,252
Episcopalian | 69 | 2 |
Methodist | 146 | 13 | 225,559
Baptist | 30 | |
================+===========+=================+===========
================+===========+==================+============
MISSIONS. | SUNDAY- | NATIVE | AMOUNT PER
| SCHOOL | MONEY SUBSCRIBED.| MEMBER.
| SCHOLARS. | _Yen._ | _Yen. Sen._
----------------+-----------+------------------+------------
Congregational | 6,880 | 33,791 | 3.11
Presbyterian | 7,879 | 29,027 | 2.86
Episcopalian | 5,524 | 15,827 | 1.59
Methodist | 12,613 | 30,011 | 3.24
Baptist | 3,775 | 4,283 | 1.94
================+===========+==================+============
It is calculated that if all the different kinds of property held by
the Protestant Church be included, it is worth over 1,500,000 _yen_.
_The Catholic Church in Japan_
A writer signing himself “K. M.” contributes to the “Fukuin Shimpō”
an account of the methods followed by the Roman Catholics and of their
work in Japan, said to have been derived from an interview with L’Abbé
E. Ligneul. The following is a summary of “K. M.’s” article. (1) _The
revival of Roman Catholicism in Japan._ This began at Nagasaki in 1865,
where a church was built and when the descendants of the old Christians
came forward in large numbers to welcome the arrival of foreign
missionaries. Having mentioned the principal works of reference on the
Roman Catholic Missions in Japan, M. Ligneul went on to speak (2) _Of
the present state of their churches_. The following table gives the
numerical strength of the mission:--
===============+===========+==========+==============+==============
| | | | FOREIGN
ECCLESIASTICAL | | JAPANESE | JAPANESE | MISSIONARIES
DISTRICTS. | CONVERTS. | PRIESTS. | EVANGELISTS. | (MALE).
---------------+-----------+----------+--------------+--------------
Tōkyō | 9,245 | 4 | 20 | 37
Nagasaki | 38,160 | 27 | 180 | 31
Ōsaka | 4,273 | 2 | 40 | 27
Hakodate | 4,643 | 1 | 20 | 20
---------------+-----------+----------+--------------+--------------
Total | 56,321 | 34 | 260 | 115
===============+===========+==========+==============+==============
The fact that comparatively little is known of the work being carried
on by the Roman Catholics throughout the country is no accidental
affair. It is one of the principles observed by the whole mission to
refrain from the use of the methods employed by other missions for
making their work known to the public generally.
_The Greek Church in Japan_
In the issue of the “Tserkovniya Vyedomosti” or “Church Gazette” (the
official organ of the Russian Church) for March 29 (O. S.) there is a
long article taken from the “Moscow Gazette” on the state of the Greek
Church in Japan.
The writer says that there are now 260 congregations, one more than
last year; 41 clergymen, including 1 bishop, 2 Russian clergymen (who
have now left Japan—Translator), 30 Japanese clergymen, 1 Russian
deacon, 7 Japanese deacons: altogether three more persons than last
year; Christians 27,245 (935 more than last year); Catechists 1,214
(643 adults, 571 minors, altogether 305 more than last year); deaths
279 (18 less than last year); marriages 29 (9 more than last year);
churches or preachers’ houses 174. The sum of the offerings made by the
Christians in support of their church totalled 11,870 _yen_ 41.8 _sen_,
4,505 _yen_ 72.5 _sen_ more than last year. The number of pupils in
Mission schools totalled 152, 12 less than last year.
* * * * *
The annual meeting of clergy (Shinpin Kwaigi) of the Greek Church
Mission was held in the cathedral of that mission in Tōkyō on the 15th
inst. It was reported at the meeting that there were 1,037 converts
last year, deaths 320; and now that the members of the church number
27,956, including 40 clergymen and 146 _denkiosha_ (preachers or
unordained evangelists and helpers).
JAPAN’S NATIONAL SONG[231]
Few Europeans have learned to detect and enjoy the subtle beauty of
Japanese poetry. Fewer still, perhaps, are acquainted with the delicate
charm of the little poem which, although not a hymn, takes the place in
Japanese minds and hearts of the Briton’s “God Save the King,” or the
American’s “My Country, ’tis of Thee.” It is sung to a native air, the
custom being to sing the poem through thrice, and when thus rendered
by a large and enthusiastic company it is often truly impressive. The
poem itself is very old, being found in the “Manyōshiu,” which dates
from about the middle of the eighth century, and its author is unknown.
As originally composed, it was not addressed to the actual ruler, but
in all probability to an Emperor who had gone into retirement. Now,
however, it is exclusively applied to the reigning Sovereign. The poem
consists of the usual number of thirty-one syllables, and runs as
follows:—
Kimi ga yo wa
Chiyo ni yachiyo ni
Sazare ishi no
Iwao to narite
Koke no musu made.
So far as we are aware only two English translations have been
published. One of these is by Viscount Fukuba, and, closely following
the original, reads as follows:
“May our Sovereign live for thousands and ten thousands of years,
until the tiny pebble becomes a moss-covered rock.”
The other, by Professor Chamberlain, is more finished
but less literal than the foregoing, and is included in his excellent
“Classical Poetry of the Japanese”:—
“A thousand years of happy life be thine!
Live on, My lord, till what are pebbles now,
By age united, to great rocks shall grow,
Whose venerable sides the moss doth line.”
To the above translations may be added a third by the
late Dr. Gordon:—
“O Prince upon the throne!
Ten thousand years live on,
Till pebbles shall great rocks become
With moss all overgrown!”
FLORAL JAPAN
The Japanese are a nature-loving people, and frequently give
practical expression to their feelings by taking a holiday simply
for “flower-viewing.” At the proper season the entire nation, so to
speak, takes a day off, and turns out on a big picnic to see the plum
blossoms, or the cherry blossoms, or the maples, or the chrysanthemums.
No utilitarian views of the value of time or miserly conceptions of
the expense of such outings prevail for a moment; for the Japanese
are worshippers of beauty rather than of the “almighty dollar.” A few
pennies on such occasions bring many pleasures; and business interests
are sacrificed at the shrine of beauty. And, as one or more flowers
are blooming every month, because twigs, leaves, grasses, etc., are
included in the scope of the word _hana_, there is almost a continuous
round of such picnics during the year. It is our purpose, therefore, to
arrange a calendar of flowers popular each month.
At the very outset we are confronted with a chronological difficulty
in presenting this subject to Western readers. For the programme of
Japanese floral festivals was originally arranged on the basis of the
old lunar calendar so long in vogue in Japan. By that calendar the New
Year came in at varying dates from about the 21st of January up to the
19th of February; in 1903 it fell on Thursday, January 29; so that it
is from three to seven weeks behind the Occidental solar calendar. And
yet, when Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar, many of these festivals
were transferred to the “New Style” without regard to the awful
anachronism that necessarily followed.
For instance, the following is a floral programme according to the “Old
Style”:—
OLD STYLE. NEW STYLE.
1st month, February Pine.
2d „ March Plum.
3d „ April Cherry.
4th „ May Wistaria.
5th „ June Iris.
6th „ July Tree peony.
7th „ August Lezpedeza.
8th „ September Eularia.
9th „ October Chrysanthemum.
10th „ November Maple.
11th „ December Willow.
12th „ January Paulownia.
Now, the pine is chosen for the 1st month (O. S.) on account of the
prominent part that it plays in the New Year’s decorations, but when
the new year begins the first of January, that calendar suffers serious
dislocation, because all of the other flowers cannot be moved a whole
month.
A similar confusion arises in connection with the great festival of the
“autumn full moon,” in which certain grasses also figured. By the lunar
calendar it fell about the 15th day of the 8th month, which never comes
in the Western 8th month, August. It came in 1902 on September 18; and
1903 it will not come until early in October! It may now be readily
seen how difficult it is in Japan to run on schedule time!
But, taking all these difficulties into consideration, and harmonizing
them so far as possible, we have been able to construct the following
modern Japanese floral calendar:—
January Pine.
February Plum.
March Peach.
April Cherry.
May Wistaria.
June Iris.
July Morning-glory.
August Lotus.
September “Seven Grasses.”
October Chrysanthemum.
November Maple.
December Camellia.
JAPAN AND SIAM[232]
Mr. Inagaki, Japanese Representative in Bangkok, has been making
strenuous efforts to bring about the establishment of a direct line of
steamers between Japan and Siam. He maintains that there cannot be any
substantial development of trade without some improvement of the means
of communication. Tōkyō newspapers report that the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha
has been induced to undertake the extension of its Formosan line to
Siam, and that arrangements are now under discussion with the Formosan
officials.
In a lecture delivered by Mr. Inagaki before the Japan Economic
Society, he insisted that Siam could be of the greatest service to
Japan in supplying raw materials and food stuffs. Her production of
sugar, hemp, and gum is very large, and whereas her export of silk ten
years ago was only 250,000 _yen_, it is now 10 millions. The Siamese
government has decided to devote a quarter of a million _yen_ to
agricultural experimental stations, and there can be no doubt that if
Japan sent seeds of raw materials to be grown in that country, fine
results would be obtained. It is important that a country like Japan
should have a source of supply which would certainly remain neutral in
time of war, and Siam is essentially such a source. This question of
food supply will one day be as important for Japan as it is already for
England, and its solution seems to lie in the direction of Siam.
FORMOSA UNDER JAPAN
Concerning Formosa under Japanese rule the following additional items
are worthy of notice. The Governor-General, 1913, is Count Sakuma.
It has been pointed out by the “Japan Mail” that the revenue of the
new territory in the first six years after its cession to Japan has
increased by 600 per cent, as shown in the following table:—
_Yen._
1896 2,710,000
1897 5,320,000
1898 8,250,000
1899 11,750,000
1900 14,900,000
1901 16,370,000
* * * * *
The number of the pest patients in Formosa has been decreasing year
after year, as the following returns for the period January 1 to June
17 of the respective years show:—
CASES. MORTALITY.
1901 3,481 2,619
1902 1,795 1,352
1903 750 606
* * * * *
The government is making strenuous efforts to increase the export
trade. It has subsidized a modern sugar-mill which has commenced
operations in South Formosa, manufacturing brown sugar for refining
purposes; it has likewise given assistance to a white-sugar factory; it
has started an experimental paper-factory; in fact, it has devoted all
its energies toward increasing the island’s productions. Independent
Japanese firms have likewise done a good deal, though not as much
as we had reason to anticipate. Two gold-quartz mills, one being of
considerable size, are successfully at work in the Formosan gold
fields; two wealthy companies are engaged in plantation work on a large
scale in Southeast and in North Formosa; and there is a glass-factory
in the north, several Japanese-owned coal-mines, a paper-factory
at Kagi, several modern salt farms, and other small industries, to
Japanese credit. In improving transportation, the Japanese have done
much, and are planning to do much more. The Chinese railway line
was handed over to the Japanese in such a condition that it had to
be all reconstructed. We thus have practically a new line to Kelung
and another to Shinchiku (formerly Teckoham). In addition to these,
new lines were constructed from Taihoku to Tamsui, and from Takow to
Shinyeisho via Tainan-fu, which gives a total of 93 miles of rail.
The trunk line connecting the north and south is now in course of
construction.[233] The Japanese have also built over 200 miles of
narrow gauge for the temporary transport of military supplies, general
freight, and passengers. Nearly a thousand miles of ordinary road have
been constructed.[234]
* * * * *
Rev. W. Campbell, a Scotch missionary in Formosa, testifies concerning
what Japan has accomplished in the island:—
At the outset it should be remembered that, when they [Japanese]
arrived in 1895, instead of being allowed to take quiet possession,
they found the people everywhere up in arms against them, and had
literally to fight their way from north to south before anything like
settled government could be established.... Immediately after some
measure of peace had been restored, the executive sent out qualified
experts to engage in survey work and to report on the resources of
their newly ceded territory.
A complete census of the population was taken in 1897, 800 miles of
roads were made, and a tramway line laid down from Takow to Sin-tek.
This was followed by construction of the main line of railway from
Kelung to Takow, about one-half of which has already been opened
for goods and passenger traffic. Three cables were also laid down,
connecting Formosa with Japan, Foochow, and the Pescadores, and over
the existing 1,500 miles of telegraph and telephone wires immediate
communication has been made possible with every important inland
centre. The post offices recently opened in Formosa number over a
hundred, and letters can now be sent to any part of the empire for
two cents each. Up till the close of 1899, 122 government educational
institutions had been established, only 9 of those being for Japanese,
and 113 for natives. There are at present 10 principal Government
hospitals in the island, at which about 60,000 patients are treated
gratuitously every year, while sanitary precautions and free
vaccination have become so general that the danger from visitations
like small-pox and plague has been very much reduced.[235]
THE AMERICO-JAPANESE ENTENTE
“1. It is the wish of the two Governments to encourage the free and
peaceful development of their commerce on the Pacific Ocean;
“2. The policy of both Governments, uninfluenced by any aggressive
tendencies, is directed to the maintenance of the existing _status quo_
in the region above mentioned and to the defence of the principle of
equal opportunity for commerce and industry in China;
“3. They are accordingly firmly resolved reciprocally to respect the
territorial possessions belonging to each other in said region;
“4. They are also determined to preserve the common interests of all
Powers in China, by supporting by all pacific means at their disposal,
the independence and integrity of China and the principle of equal
opportunity for commerce and industry of all nations in that Empire;
“5. Should any event occur threatening the _status quo_ as above
described, or the principle of equal opportunity as above defined, it
remains for the two Governments to communicate with each other in order
to arrive at an understanding as to what measures they may consider it
useful to take.”
INDEX
A
Abdication, practice of, 90, 97
Aborigines, 44
Academy of Music, Tōkyō, 217
Acrobats, 66
Actors’ guild, 27
Adams, Will, 91
“Advance Japan,” 15, 28, 59, 117, 132, 158, 208
Agricultural College, 216
Agricultural College in China, 297
Agricultural experiment stations, Siam, 411
Agriculture, 16-22, 216, 350
Ainu, 44, 45
“Ainu Folk-lore,” 45
“Ainu of Japan,” 45
Akashi, 8
Alaska, 15
Alcock, 117
Ale, 56
Aleutian Islands, 15
Almonds, 351
Amaterasu, _see_ Sun-Goddess
America, 2, 3, 7, 14, 20, 21, 28, 34, 37, 61, 106, 112, 140, 145,
189, 213, 219, 220, 237, 268, 270, 271, 281, 285, 290, 292, 299-301
American baby, first, 60;
books, favorite, 204;
fleet visits Japan, 335;
life, 80;
state legislature, 135
“American Japanese Relations,” 341
“American Journal of Sociology,” 175
“American Missionary in Japan, An,” 190, 269
Americans, 33, 36, 47, 66, 79, 104, 107, 144, 165, 168, 210, 216
Americo-Japanese Entente, the, 335
Amoy, 295
Amusements, 66-69
Anarchists, 337
Ancestors, worship of, 64
“Ancestor-Worship and Japanese Law,” 174, 249
“Ancient Matters, Records of,” 92
Anderson, 235
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 4, 92, 147, 153, 154, 156, 157, 299, 332, 338
Anglo-Saxon influence, 157;
town meeting, 142
Anglo-Saxons, 128, 168, 310
Animals, _see_ names of animals
“Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,” 129
Anti-Christian edicts removed, 91, 111, 112
Anti-foreign reaction, 92, 114, 115
Antimony, 23
Aomori, 17, 32
Aoyama, Dr., 220
Apples, 19
Apricots, 19
Arbitration treaty with United States, 335
Architecture, 51, 91
Area, 5, 7
Arima, 8
Arita ware, 229
Armor, 230
Army, 126, 147-151;
statistics, 381, 382
Arnold, Sir Edwin, 78, 253
Arsenal, 149, 150, 286
“Art Japonais, L’,” 235, 236
Artisans, 48, 82
“Artistic Japan,” 236
“Artist’s Letters from Japan, An,” 236
Arts, fine, 91, 222-236;
mechanical, 24, 25
Aryans, 45
Asahigawa, 149
Asakawa, 328
Asama, 8
Ashikaga period, 98, 99
Ashikaga supremacy, 91
Ashikaga Yoshimasa, 233
Asia, 14, 149, 156, 281, 292, 294, 301
“Asia, the key of,” 4;
Eastern, supremacy of Japan in, 299, 300
“Asiatic Loch Lomond,” 8
Asiatic Society of Japan, Transactions, 20, 22, 43, 54, 61, 62, 71,
83, 89, 92, 101, 132, 133, 145, 159, 174, 199, 208, 231, 249, 255,
259, 261
Aso, Mount, 8
Aso, Prof. S., 402
“As the Hague Ordains,” 328
Aston, W. G., 50, 92, 208, 232, 236, 249
Atami, 8
Athletics, 66
“Atlantic Monthly,” 302
Atsu, Prince, 123
Audsley, G. A., 235, 236
Australasia, 281
Australia, 34, 45
Austria, 85
Automobiles, 31, 34
Autumn, Japanese, 12
“Awakening of the East, The,” 28, 158
“Awakening of Japan, The,” 117, 304, 328
Ayrton, Mrs. Chaplin-, 75
B
Babylon, 300
Bacon, Miss Alice M., 59, 75, 189, 190, 221
Badgers, 13
Baelz, Dr., 46, 47
Baggage, 29
Baggage check system, American, 33
Bakan, 9
Ballard, Miss, 70
Ballard, Walter J., 356
Baltic fleet, Russian, 316, 317-318
Bamboo, 13, 22, 74
Bananas, 19
Bandai, Mount, 8, 113
Bank of Formosa, 38
Bank of Japan, 38, 39, 92, 170;
organized, 113
Banks, national, 38;
_see also_ specific names;
private, 38;
savings, 38, 39;
deposits, 364
Baptists, 264, 272, 404, 405
Barbers’ guild, 27
Barley, 19, 26, 55
Base-ball, 66
Bastiat’s “Science of Finance,” 206
Batchelor, J., 45
Bathing, 58, 59
Battleships, _see_ Warships
Bays, 9
Beans, 19, 37, 55
Bear, 13
Beechey, Capt., 105
Beef, 54
Beer, 56;
brewing, 24
Beets, 19
Beggars, 48;
guild, 27
Bellows, U. S. Consul, 351
Bettelheim, Dr., 105
Bevan, Paul, 236
Bicycle boats, 85
Bicycles, 31, 34, 280, 281
Biddle, Commodore, 105
Bimetalism, 92, 111
Bing, S., 236
Bird, Miss, _see_ Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird
Birds, 13
Birth and birthdays, 60, 61
Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird, 15, 43, 45, 341
Biwa Lake, 8
Bizen ware, 229
Black, J. R., 117, 200
Blind, the, 217
“Blossom,” 105
“Blue-Jacket Spirit,” 152
Boar, 13
Boatmen, 30
Boats, 29, 31;
_see also_ Steamboats
Boissonade, M., 161
Bonin Islands, 34
Books, 197, 203-206
Booth, General, 334
Bowes, J. L., 235
Boxer troubles, 115, 146, 153, 308
Bramhall, Mrs., 60, 75, 221
Brick industry, 24
Bricklayers’ guild, 27
Brinkley, Captain, 208, 231-233, 235, 309, 311
British, 7, 66
British Columbia, 14
Brothels, 166, 167, 271
Buckwheat, 19
Buddha, 253-255, 260;
statue of, 228;
birthday, 74
Buddhism, 48, 54, 90, 96, 99, 177, 224, 237, 252-260, 269, 288;
Buddhist ceremonies, 62;
education, 209;
festivals, 63, 65;
periodicals, 203;
philosophy, 198;
priests, 224, 258;
temples, 65, 166, 240, 243, 253, 258
Buffalo, N. Y., 37
Bushidō, 251-252
“Bushidō, the Soul of Japan,” 89, 239, 252, 261
Business ability of Japanese, 39-42, 82-83
“Business men’s party,” 131
Business men, American, visit Japan, 335;
Japanese visit United States, 337
Butter, 37
Button industry, 24
Byron, Lord, 204
C
Cabinet, 124, 125, 130, 143, 340, 375, 376;
reconstruction, 113, 114
California, 5, 14, 37
Camellia, 410;
trees, 12
Campbell, W., 398
Camphor, 37;
trees, 12, 21
Canada, 335
Canadian Pacific steamship line, 3
Candles, 37
Canning industry, 22
Canton river, 14
Capital punishment, 162
Capitals of Japan, 91, 96, 97
Carpenters, wages of, 26, 360;
guild, 27
Carriage, 281
Carrots, 19
Cary, Otis, 89, 249, 259, 276
“Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British
Museum,” 235
“Catalogue of the Morse Collection of Japanese Pottery,” 235
Cats, 13
Caucasians, 45
Cedar trees, 12
Cemeteries, 258, 259
Central America, 291
Chamberlain, B. H., 15, 22, 45, 58, 75, 86, 92, 152, 161, 192, 197,
199, 208, 222, 236, 252, 256, 408
Chang Chih-tung, Viceroy, 297
Changtu, occupation of, 317
Cha-no-Yu, _see_ Tea-ceremonial
Characteristics of the people, 46-50, 76-89
“Charter Oath,” 91, 110-112, 118
“Chautauquan, The,” 211, 401
Chemulpo, 311
Cherry flowers, 65, 79, 408-410;
trees, 13
Chestnuts, 19
Chicago, 3, 11, 37, 38
Chickens, 13, 54, 56
“Child-Life in Japan,” 75
Children, 66, 181, 182
China, 4, 5, 7, 14, 21, 34, 35, 37, 42, 92, 96, 99, 103, 106, 115,
143, 146, 149, 150, 153, 154, 157, 221, 224, 237, 250, 255, 285,
287, 291, 292, 294-299, 301;
tribute to, 91;
war with, 92, 115, 307, 308;
Japanese influence in, 294-298;
Revolution, 340
“China and the Far East,” 341
Chinese, 7, 85, 94, 100, 105, 143, 144, 178, 198, 281, 297, 298;
Chinese art, 224;
Chinese Empire, 157;
ideographs, 193, 194, 207, 220, 227;
government service, 297;
language, 209;
literature, 90, 208, 209, 296;
zodiac, 71;
students in Japan, 340
“Chinese Recorder,” 297
Ching-ho-cheng, 317
Cholera, 10
Chop-sticks, 55
Chōshiu, Clan of, 109
Christian home, 177
Christian literature, 265, 266;
periodicals, 203
“Christian Movement in Japan, The,” 276
Christianity, 48, 61, 71, 91, 99, 100, 107, 111, 156-158, 167,
177, 190, 219, 237, 240, 242, 243, 247-249, 253, 256, 259, 276,
286-288;
helped by war, 324, 334, 336, 337;
statistics, 404-406;
_see also_ Anti-Christian
“Christianity in Japan, History of,” 276
“Christianity in Modern Japan,” 276
Christmas, 66
Chromoxylography, _see_ Color printing
“Chronicle,” Kōbe, 201
“Chronicles of Japan,” 92
Chrysanthemum Festival, 64, 65
Chrysanthemums, 408-410
“Chrysanthemums, War of the,” 91, 99
Church, Japanese, 336
Churches, 91, 110, 111, 267, 268, 287
Chūzenji, Lake, 8
Cire perdue process, 230
Cities, opening of, 91
Citizen (_kōmin_) 138-140
City Council, 140, 141
“Civil Code, New Japanese, Lectures on,” 174
Civil war, 91, 109, 110
“Classical Poetry of the Japanese,” 236, 408
Clearing-houses, 354
Clement’s “Christianity in Modern Japan,” 276
Clement’s “Japanese Floral Calendar,” 65
Climate, 5, 6, 11, 12
Cloisonné, 230
Coal, 23, 37, 41, 42, 152, 292, 295, 298
Coast line, 5, 9, 10
Cocoa, 37
Code, Civil, 61, 114-116, 176, 178, 18O-182, 190;
commercial, 38, 114, 115, 161;
criminal, 161;
Napoleon, 161;
penal, 113;
civil procedure, 161;
criminal procedure, 113, 161;
codes, new, 92
Co-education, 211
Coffins, 62
Coins, 39
Collotype, 227
Colonial Bank of Hokkaidō, 38
Color printing, 227
Columbia University, 296
“Commentaries on the Constitution of the Empire of Japan,” 132
Commerce, 36, 37, 39-43;
Treaty of commerce and navigation, 385-399
Commercial centre, 291
Compulsory school attendance, 212
Conder, Josiah, 54, 236
“Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism,” 275
Confucian education, 209;
influences, 91;
philosophy, 198
Confucianism, 48, 96, 100, 101, 237, 250-252, 260
Congregationalists, 264, 404, 405
Constantine, 248, 275
Constitution, 92, 113, 114, 120-122,124, 127, 128, 132, 150, 273, 287
“Constitutional Development of Japan,” 111, 132, 145
“Constitutional Government in Japan,” 129
Continental influences, 90
Convicts, 162
Cooking, 56
Cooks’, European-style, union, 27
Coolies, 27, 29, 31, 32, 282;
guild, 27
Co-operative stores, 27, 28
Copper, 23, 37, 41
“Corea, the Hermit Nation,” 341
Cornstarch, 37
Corporal punishment, 212
Costumes, _see_ Dress
Cotton, 21, 37;
mills, 21, 286;
spinning, 21;
velvet, 37
Counsel, 163, 164
Couriers, 29, 35, 281
Courts, 163-165
Cream, evaporated, 37
Credit Mobilier, 38
“Creed of Half Japan, The,” 261
Crimes, 162
Criminal law, 160, 161
Criminals, 163
Currency, 39
Curtis, W. E., 28, 43, 56, 66, 132, 174
Curtius, ——, 107
Customs, 60-75
D
Dai Nihon Shi, 101
“Dai Nippon,” 28, 59, 89, 117, 132, 158
Dalny, 295, 309, 313
Damascus, 230
Dancing, 68, 69, 228, 231-233;
dancing-girls, 69
Dan-no-ura, Battle of, 98
Darwin’s “Origin of Species,” 204
Davidson, U. S. Consul, 21, 143, 145, 398
Days, special, lucky or unlucky, 71-75
Deaf, education of, 217
Death, 62
Deer, 13
De Forest, Dr., 276
Deme Jikan, 228
Dening, Prof., 86, 89
Deportation, 162
Development, internal, 104, 113, 114
“Dial, The,” Chicago, 204, 206, 208
“Diamond edition of humanity,” 47
“Diary of a Japanese Convert,” 265
Dickens, F. V., 236, 303
Dickson, Walter, 117
Dining-cars, 33
Diosy, Arthur, 39, 117, 145, 151, 152, 156, 158
Disciples, 264
Divisions, 5, 6
Divorce, 61, 177, 179, 180, 181
Dixon, W. G., 109, 117
Docks, 110, 111, 286;
dockyards, 91
Dogs, 13
Dogura, Mr., 402
Dolls, 66
Dolls’ festival, 61, 64, 65
Dōshisha, 215
Dowie, J. A., 264
Drama, 233
Dress, 56-59, 284
Duarchy, 97
Dumb, education of, 217
Dutch, 91, 100, 105, 106, 210, 281;
books, 285
“Dux Christus,” 276
Dyeing, 24
Dyer, Prof., 28, 59, 89, 117, 132, 158
E
“Earthquake, The Great,” _see_ Cabinet reconstruction
Earthquakes, 8, 10, 51, 88, 106;
Gifu, 92, 114;
Professor of, 216
Easter, 66
Eastlake, F. W., 117, 158, 283
Ebara, Mr., 274
Editors, 201
Education, 47, 209-221, 285, 341
“Educational Conquest of the Far East, The,” 221
Edwards, Osman, 68
Egg-plants, 19
Eggs, 26, 55, 56, 60
Election, First National, 114;
first under Constitution of 1889, 127
Electoral franchise, extension of, 115, 116
Electric cars, 34, 281;
lights, 31, 36;
railways, 31;
apparatus manufactories, 286
Elgin, Lord, 106, 107
“Elizabethan Age,” Japan’s, 97
Elocution, 195
Embroidery, 24, 231
Emperor Yoshihito, 123, 339
Emperors and Empresses, chronological table, 374-375
Empire, New, 91
Empress Dowager, the, 111, 188, 280
Empress Sada, 123, 188
Enamelling, 230
“Encyclopædia Britannica,” 204
Engine works, 286
Engineering, 23
Engineers, American, 32
England, 37, 61, 85, 93, 300
English, 91, 145
“English-Japanese Dictionary,” 208
“English-Japanese Etymology,” 208
English language, 113, 195, 201, 211, 219, 285, 298
English normal school, 186
Epicureanism, 79, 81
Epidemics, 10
Episcopalians, 264, 272, 404, 405
Eularia, 409
Europe, 3, 34, 112, 156, 189, 213, 237, 281, 290, 292, 299, 301
European books, favorite, 204;
languages, 220
Europeans, 47
Evangelical alliance, 271
“Every Day Japan,” 15, 43, 59, 75, 89, 158, 174, 190, 221, 261
“Evolution of the Japanese, The,” 89
Exports, 36, 37, 298, 368
F
Factories, 352-353
“Fairy Tales from Far Japan,” 70
Family, Japanese, 50, 51
Fan industry, 24
Farming, 16, 17-19;
farmers, 48, 82, 248, 283
Fenollosa, E. F., 235
Festivals, 63-65
“Feudal and Modern Japan,” 59, 89, 101, 132, 208, 249
Feudalism, 91, 110, 112, 119, 133, 134, 370
Figs, 19, 351
Filial piety, 87, 166, 176, 250
Fillmore, Millard, 102, 106
Finck, H. T., 15, 59, 89
Fine Arts School, Tōkyō, 217
Firefly lamp, 285
“Fire-Fly’s Lovers, The,” 70
Fire-Shine and Fire-Fade, Princes, 90
Fish, 13, 22, 23, 26, 55, 56;
fisheries, 294;
considered by Peace commissioners, 319, 320
Fisher’s “Universal History,” 205
Flag, Imperial, 5;
first foreign, officially raised, 107;
flags, feast of the, 61, 64, 65;
red and white, wars of, 91
Florenz, Dr., 249
Flour, 37
Flowers, 408-410;
arrangement, 233, 234;
festivals, 65, 409, 410;
“Flower-viewing,” 394;
_see also_ specific names
“Flowers of Japan and the Art of Floral Arrangement, The,” 236
Folk-lore, 70
Food, 54-56, 284
Foreign Language School, Tōkyō, 217
Foreign trade, 368
Foreigners, status of, 170-174
Formosa, Island of, 3, 5, 6, 12, 14, 16, 21, 30, 34, 91, 92, 111,
115, 142-144, 220, 295, 336, 347;
under Japan, 143, 144, 411-413
Formosan Bank, 295
Foxes, 13
France, 37, 85, 164, 278, 290
Franco-Japanese Agreement, 333
Freight, 29, 30;
carts, 30, 31
French language, 211, 285
Friends, 264, 272
Froebel, Friedrich, 214
“From Far Formosa,” 276
“From Tōkyō through Manchuria with the Japanese,” 328
Fruit, _see_ specific names
Fruit-growing, 351-352
Fuchow, 294, 295, 413
Fuji, Mount, 8
Fujiwara bureaucracy, 91;
epoch, 97;
family established in regency, 91
Fukuba, Viscount, 408
Fukuzawa, Mr., 184, 185, 215
Fukwai, 135-138
Funeral ceremonies, 62
Furniture, 52, 53
Fushun, occupation of, 317
“Future of Japan, The,” 304
G
Gale, J. S. 341
Gamblers’ guild, 27
Game, 54
Games, 66
Gardens, 17, 53, 54
Gas, 36
Geisha, _see_ Dancing-girls
Genroku era, 356
German liberals, 264
Germany, 37, 85, 122, 145, 147;
and Japan, 300;
German language, 211, 285
“Geschichte des Japanischen Farbenholzschnitts,” 235
Gifu earthquake, 92, 114
Ginko or Salisburia, 351
Ginza, the, of Tōkyō, 26
“Gist of Japan, The,” 15, 89, 249, 276
Glass-blowing, 24
“Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan,” 43, 54, 65
Glyptic art, 227
_Go_, 66
Goats, 13
Goethe’s “Faust,” 204
Goh, ——, 50
Gokinai, 6
Gold, 23, 27, 41, 369;
_see_ Coins;
gold standard, 39, 92, 115, 116
Golownin, Captain, 104
Gonse, Louis, 235, 236
Gordon, Captain, 104
Gordon, Dr., 190, 408
“Gospel ship,” 267, 287
Goto family, 230
Government, Constitutional, 113, 116;
and Liberals, alliance between, 115;
ownership, 33
Governor, 136-138
Governors, assembly of, 91, 111
Græco-Roman mythology, 95
“Grammar of the Japanese Written Language,” 208
Grant, U. S., 113, 369
Grapes, 19, 351
Grave-diggers, 48
Great Britain, 4, 37, 146, 147, 153-157, 308, 310, 317
Greater Japan, 331-341
“Great Righteousness,” Era, 339
Greece, 248, 300
Greek church, 263, 404, 406, 407;
language, 211, 285;
chorus, 68
Greene, D. C., 259
Gregorian calendar, 64, 91, 103, 111, 112, 409
Gribble, Henry, 20
Griffin, Professor, 380
Griffis, Dr., 18, 43, 59, 70, 71, 73, 75, 99, 101, 117, 206, 208,
210, 241, 242, 249, 252, 256, 257, 276, 341
“Grippe, La,” 10
Guam, 299
Guano deposits, 6
Gubbins, J. H., 117, 161, 176, 178, 182
Guilds, 27
Gulf Stream, 11
Gulick, S. L., 89, 117, 304, 328
Gumma Prefecture, Governor of, 138
Gunboat, United States, 23
Guncotton, 85
Gunpowder, smokeless, 85
H
Hachiman, god of war, 90, 96
Hachisuka, Marquis, 188
Hades, God of, 74
Haga, 261
Hakodate, 9, 107
Hakone, 8, 37;
lake, 8
Hakuchi era, 370
Hakuseki, Arai, 210
Ham, 54
Hamaoka, 39
Hamath, 46
Hancock, H. I., 66
“Hand-Book for Japan,” 15
“Hand-Book of Colloquial Japanese,” 208
Hand-carts, 31
Handkerchief industry, 24
Hangchau, China, 297
Happiness of the people, 79
Hara, Mr., 168
Harbors, 9
Hardy, Thomas, 204
Hare, 13
Harris, Townsend, 106, 107, 117
Hartshorne, Miss, 15, 43, 59, 75
Haru, Prince, 92, 113, 115, 123, 188, 211
Harunobu, 227
Harvard University, 307
“Hatsuse,” sinking of, 314
Hawaii, 3, 7, 35, 299
Hayashi, Mr., 312
Hearn, Lafcadio, 43, 54, 65, 75, 77, 89, 190, 238, 249
Hebrew, 285
Heco, Joseph, 200
Heikeutai, battle of, 315
Heine, Heinrich, 204
“Herald,” Kōbe, 201
Herbart, J. F., 205
“Heroic Japan,” 117, 158, 283
Hideyoshi, 91, 99
Hildreth, Richard, 101
Hiroöka, Mrs. Asa, 186, 187, 402
Hirose, Commander, 313
Hiroshima, 148
Hirth, Dr., 296
“Histoire de l’Art du Japan,” 235
History (Old Japan), 90-101
I. Divine Ages, 94
II. Prehistoric Period, 94-96
III. Imperialistic Period, 96-97
IV. Civil Strife, 97-100
V. Tokugawa Feudalism, 100-101
History (New Japan), 102-117
I. Period of Seclusion, 104-106
II. Period of Treaty-Making, 106-107
III. Period of Civil Commotions, 107-110
IV. Period of Reconstruction, 110-112
V. Period of internal Development, 113-114
VI. Period of Constitutional Government, 114-117
Greater Japan, 331-341
History and mythology outline, 90-92
“History of Japan,” 101
“History of Japanese Literature,” 208, 232, 236
“History of Japanese Political Parties,” 132
“History of Protestant Missions in Japan,” 276
“History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects,” 253
“Hitachi Maru,” sinking of, 314
Hittites, 46
Hizen ware, 229
Hoang-Ho river, 14
Hōjō tyranny, 91;
family, 98
Hokkaidō, 5, 6, 9, 11, 42, 142, 143, 292, 347;
_see also_ Yezo
Hokurikudō, 6