CHAPTER XXI

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

OUTLINE OF TOPICS: Aims and ambitions of Japan.—Grand park.—Commercial

centre.—Advantageous position.—Leader in civilization.—Example

of civilized nation.—Transmitter of Western civilization.—Japan

and Korea.—Japan and China.—Fuchow, Yangtse Valley, and

Manchuria.—Japanese leaders of Chinese.—Dr. Hirth on China and

Japan.—Japanese invasion of China.—Siam and Japan.—The United States

a Pacific Power.—A complete Anglo-Japanese Alliance.—Russia and

Japan.—Two streams of civilization.—New Japan egotistic.—Prospects of

Japan.—Confidence in Japan.—Bibliography.

It is now appropriate to inquire what is apparently the mission of

Japan in the world. Since even much less powerful nations have played

most important parts on the stage of the world’s history, it is simply

inconceivable that Japan should have attained in so brief a period

such an eminent position as a world-power without having some special

mission to perform and some contribution to make to the sum total of

what is called civilization. And in considering this topic of the

mission of Japan, it may be well to ascertain what are the aims and

aspirations of the Japanese, because it is usually along these lines

that a nation, as well as an individual, achieves success. Let us then

permit Japanese themselves to answer largely our queries concerning the

_rôle_ which is to be theirs “in the great world-drama that continues

unendingly, like a Chinese play, in the Far East.” And the opinions

which are now to be presented, even though the individuals themselves

are not, in every case, the most prominent personages that might have

been selected, nevertheless fairly represent Japanese public opinion.

One[175] says: “Japan is especially favored by nature with beauty

and picturesqueness of scenery and a healthful climate, and has been

appropriately called the ‘Paradise of the East.’ We shall turn this

country into a grand park of the nations, and draw pleasure-seekers

from all parts of the world. We shall build magnificent hotels and

establish excellent clubs, in most splendid style, to receive the

royal visitors of Europe and the millionaires of America.” And while

the objection has been raised that this is not “a very lofty _rôle_

for Japan,” it is claimed that “it is seen to be about the _rôle_

that France, the great nation of artists, is content to play in

Europe—making herself infinitely beautiful and infinitely charming.”

And certainly to minister artistically to the enjoyment of residents

and visitors by making the country as pleasant and delightful as

possible is an aim that accords well with the naturally æsthetic tastes

of the Japanese people. Therefore, concerning success in this endeavor

there cannot be the slightest doubt.

That _rôle_ is not, however, purely æsthetic, because it contemplates

the mercenary advantages to be reaped from the expected throngs of

pleasure-seekers, and is, therefore, also practical. And the same

person makes another suggestion, wholly practical and pecuniary, as

follows:—

“Japan is geographically situated in an advantageous position, as at

the centre of the world’s commercial routes. China will be the future

market of the world, and Japan will receive the mercantile vessels

fitted to be despatched to all parts of the earth. Japan should

provide herself with extensive docks at the various ports of the

island on the route of the mercantile vessels, to give them shelter

and, if needed, necessary repairs and cleaning, and eventually supply

fuel and water.”

We have already referred, in the closing paragraphs of the first

chapter, to the physiographical advantages of Japan, but we are

impelled to dwell more at length on the subject. A noted Japanese[176]

has emphasized the point with the following suggestions:

“To all appearances, the seas about Japan and China will be the

future theatre of the Far East. The Philippines have been reduced to

a province of the United States. China, separated from us only by a

very narrow strip of water, is offering every promise of becoming a

great resource open to the world of the twentieth century. The Siberia

railway has been opened to traffic; and the construction of a canal

across Central America is expected to be finished before long.... As

for fuel, our supply of coal from the mines of Hokkaidō and Kyūshiu is

so abundant that the surplus not required for our own consumption is

exported largely into various parts of the East, where no productive

coal mines have been found except a very few ones of poor quality....

“Taking all these [things] into account, it is not too much to say

that the future situation of Japan will be that of a central station

of various water passages,—a situation most conducive to the good of

our country; and that, numerous as the attractive places of historical

interest and natural beauty are, it is chiefly from our excellently

advantageous position, a connecting link common to the three chains of

water passage to and from Europe, America, and Asia, that we shall be

able to obtain the largest share of the riches of the nations of the

world.”

With reference to the success of Japan in such a purpose

as this, there can be very little doubt; for the natural advantages are

so great that they require comparatively little improvement.

But, besides this aim of commercial prosperity, there is a higher

ambition. One writer[177] says:—

“Japan’s mission at this juncture would be to act as the leader to the

Asiatic countries in introducing modern civilization: China and Korea,

for instance, can learn about civilization much faster and easier than

from the countries in Europe and America, for they have common systems

of letters and to a certain extent of ideas.”

Prof K. Ukita[178] makes the following suggestion:

“It is the mission of Japan to set up an example of a civilized

and independent national state for her Asiatic neighbors, and then

to make a confederation of all the Asiatic nations on the basis of

international law; just as it is the mission of the United States of

America to form one vast pan-American Union of all the republics of

the new hemisphere, and thus to hasten on the progress toward the

organization of the whole world.”

Again we quote from the editor of the “Taiyō” (Sun), as follows:—

“It is our duty to transmit the essence of Occidental civilization to

our neighbors, as better success may be realized by so doing than by

introducing there the new institutions directly from the West. The

present state of things in China does not allow her to appreciate

fully the ideas of Westerners, more so because their fundamental

conception of morals is at variance with that of Occidentals.

But Japan has every facility to win the confidence of China, in

consideration of its geographical situation and of its literary

affinity. The valor, discipline, and order of our army have already

gained the confidence and respect of the Chinese, and it now remains

for us to guide them to higher possibilities with enlightened thoughts

and ideas. Such a work cannot be accomplished in a day; it will

require years of perseverance and toil.”

Now, it may be profitable to ascertain to what extent Japan is

fulfilling her self-appointed but natural mission to uplift her

neighbors and kindred in Eastern Asia. In Korea, for instance, what is

the scope of Japanese influence? In that peninsula there are thousands

of Japanese, by whom almost all the important enterprises of the

country are managed. Of the foreign trade of Korea, by far the largest

per cent of both exports and imports is in connection with Japan;

while the trade of Russia with Korea is positively insignificant. The

principal articles of export to Japan are agricultural products, while

the imports from Japan are chiefly manufactured goods. At every open

port of Korea there is a Japanese post and telegraph office, through

which alone can communication be had with foreign countries. As Korea

is almost wholly destitute of shipping, her coasting trade is chiefly

carried on by Japanese vessels, which also furnish almost all the

means of trade and travel abroad. In railways, too, the Japanese have

largest control; and their banks are strong and prosperous. Fisheries

and mining likewise furnish employment for Japanese, who also carry on

numerous miscellaneous business enterprises.

When we pass on to China, we find most astonishing results, a full

treatment of which would require a volume, so that we must be content

with a few typical examples. In Fuchow, for instance, in the six years

since a Japanese consul first landed there, the number of Japanese

residents had increased from 8 to 70, and the number of Formosan

natives, now naturalized Japanese, who were staying there, was more

than 160. The Ōsaka Shōsen Kwaisha[179] has a branch office in Fuchow;

and the Formosan Bank has sent there a special commissioner. In Amoy

also, on account of its proximity to Formosa, Japanese influence is

growing.

The great increase of Japanese enterprise on the Yangtse River during

recent years deserves a paragraph by itself. There are several Japanese

lines of steamers, besides special vessels for the coal and iron

trade. “Side by side with this development of carrying facilities

many Japanese, in the capacity of merchants, Government employes or

projectors, may be seen travelling in the Yangtse Valley; and further

the number of persons engaged in the translation of Japanese books into

Chinese has increased in an extraordinary degree.... Nothing is more

remarkable than the popularity enjoyed by Japanese things and Japanese

subjects.”

In view of the complications with Russia, it is well to call attention

to the fact that Northern China, especially Manchuria, is most

important to Japan from the commercial point of view. The trade with

Dalny alone is from 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 _yen_ per year, and that

with all Manchuria amounts to about 20,000,000 _yen_ annually. It is

perfectly natural, therefore, that Japan should object to continued

Russian occupation, from which she has already suffered by direct and

indirect interference, and that she should demand a fair field with

“open doors.”

From such instances, of which more might be cited, it is apparent that

Japan is doing her duty in the way of helping China to the benefits

of material civilization. But her influence is being exerted for good

on higher planes. For, as the editor of the “Japan Mail” observes,

“every Japanese subject employed in China in whatever capacity will be

a centre for diffusing the light of liberalism”; and “the Chinese are

apparently to be led along their new path by the Japanese,” who “have

some degree of distant kinship with the Chinese.”

The words of Dr. Hirth will add weight because he is, perhaps, the most

eminent Chinese scholar in the country and holds the professorship

of Chinese in Columbia University, New York City. He spoke as

follows:[180]—

“No capable observer of events in China since the Imperial Court

returned to Peking can doubt that the government has decided to

adopt the policy of Japan, which is to take the methods of western

civilization for their models. In directing the new movement in China,

Japan is taking the lead over other foreign nations, and this, it is

asserted, is due to her superior command of the language.

“Moreover, every educated Japanese is imbued with the ideas prevalent

in Chinese literature, religious and political, and hence he has a

different standing in the eyes of the Chinese from that of Americans

and Europeans. China has thus placed the work of educating the rising

generation in the hands of the Japanese as being less likely to

destroy the old knowledge while familiarizing the students with the

advantages of the new.

“A National University has been established by the Emperor at Peking,

which it is calculated will be the model for educational institutions

all over the country. Recently a Japanese professor has been selected

to draft a new code of laws for the empire. The reason why a Japanese

was selected for this work in preference to an equally learned German,

American, or Englishman, is because men who are both willing and

capable of making due allowance for traditional prejudices will never

arise from a country where the study of Chinese institutions is so

much in its infancy as with all of us, except Japan.”

The present peaceable invasion of China by Japanese, “not this time

with guns for weapons, but with ideas and educational influences,” is

along these seven lines:[181]—

“1. The Agricultural College, established some years ago at Wuchang by

the Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and managed for some time by an expert

American, has now been given over to Japanese management.

“2. The military school in Hangchau is taught wholly by Japanese.

“3. A large amount of translation work is done by the Japanese.

“4. Many Chinese students have been sent by Chang Chih-tung during

recent years to be educated in Japanese schools for Chinese government

service.

“5. More than one large and influential Chinese newspaper is owned and

edited by Japanese, one of which is an especially strong advocate of

closer union between the two great nations of the East.

“6. Nearly 100 Japanese students are in attendance at school in

Shanghai, studying Chinese and English with a view to positions of

usefulness in China.

“7. A large and increasing number of translation societies are being

organized in Shanghai, the principal object of which is to get into

circulation books on Western learning. The significant fact is

that the large majority of them are translated from the Japanese

rather than European languages, because, as they say, the Japanese

have already selected the best, and they wish to profit by their

experience. Books on Political Economy, General Science, Agriculture,

Pedagogics, Ancient and Current History are now commonly on sale

in Chinese bookstores, most of which are advertised as having been

adapted from the Japanese.”

There is yet another country which is feeling the influence of Japan;

and that is Siam. No doubt much of this increased interest in “things

Japanese” may be attributed to the recent visit of the Siamese Crown

Prince to Japan. He is having a Japanese building constructed for

himself; and the king is to have a Japanese garden and house added to

the grounds of his palace. The trade between Japan and Siam is not

yet very extensive;[182] but it is capable of considerable expansion.

Siamese boys and girls have begun to resort to Japan for educational

advantages; so that, in more senses than one, Japan is coming to be the

teacher and leader of Siam.

But there is another phase of the Far Eastern situation that demands

close attention. The United States has definite and direct interests of

several kinds in Japan, Korea, China, and Siam; and she must maintain

these at all hazards. Through the possession of Hawaii, Guam, and

particularly the Philippines, she has become a Pacific Power, more than

ever concerned, and directly, in Oriental politics. The advent of the

United States into that field was hailed with joy by the Japanese, who

have the utmost confidence in our international policy.

In view of the fact, therefore, that the United States, by virtue

of providential necessity, must be reckoned as a factor in Oriental

politics, and cannot herself ignore such responsibilities, there

is only one course open, only one policy to be pursued. It is most

clearly our duty as a nation (passively, if possible, but actively,

if necessary) to support the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in its efforts

in behalf of the nations of Eastern Asia. The union of the greatest

nations of Europe, America, and Asia in a complete Anglo-Japanese

Alliance would make a “triple alliance” practically invincible.

There are two rival interests contending for mastery on the other

shore of the Pacific Ocean,—Russia and Japan. Toward the former we must

feel gratitude for her attitude toward us when our Union was in utmost

peril; but that sentiment is overbalanced by other considerations.

Toward the latter we have an imperative duty, as toward a _protégé_,

because it was America who started Japan on her present career and

must acknowledge the responsibility to assist her in every laudable

purpose. And certainly her aims in the Far East coincide with ours and

with the dictates of civilization. The supremacy of Japan in Eastern

Asia means far more for America and American institutions than does the

domination of Russia. Japan to-day enjoys rights unknown in Russia:

social freedom, political privileges, representative institutions,

local self-government, intellectual liberty, freedom of assembly and

of the press, and religious liberty. Japan is already far in advance

of Russia and, in many respects abreast of Germany, in civilization.

And, as “Japan holds the key of the Far Eastern position,” she is our

natural ally. _Dai Nippon banzai_—“Long live Great Japan.”

But let us now revert again to the Japanese writer quoted near the

close of the first chapter. With a reminder of the ever westward course

of empire, he pens a paragraph so bold and suggestive that it is worth

transcribing:[183]—

“Two streams of civilization flowed in opposite directions when

mankind descended from their primitive homes on the table-land of Iran

or America. That towards the west passed through Babylon, Phœnicia,

Greece, Rome, Germany, England, and culminated in America, while

that through the east travelled through India, Thibet, and China,

culminating in the Manchoo Court of Peking. The moral world is also

a magnet with its two opposite poles on the opposite banks of the

Pacific, the democratic, aggressive, inductive America, and the

imperial, conservative, and deductive China. There have been constant

attempts for the union of these magnetic currents.... Grander tasks

await the young Japan, who has the best of Europe and the best of Asia

at her command. At her touch the circuit is completed, and the healthy

fluid shall overflow the earth!”

In fact, it seems not improbable that the nation which, having from

ancient times imbibed and assimilated the elements of Oriental

civilization, has been swallowing and digesting Occidental

civilization, may produce a new and strong tissue. It is, therefore,

argued with no little force that “to reconcile the East with the West:

to be the advocate of the East, and the harbinger of the West: this we

believe to be the mission which Japan is called upon to fulfil.”

To most persons, undoubtedly, this conception of the future of Japan

appears to be teeming with national vanity. And, indeed, it cannot be

denied that New Japan is extremely egotistic. She views with evident

self-gratulation the astonishing progress she has made, and believes

herself capable of even more wonderful transformations. And surely,

when we contemplate the history of the past fifty years, and consider

the remarkable facility with which Japan has metamorphosed herself,

we need not wonder that she is confident or even boastful. To those

conversant with this people, their capabilities, and possibilities,

the above forecast of Japan’s future seems to photograph, with some

exaggerations, the natural and not altogether improper self-confidence

and reliance of an able, growing, and independent nation, which has

shown an inexplicable power of assimilating the various and diverse

elements of civilization. Even a foreigner has so much confidence in

the grand future of Japan that he expressed himself in the “Atlantic

Monthly” (June, 1892) in the following strong language:—

“In bringing to pass the fusion of eastern and western types, which

... shall create in both hemispheres a far more rounded civilization

than either has ever known, Japan has the inestimable privilege

of becoming our most alert pioneer. Through her temperament, her

individuality, her deeper insight into the secrets of the East, her

ready divining of the powers of the West, ... it may be decreed in the

secret council chambers of destiny that on her shores shall be first

created that new latter-day type of civilized man which shall prevail

throughout the world for the next thousand years.”

But while we may not, perhaps, be fully warranted in such sanguine

expectations, we cannot help being impressed with the fact that the

prospects of Japan are unusually bright. She slept for 250 years while

the Occident was moving rapidly onward in the path of civilization, and

she must now hasten to catch up. But she can avoid the pitfalls into

which the others, now and then, here and there, have fallen, and by

which they have been delayed. She can profit by the mistakes, by the

costly experiences, of those who preceded her along the rough road.

She must move quickly to make up for lost time, but not too rapidly;

she must “make haste slowly.” She can never go back, except to ruin

and death. She has stepped into the path of progress forever. She must

discard all things, whether manners, customs, letters, political forms,

superstitions, moulds of thought, or anything else which tends to

retard her onward movements. But it is sincerely to be hoped that even

the demands of modern progress will allow her to retain much of that

grace and charm, of that quaint simplicity, of that light-hearted and

merry nature, all of which characterize the Japanese.

We believe in Japan. We are confident that she has powers, both patent

and latent, which will enable her to achieve still greater successes

than she has yet accomplished. We have had our “blue spells,” when, for

this or that reason, we felt discouraged over the apparent failure of

some movement for reform; but in most instances we have eventually seen

success crown the effort. With reference to political affairs F. V.

Dickins has well expressed it: “There is a silent strength underlying

the sound and fury of Japanese politics which will enable the country

to weather much worse storms than any that threaten it.”[184] Therefore

we reiterate that we have confidence in the future of Japan and the

Japanese. We repeat that their achievements up to date are a guarantee

of continued success in the future. We dare prophesy that they will

yet display wonderful transformations in their development. We feel

perfectly warranted in applying Vergil’s line,—

_Hos successus alit; possunt, quia posse videntur_,

which Conington translates into two verses,—

“These bring success their zeal to fan,

THEY CAN BECAUSE THEY THINK THEY CAN.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

“The Awakening of Japan” (Okakura); “The White Peril in the Far East”

(Gulick); “Dai Nippon” (Dyer), chap. xix.; “The Spirit of the Orient”

(Knox); and “The Future of Japan” (Watson).

[Illustration: THE NAVAL HERO OF THE WAR

ADMIRAL TŌGŌ]

THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

The war between Japan and Russia was inevitable, because, as already

pointed out in this volume,[185] the two countries represented

different and naturally hostile interests. Ever since Russia, shut out

from an open port on the European or Western Asiatic seaboard, began to

spread eastward through Asia to seek an outlet into the Pacific Ocean,

it had been inevitable that the two powers would some day come into

collision. And it can be confidently affirmed that the Russians did

nothing, while Japan had done much, to avert the conflict. Russia not

infrequently committed overt acts to provoke Japan, and had generally

treated the latter in an overbearing and insolent manner.

In 1875, Japan was forced to give up Sakhalin for the bleak and barren

Kurile Islands. It was just twenty years later (1895) that Russia

committed her most unjust act of interference and provocation. Japan,

after her successful conflict with China, by the treaty of Shimonoseki,

had obtained the cession of the Liaotung Peninsula, of which Port

Arthur was then the most important port. “Hardly was the ink dry on

it [treaty] before the three great European powers—Russia, France,

and Germany—stepped in, and, in order to justify their interference,

declared that any holding of Manchurian territory by Japan would

constitute a menace to the peace of Asia.”[186] Japan, exhausted by

her first foreign war under the new _régime_, was in no position to

offer any opposition to three of the greatest World Powers, when

they tendered her kindly(?) advice. The only two powers who might

have assisted her against this combination were neither sufficiently

interested nor far-sighted enough to interfere; and they (Great Britain

and the United States) kept silent. Therefore, Japan had nothing to do

but to submit and accept a monetary consideration for giving up her

claim to the Liaotung Peninsula.

This in itself was not a _casus belli_, but it was enough to arouse

to almost fever-heat the excitement of an intensely patriotic and

naturally militant nation. The Government was able to hold in check

the indignant people; but nothing could prevent the development of a

not unnatural desire for revenge. From that time it was definitely

and positively known that a war with Russia was inevitable in the

not-distant future; and calmly and carefully the Japanese went to work

to prepare themselves for that conflict. It is not necessary to go into

the details of that preparation, the thoroughness of which has been

surprising the civilized world.

But even then war might have been averted, for the spirit of revenge

would have faded away in the multitude of other interests and

sentiments that have been pressing upon Japan’s attention within the

past decade. Indeed, during the Boxer troubles of 1900 and 1901 in

China, when the troops of Japan were marching, in company with those of

Russia, Germany, France, Great Britain, the United States, _et al._, to

the relief of the beleaguered foreigners in Peking, it almost seemed

like a harbinger of continued peace in the Far East. But this harmony

was only apparent, not real,—only temporary, not permanent.

In fact, it was that very campaign which enabled Russia to complete

her practical possession of Manchuria. She had, in the meantime,

obtained from China a lease of that very territory which she had forced

Japan to give up. She had also obtained permission from China to extend

the Siberian Railway through Manchuria to Port Arthur and Dalny, and

thus obtain an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. Measures of material

expansion might not have alarmed Japan, if it had not been that Russia

sought to obtain permanent possession of Manchuria through a military

occupation ostensibly for the purpose of protecting her commercial

interests. She marched her troops in large numbers into Manchuria in

order to protect the railway from the depredations of Chinese bandits;

she fortified Port Arthur and built up Dalny, the great “fiat city,”

and in every way showed no intention of letting Manchuria slip out of

her control. All such acts did not tend to allay the spirit of revenge

in the hearts of the Japanese, but of course made them more and more

indignant.

Nor was this all. Russia began to show most evident signs of

encroaching upon Korea. “Japan watched all these things with profound

anxiety. If there were any reality in the dangers which Russia,

Germany, and France had declared to be incidental to Japanese

occupation of part of Manchuria, the same dangers must be doubly

incidental to Russian occupation of the whole of Manchuria; the

independence of Korea would become illusory ...; an obstacle would be

created to the permanent peace of the East.”[187]

If Russia succeeded in maintaining her position in Manchuria, her

next step would take her into Korea, for whose safety and independence

there would be no guarantee; and still another step would bring her

over against Japan. Thus would be endangered, not only the influence of

Japan on the continent, but even her very existence. She would sink at

least into the position of a third-rate power, and would be completely

isolated from all opportunities for expansion.

But, even in spite of insults and provocations, Japan set herself to

resist the Russian encroachments by peaceable means and measures, in

which she at last had the support of Great Britain and the United

States. It was to be presumed that Russia would keep her promise to

give up her military occupation of Manchuria and restore to China the

administration of the “Three Provinces” on the dates specified in a

convention with China signed April 8, 1902. According to this, Russia

agreed to withdraw her troops gradually from Manchuria and entirely

resign her control thereof within one year.

But when the time came for the final evacuation, Russia showed no sign

of intending to carry out her agreement. After futile protests from

Japan, Great Britain, and the United States, Japan suggested to Russia

to open up negotiations concerning their respective interests in the

Far East; and to this Russia assented. It is scarcely profitable to

follow the devious windings of these negotiations, which were delayed

by Russia on one pretext or another. It is sufficient to state that

Japan invited Russia to nothing more than “to subscribe to the policy

enunciated by the United States and Great Britain,—the policy of the

‘open door’ and of the integrity of the Chinese and [the] Korean

Empires.”

During the course of the prolonged negotiations, Russia was moving

troops to the scene of action and making other military preparations.

These did not necessarily mean that she anticipated war, but that she

at least expected to overawe little Japan and thus obtain her desires.

“The only alternatives for Japan were war or total and permanent

effacement in Asia. She chose war, and in fighting, she is fighting

the battle of Anglo-Saxondom as well as of herself,—the battle of free

and equal opportunities for all without undue encroachment upon the

sovereign rights or territorial integrity of China or Korea, against

a military dictatorship, against a programme of ruthless territorial

aggrandizement, and against a policy of selfish restrictions.”[188]

[Illustration: DISTINGUISHED NAVAL COMMANDERS

ADMIRAL URIU

ADMIRAL KAMIMURA

COMMANDER HIROSE]

But it was not till after six months of negotiations that the Japanese

Government, on February 5, 1904, “having exhausted without effect every

means of conciliation,” and “finding that their just representations

and moderate and unselfish proposals in the interest of a firm and

lasting peace in the extreme East are not receiving the consideration

which is their due,” officially announced to the Russian Government

that they would not only “terminate the present futile negotiations,”

but also “sever their diplomatic relations with the Imperial Russian

Government,” and “reserve to themselves the right to take _such

independent action as they may deem best_.”[189] This was tantamount to

a declaration of war.

On February 6, Admiral Togo left Sasebo under official instructions,

and about midnight of February 8 struck the first blow of the war.

Six of his torpedo-boats attacked the Russian squadron in the harbor

of Port Arthur, inflicted serious damage upon the enemy, and retired

without much loss. On the following day a detachment of the fleet under

Admiral Uriu defeated two Russian cruisers in the harbor of Chemulpo,

Korea. Thus within a few hours the Japanese gained control of the sea,

and landed troops, who soon entered Seoul.

The formal declaration of war was made by Russia on February 9,

and by Japan on February 10, for publication in the newspapers of

the following day, which was the anniversary of the founding of

the Japanese Empire in 660 B. C. and of the promulgation of the

Constitution in 1889.

On February 23, a treaty of alliance between Japan and Korea was

formally signed at Seoul.[190] On the next night began a series of

attempts on the part of the Japanese squadron to block the mouth of the

harbor of Port Arthur. After several essays, in one of which Commander

Hirose met his heroic end, the Japanese so far succeeded that the

Russian war vessels were shut up in the harbor for a long period. This

enabled Japan to land troops with perfect immunity at several points on

the coast of Manchuria.

In the meantime, the First Army, under General Kuroki, was marching

across Korea without encountering much opposition, and, by brilliant

strategy, succeeded in crossing the Yalu River in the face of a

well-fortified Russian army. The Second Army, under General Oku, landed

at Kinchow, and after bloody contests, especially at Nanshan, was able

to get possession of Dalny, and sever connections between the Russians

in Port Arthur and their main force under General Kuropatkin. The Third

Army, under General Nodzu, having landed at Takushan, soon got into

touch with the First Army; and together they continued their march

northward in the face of constant opposition.

When Port Arthur was isolated from the rest of the Russian forces,

still another army was sent out, under General Nogi, to carry on the

investment of that place, so that the former armies might be free to

give undivided attention to General Kuropatkin’s force. The attempt of

the latter to relieve Port Arthur was checked by the Japanese in bloody

battles at Telissu and Kaiping, after which they advanced northward

toward Liaoyang.

In the meantime, in March, the Imperial Diet had met and voted

unanimously the Government’s proposals to raise from various sources

a special war fund of _yen_ 576,000,000. Indeed, in every possible

way, the Japanese people, as a unit, supported the Government in the

carrying on of war, even to undergoing many hardships. All domestic

loans thus far issued have been over-subscribed three or four times.

Moreover, on the last day of March, the fiftieth anniversary of

Commodore Perry’s treaty with Japan, a memorable meeting to celebrate

the event was held in the Y. M. C. A. Hall, Tōkyō. It was attended by a

large number of both Japanese and foreigners, and, after listening to

eloquent speeches, unanimously adopted a resolution to raise a Perry

Memorial Relief Fund for the destitute families of Japanese soldiers

and sailors. The subscription of over 60,000 _yen_ on the spot has

since been increased to about 100,000 _yen_.

The events off Port Arthur were colored still more tragically on April

13, when the Russian flagship “Petropavlovsk” of Admiral Makaroff was

sunk, and almost all on board, including the admiral and the famous

painter Verestchagin, perished. In May, the Japanese suffered their

first heavy losses in the sinking of the “Hatsuse” and the “Yoshino.”

In April the Russian Vladivostok squadron had taken the offensive

and sunk a Japanese transport with a few troops on board. After that

it made occasional sorties toward the Korean Straits in the hope

of creating a diversion from Port Arthur, and in one instance sunk

the “Hitachi Maru” with a large number of Japanese troops on board.

Moreover, in July this squadron succeeded in getting through the

Tsugaru Straits to the eastern coast of Japan, where it committed

depredations, even just off the entrance of Tōkyō Bay. But later it was

met in the Korean Straits by Admiral Kamimura’s squadron and defeated

with the loss of the “Rurik.”

By the early part of August the army investing Port Arthur had made

such progress, in spite of severe opposition, that it became extremely

dangerous for the Russian fleet to remain there longer. Therefore,

on August 10, they made a sortie with the intention of escaping to

Vladivostok. But Admiral Togo was not to be caught napping, and engaged

in battle with the squadron. A few vessels, badly damaged, regained

Port Arthur; others, some of which were severely injured, escaped to

neutral ports, where they had to be dismantled; the “Novik” eluded

its pursuers for a short time, but was finally overtaken and sunk in

Korsakoff Harbor, Sakhalin.

On August 23 began the great battle of Liaoyang, which continued for

over a week, and deserves to go down on the pages of history as one

of the severest, bloodiest, and probably most decisive battles ever

fought. It was only by the most tremendous exertions that General

Kuropatkin was enabled to save his army from having its retreat cut off

by the flanking movement of Kuroki, while Oku and Nodzu were pounding

away from other directions.

The attempt of Kuropatkin to retrieve his fortunes by advancing with

heavy reënforcements to retake Liaoyang met with another disastrous

defeat in the battle of the Shaho River, October 10-15. After that, the

two armies practically went into Winter quarters and engaged in nothing

more than skirmishes until January, 1905, when Mitschenko’s cavalry

made an unsuccessful raid upon Newchang and Yinkow, and Kuropatkin’s

army, apparently urged on by the political exigencies caused by

discontent at home, attempted a flanking movement on Liaoyang, but was

repulsed in the battle of Heikeutai.

In view of the lull in hostilities along at the front, popular

interest was once more directed toward Port Arthur. The Japanese navy

continued faithfully its task of watching the harbor; and, although it

could not maintain an absolutely complete blockade, it was nevertheless

able to prevent exit and entrance, except in the case of Chinese

junks and small steamers, which occasionally succeeded in running

the blockade under cover of night or stormy weather. The navy also

coöperated with the army by means of frequent bombardments of the

harbor, in which the remnants of the Russian fleet had sought refuge,

and even of the city of Port Arthur.

The Japanese army persistently pushed the attack from the land side;

and the Russians stubbornly resisted every step of the advance. The

former employed both direct and flanking attacks, and utilized every

device known in engineering to overcome the “impregnable” fortress,

so well fortified both by nature and by art. Slowly but steadily

the besiegers pressed on and obtained possession of various forts.

On October 30 they made a general assault, in which they succeeded

in capturing several important positions. Just one month later, the

“203-metre Hill” fell into the hands of the Japanese and gave them

the command of the inner harbor. In a few days they had succeeded in

completely disabling the remnants of the Russian squadron, so that

the greater portion of their own fleet was released from its long and

arduous blockade, and enabled to undergo a thorough overhauling in the

docks. A portion of it, under Vice-Admiral Uriu, was despatched to

watch the course of the Baltic fleet, and every preparation was made to

accord to these visitors as warm a reception as possible.

Admirals Togo and Kamimura, with their suites, returned, for a short

period, to Tōkyō, where they were greeted on December 30 with an

enthusiastic welcome. And, when the eventful year 1904 passed away,

it was generally thought that Port Arthur might be able to hold out a

month longer.

It may, therefore, be easily imagined with what complete surprise

came the news that on January 1 General Stoessel had opened

negotiations with General Nogi concerning surrender. “Hope deferred

maketh the heart sick”: but the relief from the long suspense showed

itself in a kind of prolonged _banzai_ and a series of celebrations

which lasted through the month. The stubborn defence and the bravery

of the defenders had awakened in every Japanese heart a feeling of

admiration; so that the chivalrous treatment of the garrison found a

ready response on all sides.

[Illustration: DISTINGUISHED LAND COMMANDERS

GENERAL BARON KODAMA

GENERAL COUNT NOGI

ADMIRAL PRINCE ITŌ]

During most of the month of February, the two armies confronting

each other along the banks of the Shaho River remained in apparent

inactivity, except for occasional skirmishes, but in real preparation

for another battle. Just when this began it is a little difficult to

state precisely, because some of the earlier operations were only

feints to disguise the real purpose. On February 24, the Japanese

gained a point by the capture of Ching-ho-cheng after two days of hard

fighting. And from this time the struggle went on practically without

cessation for two or three weeks. Within a few days the Japanese had

turned both flanks of the Russian army, which was compelled to beat

a precipitate retreat in great confusion and barely escaped complete

annihilation. The Japanese pushed on in hot pursuit, and occupied

Fushun, Mukden, Tiehling, Kaiyuan, and Changtu. This was the result

of the great battle of Mukden, which was much more decisive than even

Liaoyang, and ended the military activity in Manchuria for several

months.

In the meantime the Baltic fleet had been leisurely making its way

eastward, and, apparently regardless of international law, had been

enjoying the hospitality of neutral waters, especially those of

Madagascar and Annam. But, although Japan, supported by Great Britain

and the United States, vigorously protested against the flagrant

violations of international law in the abuse of French hospitality, yet

she did not allow herself to swerve from her original plan concerning

the Baltic fleet, or to be lured away from her own strategic position

to a battlefield of Russia’s choosing. The Japanese fleet, under the

indomitable Togo, was watching and waiting in the waters between Japan

and Korea; and, as all things come to those who wait, to the Japanese

came finally the Russian fleet, steering boldly through the Tsushima

channel for Vladivostok. May 27 and 28 (the latter the birthday of the

Empress of Japan) are the red-letter dates of the great naval battle,

which resulted in the practical annihilation of the Baltic fleet, with

tremendous loss to the Russians and only slight damage to the Japanese.

The Battle of the Sea of Japan, as it is officially designated, was the

decisive conflict of the war; and it deserves also to rank among the

decisive battles of the world’s history. If Togo had been defeated,

the communications of the immense Japanese army in Manchuria would

have been severed, and Japan itself would have been at the mercy of

the depredations of the Russian fleet. But the destruction of the

latter was so complete, that it is not strange that Russia was willing

at last to listen to the tactful intervention of President Roosevelt.

Peace commissioners were appointed by both combatants to meet in some

suitable place in the United States about August 1. The Japanese

representatives were Baron Komura, Minister of Foreign Affairs,

and Mr. Takahira, Minister to the United States; and the Russian

representatives were Count Sergius Witte, President of the Imperial

Committee of Ministers, and Baron Rosen, Minister to the United States.

[Illustration: COUNT KOMURA

MINISTER TAKAHIRA

THE JAPANESE PEACE ENVOYS]

Accordingly, avoiding the heat of Washington, the peace envoys

convened at Portsmouth, N. H., on August 9, after paying their respects

to President Roosevelt. The Japanese presented the following twelve

articles for the consideration of their opponents:

1. That Russia recognize Japan’s preponderating influence in Korea.

2. That Russia and Japan evacuate Manchuria.

3. That Japan restore Chinese sovereignty and civil government in

Manchuria.

4. That both powers respect Chinese sovereignty in Manchuria and the

principle of equal commercial opportunity there for all nations.

5. That the island of Sakhalin be ceded to Japan.

6. That Russia surrender to Japan all rights accruing under Chinese

leases of the Liaotung peninsula, including Port Arthur, Dalny, and

the Blonde and Elliott islands.

7. That Russia surrender to China by arrangement with Japan the

branch of the Chinese Eastern railway from Harbin to Port Arthur and

Newchwang, with retrocession of all privileges under the concession of

1898.

8. That the Russian concessions obtained in 1896 by which the short

route connecting the Trans-Siberian and Ussuri railways in northern

Manchuria be given to the Chinese Eastern railway, Chinese imperial

police to be substituted for the Russian guards.

9. That Russia pay Japan the substantial costs of the war.

10. That Russia surrender to Japan all warships interned in far

Asiatic waters.

11. That Russia limit strictly the naval establishment maintained in

neutral waters of the far East.

12. That Russia grant fishing rights to Japan along the Russian

littoral in Siberia.

After the agreement by Russia to certain of these articles, and

skilful manœuvring by the Russian envoys until the demand by Japan

for an indemnity was practically the one remaining cause for dispute

between them, the world was startled on August 29 by the surrender

of the Japanese of all demand for indemnification and the consequent

declaration of peace. As amended the treaty grants to Japan all

that Japan contended for before the declaration of war except the

maintenance of the territorial integrity of China, with the addition of

the valuable fishing rights along the Siberian coast and the right to

establish a consular service throughout eastern Russia.

The two powers mutually obligate themselves not to fortify the

Russo-Korean frontier nor to erect fortifications on the island of

Sakhalin, the more valuable portion of which, situated below the

fiftieth meridian, is ceded to Japan. Japan obtains the Chinese Eastern

railway and the right to build a branch line to Kirin, while the South

Manchuria railway is to be used for commercial purposes only, both

powers maintaining guards along its right of way. Korea, Manchuria,

and Siberia are opened to trade on the most favored nation basis, and

Manchuria is given the “open door” for all the world to enter.

Japan finds herself in possession of the sea and land routes to Peking

through the ownership of Port Arthur, and her influence in China has

waxed as that of Russia has waned, the subjects of the czar standing

now in the territorial position they occupied in 1890, with every

diplomatic advantage then held at the Chinese capital practically

annihilated.

By the surrender of all claim for compensation, except that for the

care of Russian prisoners of war, and by the return of the warships

interned in far Eastern waters, Japan has shown herself as magnanimous

as brave, as thoughtful for the peace of the world as for the details

which have brought her such success. Scrupulously respecting all the

rules of war, Japan has also set the world a new standard of hygienic

efficiency in the care of the wounded and especially in the prevention

of disease among her soldiers in the field.

* * * * *

Space fails to tell of innumerable deeds of Spartan heroism at the

front; of the calmness and dignity of the Japanese people in the time

of war, which they do not allow to interfere with their usual daily

duties; of working overtime to increase the productive wealth of the

country in this crisis; of the extra labor performed, even at night,

that a neighbor’s field or business may not suffer loss during his

absence from home to fight his country’s battles; of the work of women,

young and old, to provide necessary clothing and “comfort bags” for

those at the front; of the suffering and self-sacrifice of many at home

that loved ones may serve the country on the battlefield; of the kindly

care of Russian prisoners, who are “treated more like guests”; of the

work of the Red Cross Society, and its abundant labors both at home and

at the front. The Japanese are truly heroic in every sense of the word.

Two features have already stood out prominently in this war,—the

“splendid tenacity” of the Japanese soldiery, and the coördination of

the movements of their armies and navy. The strategic phase of the war

reflects the utmost credit upon Yamagata, Ōyama, Kodama, and the others

who planned the campaigns.

It ought not to be necessary to consider seriously the so-called

“Yellow Peril,” but it may be well to refer briefly to this bogy. For

such an idea there is not an iota of a reason. It is true that the

Japanese are ambitious to become the leaders and teachers of Korea,

China, and Siam;[191] but it is for the purpose of leading and teaching

them in civilization. Japan has turned her back, whether for good or

for ill, upon Oriental civilization, and has turned her face, whether

for good or ill, toward Occidental civilization. By this is not meant,

either that she will throw away all things Oriental, or that she will

accept all things Occidental. But it is simply meant, as before pointed

out,[192] that she will be the true reconciler between East and West,

and will develop that which is good and useful in both civilizations.

It is her purpose, therefore, not to array the East against the West,

but to bring them closer together in various bonds of unity. It would

be absolutely impossible for her to take any backward step in the path

which she has begun to tread, and in which she is striving earnestly

and succeeding rapidly in catching up with Western nations. Japan

represents in the Far East the ideals of Western civilization more than

does Russia. The immense empire of China with its teeming population

under Russian domination or only under Russian influence would

constitute a real “Yellow Peril,” or “Muscovite Menace,” terrible to

contemplate. But Japanese leadership or hegemony in Korean and Chinese

affairs constitutes a guarantee of peace and prosperity, of the “open

door,” of the spread of true civilization, in the Far East.

The real policy of Japan in this war has been clearly set forth in

various ways, of which one case follows:

On May 16 there was held in Tōkyō a most significant mass meeting of

representatives of all kinds and shades of philosophies, cults, and

religions. The thousand persons present included foreign missionaries,

American and British, and Japanese Shintōists, Buddhists, Roman

Catholics, Greek Catholics, and Protestants of various denominations,

besides probably many free-thinkers. There was a small number of women,

both Japanese and foreign, in attendance.

There were several speakers, all of whom dwelt upon the necessity of

union in the present crisis in the history of Japan. From the “Japan

Mail” we extract the following paragraphs in summary of some of the

addresses:—

“Mr. Ōuchi, the representative of Buddhism, declared that the Japanese

do not constitute the Yellow Peril. The Mongols constitute it, and,

above all, the Russians, who are Mongols. Napoleon had well said that

a Russian has a white skin over a yellow heart. Japan has a yellow

skin over a white heart. The whole practice of Russia, her boundless

aggressions, her despotism and intolerance, mark her as the true Yellow

Peril of the era.”

“Mr. Shibata, representing Shintō, said that the pity of Buddhism, the

charity (love) of Christianity, and the pure heart of Shintō are all

one and the same thing under different names.”

“Dr. Imbrie (representative of Christianity) adduced as proofs that

religion and race have nothing to do with the present war: first,

the fact that one of the belligerents, Japan, has a constitution

guaranteeing freedom of conscience; secondly, the meeting now

assembled, where all creeds and all races united in a common cause. He

believed that the heart of the nation was with them in this matter,

and that such an assembly might be convened in any part of Japan. He

believed also that the victory in the war would be with Japan for the

sake of the principles she represented.”

The meeting unanimously adopted the following resolution:—

“The war now existing between Japan and Russia has for its object, on

the part of Japan, the security of the empire and the permanent peace

of the East. It is carried on in the interests of justice, humanity,

and the civilization of the world. With differences between races

or religions it has nothing whatever to do. We, therefore, meeting

together without distinction of race or religion, agree that we will

endeavor to publish to the world, each in a manner accordant with the

methods observed in the religious body to which he belongs, the real

purpose of the present war, as now described. We also express a most

earnest desire for the speedy accomplishment of an honorable peace.”

The significance of this meeting can scarcely be overestimated. It

is a perfectly conclusive answer to the attempts made in various

quarters “to foment an anti-Japanese crusade on the ground of racial

and religious prejudices.” Japan stands before the world as a champion

of “the equality and fraternity of all races.” The so-called “Yellow

Peril” is a myth, a fantasy, a delusion; the reality is to be found in

the “Golden Opportunity” to win the Orient for Christ through Japan’s

leadership.

H. E. Count Katsura, in his official capacity as Prime Minister and

speaking in the name of His Majesty the Emperor, has given assurances

that the “Yellow Peril” is a myth, and that the religious liberty

guaranteed in the Japanese constitution is to be enforced. He has

stated most emphatically that “Japan stands for religious freedom.”

The leading statesmen of Japan, whether in or out of office, assert

most positively that Japan’s interests in the Far East are practically

identical with those of Great Britain and the United States, and that

she desires to work in harmony with those nations.[193]

The cause of Christian civilization in Japan has been indirectly

benefited by this war. The people, with minds broadened by the

responsibilities of their country, and with hearts touched by the

practical sympathy of Christian nations, are listening with deeper

interest to the presentation of Christian truths. The noble work of

the Young Men’s Christian Association at Antung proved so successful

that the military authorities soon requested its extension to other

portions of Manchuria. The Japanese have felt that though their nation

is nominally non-Christian, yet it is fighting the battle of Christian

civilization against a nation nominally Christian. The war has been

one of the most momentous in history, and decides whether the Far East

is to be dominated by conservative, despotic Russia or directed by

progressive, liberal Japan.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

Feb. 5, 1904. Severance of diplomatic relations.

8-9. Japanese naval victories at Fort Arthur and

Chemulpo.

9. Russian declaration of war.

10. Japanese declaration of war.

23. Treaty of Japan with Korea.

24. First attempt to block Port Arthur.

March 13. Marquis Ito starts on special mission to Korea.

27. Imperial Diet passed War Budget. Second attempt to

block Port Arthur.

31. Fiftieth anniversary of Perry’s treaty with Japan.

April 13. “Petropavlovsk” sunk by Japanese mine.

25. Transport “Kinshiu Maru” sunk by Russians.

May 1. Battle of the Yalu River.

3. Third attempt to block Port Arthur.

15. “Hatsuse” and “Yoshino” sunk.

16. Pan-Religion Mass Meeting, Tōkyō.

25, 26. Battle of Nanshan.

27. Occupation of Dalny.

June 15. “Hitachi Maru” (transport) sunk. Battle of Telissu.

23. Naval battle off Port Arthur.

27. Japanese capture Ta, Motien, and Fenshui Passes.

July 6-9. Battle of Kaiping.

21-30. Vladivostok Squadron in Pacific Ocean.

24. Battle of Tashikiao.

31. Japanese capture Simucheng.

Aug. 10. Russian fleet made unsuccessful sortie from Fort

Arthur.

14. Vladivostok fleet defeated.

20. “Novik” sunk in Korsakoff Harbor.

Aug. 23-Sept. 4. Battle of Liaoyang.

Oct. 10-15. Battle of the Shaho River.

30. General assault on Port Arthur.

Nov. 30. Japanese capture 203-metre Hill, P. A.

Dec. 3-11. Destruction Port Arthur Squadron.

30. Togo and Kamimura reach Tōkyō.

Jan. 1, 1905. Surrender of Port Arthur.

25-29. Battle of Heikeutai.

Feb. 24-March 10. Battle of Mukden.

Feb. 24. Japanese occupied Ching-ho-cheng.

March 9. Japanese occupied Fushun.

10. Japanese occupied Mukden.

16. Japanese occupied Tiehling.

19. Japanese occupied Kaiyuan.

20. Japanese occupied Fakuman.

21. Japanese occupied Changtu.

May 27, 28. Battle of the Japan Sea.

June 2. President Roosevelt broached subject of peace.

16. Japanese occupied Kangping.

18. Japanese occupied Liaoyangwopeng.

July 8. Sakhalin in hands of Japanese.

18. Vladivostok isolated.

Aug. 9. Peace envoys convene at Portsmouth, N. H.

29. Terms of treaty of peace settled.

SUMMARY

A brief summary of the war shows that at the close of the 570 days

which it lasted Russia had 629,614 men in the field in Manchuria, to

which Japan was able to oppose 912,730, with 1116 Russian cannon to

1030 Japanese. The Japanese captured 67,701 Russians, losing only

646 prisoners themselves. The total casualty list on land shows

294,779 Russians killed and wounded to 113,086 Japanese. The total

loss to Russia in ships is estimated at $155,560,000, including

twelve battleships, five armored cruisers, one coast defense vessel,

six cruisers, fourteen converted cruisers, and nineteen destroyers

sunk, and two battleships, two coast defense vessels, one converted

cruiser, and two destroyers captured, nineteen other naval vessels

being driven into internment. Japan’s naval loss includes two

battleships, four cruisers, as many converted cruisers, and two

torpedo boat destroyers sunk, which were valued at $24,720,000, none

being captured or interned. On the sea Russia lost 8100 in killed

and wounded to Japan’s 3670. The total cost of war is figured at

$2,000,000,000, of which Russia spent $1,200,000,000, borrowing

$870,000,000, and Japan spent $800,000,000, borrowing $650,000,000.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

George Kennan’s articles in “The Outlook” are superior. Of the books

which have been issued, the best are “With Kuroki in Manchuria,”

by Frederick Palmer, and “From Tōkyō through Manchuria with the

Japanese,” by Major Louis L. Seaman. A very thorough, scholarly, and

quite impartial presentation of the causes and issues of the war is

found in “The Russo-Japanese Conflict” (Asakawa), from which one can

understand completely the situation in the Far East. “The White Peril

in the Far East” (Gulick) is also valuable in this connection; and

“The Awakening of Japan” (Okakura) throws light on Japan’s aims and

ideals. “As the Hague Ordains” (Miss Scidmore) throws a great deal

of light upon the ideas of many of the chief actors in the bloody

drama. “Human Bullets” (Sakurai) relates most simply but vividly the

experiences of a Japanese officer, especially at the terrible siege

of Port Arthur. “The Tragedy of Russia” (McCormick) is most valuable.

GREATER JAPAN

[Illustration: H. I. M. THE EMPEROR]

The Treaty of Portsmouth, which closed the Russo-Japanese War, made

Japan one of the great powers of the world; therefore, this chapter

is entitled “Greater Japan.” This is not so much because Japan became

larger, although she added half of Sakhalin, obtained Russia’s lease

of part of Manchuria, and has annexed Korea, but it is because she has

become truly greater in many senses of the word. This will appear more

evident as one reads carefully the following record of the principal

events of the past seven years (1905-1912).

It is, perhaps, not strange that the Japanese nation was, on the

whole, disappointed with the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth. They

had borne heavy financial burdens, and had confidently anticipated

at least a partial compensation in the shape of an indemnity and the

re-acquisition of Sakhalin, of which they considered themselves cheated

by Russia, in 1875. To get only half of Sakhalin was not so much of

a loss, because it was the better half; but to get not a single sen

of indemnity was the bitterest kind of a pill, without even a coat of

sugar. And, although most of the Japanese people, as is usual, quickly

swallowed their disappointment, it is not strange that agitators

utilized the occasion to stir up the rowdy element to break out in

riots in Tōkyō early in September, 1905. And, after the destruction of

considerable property, the city was placed under martial law until the

excitement subsided.

The wisdom of the Japanese envoys in bringing the war to a close,

even on unpopular terms, was fully justified when it soon became

evident that the northern section of the main island, in the region

about Sendai, was threatened with a famine, due to the partial or

entire failure of crops. But the energy which had been spent on the

prosecution of the war was at once transferred to the task of relieving

the suffering. To the appeals for assistance a hearty response was

made, not only by Japanese and foreigners in Japan, but also by other

peoples, East and West.

Another compensation for the unpopular peace was found in September,

1905, when it became known that, in August, even before the Treaty

of Portsmouth had been signed, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance had been

renewed for a term of ten years.

Therefore, by the beginning of November, the feeling of disappointment

had so far subsided that the Emperor’s birthday (November 3) was

celebrated in Tōkyō with unusual _éclat_ by a grand triumphal military

review, followed later by a grand triumphal naval review at Yokosuka.

The Katsura Ministry, however, being held responsible for the unpopular

terms of peace, resigned in December,[194] and was succeeded in

January, 1906, by a Cabinet under Marquis Saionji, the leader of the

Seiyukwai, without special change of policy.

In the meantime, in accordance with a Convention between Japan and

Korea, the former established in the latter a Residency-General in

Seoul, with Residencies in several parts of the country. And to the

most important post of Resident-General the Emperor of Japan appointed

[then] Marquis Ito. And by this Convention the control of Korea’s

foreign affairs passed to the Residency-General.

[Illustration: MARQUIS SAIONJI]

The Twenty-second Session of the Imperial Diet (December 28, 1905-March

27, 1906) is worthy of special notice because it passed, with slight

amendments, the government bill for the nationalization of the railways

of the Empire. The original bill contemplated the purchase by the

government of all the railroads: but the Diet amended the bill, while

accepting the principle, by exempting a few small railways of no great

strategic importance, and applying the principle to seventeen large and

important lines. In the same year, the railways in Korea passed under

the management of the Japanese Government.

Another event worthy of notice is the organization in 1906 of the Japan

Peace Society, composed of men and women of several nationalities and

of many shades of political and religious belief. And in 1909 this

society was honored and strengthened by Count Okuma’s acceptance of the

position of President.

The year 1907 was marked by the negotiation of several “Agreements”

of prime importance in the maintenance of peace in the Far East. In

the first place, the Russo-Japanese Convention (July) “consolidating

peace and good neighborly relations,” proved that the Portsmouth

Treaty was not merely a sort of truce but a desire to “preserve the

peace permanently.” The Franco-Japanese Agreement (June) evinced the

strong “desire to strengthen the relations of amity existing between”

the two peoples. A new Japan-Korea Agreement (July) gave Japan the

control of the internal administrative affairs of Korea and especially

established a “clear differentiation” of the Executive and Judicial

departments of State. This separation of the judiciary from executive

and official interference was further emphasized by the appointment of

an earnest Japanese Christian, Judge Watanabe, as Chief Justice of the

Supreme Court in Korea. Meantime, the Emperor, whose corrupt rule had

brought his country to its deplorable condition, abdicated, and his son

succeeded to the throne, while the new Crown Prince went over to Japan

to be educated and was granted a suitable domicile in Tōkyō. Moreover,

the Crown Prince of Japan made a visit to Korea—the first instance

of a Japanese Crown Prince leaving his native land—and succeeded in

conquering prejudices and winning hearts.

The year 1907 was also memorable for some important events in the

Christian movement in Japan. In April, the World’s Student Christian

Federation, composed of 625 delegates from 25 nations, in all parts of

the world, convened in Tōkyō, and, in an inspiring session of several

days, exemplified the practical application of their motto, _ut omnes

unum sint_.

The late General Booth, of the Salvation Army, made a visit to Japan

(April 16-May 24), received a most cordial welcome, was honored by an

audience with the Emperor, and held a remarkable series of meetings in

the principal cities.

The National Sunday-school Association, which was organized in May,

was another application of the principle of Christian unity. And the

First Conference of the (union) Methodist Church of Japan, meeting in

Tōkyō (May 22-June 7), on June 1, elected as its first bishop Rev.

Y. Honda, D.D., the first native to be elected to such an important

ecclesiastical position in the Far East.

The short stop-over made in Japan by Hon. William H. Taft, then United

States Secretary of War, on his way to Manila, was one which truly

warranted his additional title of “Secretary of Peace.” In a speech on

October 1, at a banquet given in his honor in Tōkyō, he made a profound

impression when he said: “War between Japan and the United States

would be a crime against modern civilization.” And 116 representative

missionaries, residing in all sections of Japan, and representing

20 American Christian organizations, besides Independents, signed a

series of resolutions expressing their hope “that local and spasmodic

misunderstandings may not be allowed to affect in the slightest degree

the natural and historic friendship of the two neighbors on opposite

sides of the Pacific,” and that all “efforts to maintain peace and

good-will may be supported by all patriotic citizens and may be crowned

with success.”

And, although the immigration question at one time was a fruitful

source of agitation, yet the authorities in Japan, Canada, and

the United States dealt with the question in a considerate and

statesmanlike manner and came to a satisfactory settlement.

The friendly relations between Japan and the United States were further

consolidated, on May 5, 1908, by an Arbitration Treaty, the first which

Japan had ever negotiated. This was only one more strong evidence that

the two countries do not wish to find a _casus belli_.

In October of the same year came the first visit of a company of

American business men to Japan and the visit of the American fleet,

both of which received a most cordial welcome. The business men were

given every opportunity to ascertain industrial conditions in Japan,

and acknowledged that the visit was an eye-opener. In welcoming

the fleet, the “Kokumin Shimbun” said, among other good things,

“The sixteen battleships, representative of the noble traditions of

American justice, come to our shores as heralds of peace.” And, most

significantly, it added that “the time was ripe for an Americo-Japanese

_camaraderie_, which is already so strong as to be tantamount to an

unwritten alliance.” This utterance was significant because it was

followed so closely by the Americo-Japanese Entente, dated November 30,

1908. This is a document[195] of immense importance, which must stand

as a perpetual reminder that a war between Japan and the United States

would be a crime.

In July, 1908, the Saionji Ministry resigned, ostensibly on account of

the Premier’s illness, and Marquis Katsura was again called upon to

form a Cabinet.

Inasmuch as the great prosperity which immediately followed the

Russo-Japanese War had led to some extravagance and reckless

speculation, the Emperor felt impelled to issue in October, 1908, an

edict of warning to the people.

One more important event of this year should be chronicled—the

completion of the railway which runs the length of the island of

Formosa. This is facilitating greatly the development of the resources

of that “Beautiful Isle.”

In June, 1909, Prince Itō resigned his position as Resident-General

in Korea, and was succeeded by Viscount Sone, who had been

Vice-Resident-General. In July, the administration of justice and

prisons was transferred to the Resident-General. In October, Prince

Itō was assassinated at Harbin by a Korean fanatic; and, in December,

an unsuccessful attempt was made at Seoul upon the life of the Korean

Prime Minister by another fanatic. Prince Itō, as the greatest

statesman of Modern Japan, was especially honored with a most elaborate

state funeral.

The year 1909 was also marked by a Semi-Centennial Conference, held

in Tōkyō, October 5-10, to commemorate the beginning of Christian

missions in New Japan. It was “the first national conference in which

the Japanese and missionaries coöperated on an equal footing”; it

marked “the emergence of the Japanese Church from infancy to youth;

from the stigma of being an alien parasite to the acknowledged status

of an indigenous institution”; and marked the waning of missionary

domination and the rapid assumption of control by Japanese Christians.

Thus it was a real epoch-making event in the history of the Christian

movement in Japan.

[Illustration: STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN

MARQUIS KATSURA AND PRINCE ITŌ]

A large party of representative Japanese business men started in the

fall of 1909 for a trip to the United States, and returned in the

spring of 1910. The courteous treatment and generous hospitality

extended to them in their hurried tour across the country were highly

appreciated. The trip afforded an excellent opportunity to ascertain

that the true sentiments of the best Americans are friendly to Japan.

Viscount Sone, Resident-General in Korea, having been compelled, on

account of dangerous illness, to return to Japan, resigned his post,

and died September 13, 1910. He was succeeded by General Viscount

Terauchi, Minister of War, who carried through the plan of annexation,

which was formally announced on August 29, 1910. This “passing of

Korea” is a truly unfortunate but inevitable occurrence. It was a

practical impossibility for Korea, in her peculiar geographical

position, to maintain political independence. The “Poland of the Far

East” was destined, not to partition, but to absorption by Russia, or

China, or Japan; and she has fallen to the lot of the one best able to

improve her condition.

The year 1910 was also marked by the discovery of an anarchist plot

against the sacred person of the Emperor. Several were arrested as

conspirators, of whom a few were acquitted, a few were condemned to

imprisonment for terms of years, but twelve were condemned to death and

executed (in 1911).

It was in July, 1911, that the term of the revised treaties (which

had gone into effect in 1899) expired, and entirely new treaties

were negotiated with all the powers. As these treaties included no

limitations upon the commercial autonomy of Japan, they marked the

“end of her extra-territorial embarrassments.” And, in particular, the

new treaty with the United States omitted the objectionable provision

of the old treaty (see Appendix), in accordance with which it was

permissible for the United States to limit the immigration of Japanese.

This delicate question was left to a “gentleman’s agreement,” whereby

the Japanese Government would exercise the utmost care concerning

granting passports to Japanese to travel to the United States.

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was again revised in 1911 and renewed

for a term of ten years. The most significant point in this revision

was a provision inserted, in view of the probability at that time

of an Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty, that nothing should entail

upon either “contracting party an obligation to go to war with the

Power with whom such treaty of arbitration is in force.” This was

accomplished before the death of Marquis Komura, who thus lived long

enough to see this increased influence of that alliance in the original

negotiation of which he played a most important part.

That year was also distinguished by the generous Imperial donation

of 1,500,000 _yen_ to start a fund for the relief of the sick poor.

This contribution was supplemented by gifts from all over the Empire,

until the fund has reached a total of about 25,000,000 _yen_. And to

administer properly this large amount, a society called “Saiseikwai”

has been organized, with an Imperial Prince as Honorary President.

The year 1911 is likewise a red-letter year in the political history

of Japan, because, when the Katsura Cabinet resigned, the duty of

organizing a new Ministry was bestowed upon Marquis Saionji (the

leader of the Seiyukai), who made up what is practically a party

administration.

[Illustration: VISCOUNT SONE]

One of the most significant events of the year 1912 was what is

known as the “Tri-Religion Conference” (in March). It was called by Mr.

Tokonami, Vice-Minister of Home Affairs, and consisted of about fifty

Shinto, Buddhist, and Christian representatives. It was no attempt to

amalgamate the three faiths; it was merely a means of bringing those

representatives together for better acquaintance with each other,

for more earnest work in behalf of social and moral amelioration,

and for greater emphasis upon the spiritual needs of the nation. The

most significant point, however, was the fact that the conference was

practically an official recognition of Christianity on the same footing

with Shinto and Buddhism.

As the trial of a large number of Korean Christians on a charge of

conspiring to assassinate Governor-General Terauchi is still _sub

judice_, it is proper at present merely to mention the fact. It is,

however, only right to add, that much of the criticism of the case

arises from the fact that Japanese judicial processes follow European

rather than American models and are not in accord with Anglo-Saxon

ideas of justice.

The most prominent events of 1912 were, of course, the death of the

Emperor Mutsuhito, the accession of the Crown Prince Yoshihito, and

the close of the marvellous Meiji Era with the beginning of a new era,

called Taisho (Great Righteousness). The limits of space forbid more

than the mention of the wonderful scenes, especially in front of the

Palace, when the prayers of all classes of people, of all religious

beliefs and of no belief, were mingled together during the days just

preceding July 30. Mutsuhito and Meiji: these two names are practically

synchronous and synonymous; the reign of Mutsuhito was the Enlightened

Rule of Meiji.[196] It was, therefore, most appropriate that the

deceased Emperor was given the posthumous title of Meiji Tenno. And

the Imperial funeral was a most elaborate affair, an interesting

combination of the Old and the New, in which the former predominated;

for it was a Shinto ceremony with some modern Occidental attachments.

And the tragic suicide of General Count Nogi and the Countess at

eight o’clock in the evening of September 13, just as the Imperial

cortège was leaving the Palace, was in accordance with the old idea of

following one’s master in death. But, while it was not in accord with

Christian ideas of life and duty, my tongue of criticism is silenced.

A governmental crisis led to the resignation of Premier Saionji and

his cabinet in December, and Prince Katsura for the third time was

called to the place. Popular opposition to an increase of the army

and military expenses, demand for reduction of taxes, belief that

Premier Katsura was in sympathy with the military party, that he might

influence the Emperor, and that democratic tendencies were likely to

be checked, led to an uprising in opposition to him and his ministry.

February 5, 1913, a resolution was adopted in Parliament expressing

lack of confidence. Rioting in Tōkyō and elsewhere was followed by the

resignation of Prince Katsura and his cabinet February 11, and on the

12th, by the direction of the Emperor, Count Yamamoto formed a new

ministry.

Mention should be made of some matters which do not fit well into

these chronological annals. The fact that Japanese educational

authorities are obtaining Christian young men as English teachers

through the Young Men’s Christian Association is interesting. It should

also be noted that the number of Chinese students resorting to Japan

for education increased rapidly, until it was estimated at 15,000 to

20,000. But, as the great mass of these were mere adventurers, there

came a natural but heavy reduction, so that only about 5,000 remained

by 1910. And, in that year, almost all of these returned to China to

participate in the Revolution. There are also several hundred Korean

students, whose numbers will probably increase, besides many Indians

and a few Siamese and Philippinos. And these Oriental students return

home imbued with progressive ideas.

This is a summary of the principal events which have made a “Greater

Japan.” Dai Nippon (Great Japan) has been enlarged in seven years by

the acquisition of considerable territory. She is no longer merely

insular, but continental. She is greater in her resources and in

her potentialities. She has increased her wealth and her productive

capacity; she has enlarged her industrial enterprise; she has expanded

her trade and commerce. She has a bigger army and navy to protect

herself from aggression. Her educational facilities are greater,

and her moral and spiritual development has been enhanced through

Christianity. Japan enjoys greater power and influence in the world’s

councils, and she is also weighted with much greater responsibilities.

New Japan, in 1913 sixty years old, is a truly “Greater Japan.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

“Corea, the Hermit Nation” (7th edition) (Griffis); “Korea and her

Neighbors” (Mrs. Bird-Bishop); “Korean Sketches” and “Korea in

Transition” (Gale); “The Passing of Korea” (Hulbert); “The Tragedy of

Korea” (McKenzie); “With Marquis Itō in Korea” (Ladd); “China and the

Far East” (Clark University Lectures); “American Japanese Relations”

(Kawakami); “The Japanese Nation” (Nitobe).

[Illustration: JAPAN

MAIN ISLANDS.]

APPENDIX [Illustration: GENERAL VISCOUNT TERAUCHI.]

APPENDIX

PROVINCES AND PREFECTURES

The following list gives in detail the divisions of Japan into

Provinces (_Kuni_), according to “Circuits”:—

_Go-Kinai_ (Five Home Provinces). Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi

(or Senshiu), Settsu (or Sesshiu).

_Tōkaidō_ (Eastern Sea Road). Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari, Mikawa, Tōtōmi,

Suruga, Kai, Izu, Sagami, Musashi, Awa (or Bōshiu), Kazusa, Shimōsa,

Hitachi.

_Tōsandō_ (Eastern Mountain Road). Ōmi, Mino, Hida, Shinano (or

Shinshiu), Kōzuke (or Jōshiu), Shimozuke, Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen,

Rikuchū, Mutsu, Uzen, Ugo.

_Hokurikudō_ (North Land Road). Wakasa, Echizen, Kaga, Noto, Etchū,

Echigo, Sado Island.

_Sanindō_ (Mountain Shade Road). Tamba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Hōki,

Izumo, Iwami, Oki Islands.

_Sanyōdō_ (Mountain Sunlight Road). Harima (or Banshiu), Mimasaka,

Bizen, Bitchū, Bingo, Aki, Suwō, Nagata (or Chōshiu).

_Nankaidō_ (Southern Sea Road). Kii (or Kishiu), Awaji Island, Awa,

Sanuki, Iyo, Tosa (or Toshiu), of which the last four are in the

island of Shikoku.

_Saikaidō_ (Western Sea Road). Chikuzen, Chikugo, Buzen, Bungo,

Hizen, Higo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, Satsuma (or Sasshiu), Iki Island, Tsushima

Island, of which all except the last two are on the island of Kyūshiu.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE OF JAPAN[197]

(25 YEARS) CENTRAL METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY (1876-1900)

35° 41´ N. Lat., 139° 46´ E. Long.

Height, 70 feet.

Inches and Fahrenheit degrees.

=====================================+=========+=========+========+=========

| JAN. | FEB. | MAR. | APRIL.

-------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------

Mean temperature | 36.9 | 38.4 | 44.2 | 54.3

Mean max. temperature | 46.8 | 47.5 | 53.4 | 62.9

Mean min. temperature | 28.6 | 30.4 | 35.3 | 45.6

Absolute max. temp. | 97.9 (July 14, 1891) |

Absolute min. temp. | 15.4 (Jan. 13, 1876) |

Mean rainfall | 2.14 | 3.03 | 4.32 | 5.04

No. rainy days | 7.2 | 9.1 | 12.4 | 14.8

Days with snow | 4.0 | 4.5 | 2.8 | 0.1

Mean barometer (reduced freez. point)| 29.96 | 29.97 | 29.95 | 29.94

Mean direction of wind | N.22°W. | N.16°W. | N.8°W. | N.51°E.

=====================================+=========+=========+========+=========

=====================================+=========+=========+=========+=========

| MAY. | JUNE. | JULY. | AUG.

-------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------

Mean temperature | 61.9 | 68.8 | 75.8 | 78.2

Mean max. temperature | 70.2 | 76.1 | 83.0 | 86.0

Mean min. temperature | 53.5 | 62.2 | 69.6 | 71.8

Absolute max. temp. | | | |

Absolute min. temp. | | | |

Mean rainfall | 5.91 | 6.52 | 5.01 | 4.37

No. rainy days | 13.3 | 14.4 | 14.1 | 11.8

Days with snow | ... | ... | ... | ...

Mean barometer (reduced freez. point)| 29.84 | 29.77 | 29.77 | 29.79

Mean direction of wind | S.44°E. | S.39°E. | S.20°E. | S.21°E.

=====================================+=========+=========+=========+=========

=====================================+=========+========+=========+=========

| SEPT. | OCT. | NOV. | DEC.

-------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------+---------

Mean temperature | 71.6 | 60.3 | 50.1 | 41.3

Mean max. temperature | 78.9 | 68.9 | 60.1 | 52.0

Mean min. temperature | 65.5 | 53.1 | 41.7 | 32.4

Absolute max. temp. | | | |

Absolute min. temp. | | | |

Mean rainfall | 8.12 | 7.07 | 4.35 | 2.02

No. rainy days | 16.2 | 13.1 | 9.0 | 6.3

Days with snow | ... | ... | 0.2 | 1.2

Mean barometer (reduced freez. point)| 29.87 | 29.98 | 29.99 | 29.95

Mean direction of wind | N.47°E. | N.4°W. | N.14°W. | N.25°W.

=====================================+=========+========+=========+=========

======================================+========

| YEAR.

--------------------------------------+--------

Mean temperature | 56.8

Mean max. temperature | 65.5

Mean min. temperature | 49.1

Absolute max. temp. |

Absolute min. temp. |

Mean rainfall | 57.90

No. rainy days | 141.6

Days with snow | 12.8

Mean barometer (reduced freez. point) | 29.90

Mean direction of wind | N.1°W.

======================================+========

_Hokkaidō_ (Northern Sea Road). Oshima, Shiribeshi, Iburi, Ishikari,

Hitaka, Tokachi, Teshiwo, Kushiro, Nemuro, Kitami (all on the island

of Yezo), and Chishima, or the Kurile Islands.

_Ryūkyū_ (Loo Choo) Islands. This group constituted one, the 85th,

_Kuni_.

The following is the list of Japanese Prefectures (_Ken_ and _Fu_):—

The _Fu_ number three: Tōkyō, Kyōto, and Ōsaka.

The _Ken_ number forty-three: Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Ibaraki,

Tochigi, Gumma, Nagano, Yamanashi, Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, Shiga,

Fukui, Ishikawa, Toyama, Niigata, Fukushima, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita,

Iwate, Aomori, Nara, Wakayama, Hyōgo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi,

Shimane, Tottori, Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kōchi, Nagasaki, Saga,

Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Ōita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and Okinawa (Ryūkyū

Islands).

Hokkaidō and Formosa are at present administered as “territories” by

the Imperial Government, although the former has recently been granted

a small measure of local self-government.

TABLES OF JAPANESE MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE[198]

_Length (Sashi). Japanese Weights and Measures._

As the use of the Japanese weights and measures is becoming more and

more frequent in reports and books from the Far East, the following

tables will be found useful to all persons who wish to ascertain the

equivalents of the Japanese terms in similar terms in use in the United

States and in England:—

LONG MEASURE (_SASHI_)

1 _Mō_ (0.0001 _Shaku_) 0.000099 foot.

1 _Rin_ (10 _Mō_) 0.00099 foot.

1 _Bu_ (10 _Rin_) 1.4317 lines.

1 _Sun_ (10 _Bu_) 1.1931 inches.

1 _Shaku_ (10 _Sun_) 11.9305 inches.

1 _Ken_ (6 _Shaku_) 1.9884 yards.

1 _Jō_ (10 _Shaku_) 3.3140 yards.

1 _Chō_ (60 _Ken_) 5.4229 chains (1.15 m.).

1 _Ri_ (36 _Chō_) 2.4403 miles (2-1/2 m.).

1 _Kai-Ri_ (Marine _Ri_) 1.1507 miles.

DRY GOODS MEASURE (_KUJIRA-JAKU_)

1 _Sun_ (0.1 _Shaku_) 1.4913 inches.

1 _Shaku_ (10 _Sun_) 14.9130 inches.

1 _Tan_ (about) 11 yards.

1 _Hiki_ (about) 22 yards.

WEIGHT (_HAKARI_)

1 _Mō_ 0.000008 pound (avoirdupois).

1 _Rin_ (10 _Mō_) 0.000083 pound „

1 _Fun_ (10 _Rin_) 5.7972 grains „

1 _Momme_ (10 _Fun_) 2.12 drams „

1 _Kin_ (160 _Momme_) 1.3251 pounds „

1 _Kwan_ (1,000 _Momme_) 8.2817 pounds „

CAPACITY (_MASU_)

1 _Shaku_ (10 _Sai_) 0.00397 gallon.

1 _Gō_ (10 _Shaku_) 1.2706 gills; 0.0199 peck.

1 _Shō_ (10 _Gō_) 1.5881 quarts; 0.1985 peck.

1 _To_ (10 _Shō_) 3.9703 gallons; 1.9851 pecks.

1 _Koku_ (10 _To_) 39.7033 gallons; 4.9629 bushels.

SUPERFICIAL MEASURE (TANBETSU)

1 Square _Shaku_ about 1 square foot.

1 _Tsubo_ (36 Square _Shaku_) 3.9538 square yards.

1 _Se_ (30 _Tsubo_) about 119 square yards.

1 _Tan_ (10 _Se_) 0.2451 acre.

1 _Chō_ (10 _Tan_) 2.4507 acres.

1 Square _Ki_ 5.9552 square miles.

MONEY

1 _yen_ $0.4935

1 _sen_ one-half cent.

_Money, Weight, and Measure of Various Countries in Terms of those of

Japanese_

MONEY

English pound (20 shillings) 9.763 _yen_.

Shilling (12 pennies) 0.4881 „

Penny (4 farthings) 0.0407 „

Hong Kong dollar 0.949 „

American dollar (100 cents) 2.006 „

Cent 0.02 „

German mark 0.478 „

French franc 0.387 „

Chinese tael 1.298 „

Manila dollar 0.985 „

Mexican dollar 0.965 „

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LENGTH

Mile (1,760 yards) 14 _chō_ and 49 _ken_.

Yard (3 feet) 3 _shaku_.

Foot (12 inches) 1 _shaku_.

Inch 8 _bu_ and 4 _rin_.

GERMAN, FRENCH, AUSTRIAN, AND ITALIAN LENGTH

Metre 3 _shaku_ and 3 _sun_.

Centimetre (1-100 metre) 3 _bu_ and 3 _rin_.

Millimetre (1-1000 metre) 3 _rin_ and 3 _mō_.

ENGLISH CAPACITY

Gallon (liquid) 2 _shō_, 5 _gō_, and 2 _shaku_.

Bushel (wheat) 2 _to_ and 1 _gō_.

AMERICAN CAPACITY

Gallon (liquid) 2_shō_ and 1 _gō_.

Bushel (wheat) 1 _to_, 9 _shō_, and 5 _gō_.

_Weight_

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN (HEAVYWEIGHTS)

Ton (20 hundredweight, or 2,240 pounds) about 270 _kwan_ and 946 _momme_.

Short ton (2,000 pounds) 241 _kwan_ and 916 _momme_.

Hundredweight (112 pounds) 13 _kwan_ and 547 _momme_.

Pound (16 ounces) 121 _momme_.

Ounce about 8 _momme_.

LIGHT WEIGHT

Pound 99 _momme_ and 5 _bu_.

Ounce 8 _momme_ and 3 _bu_.

Grain 1 _rin_ and 7 _mō_.

_Area_

AMERICAN AND ENGLISH

Acre 4 _tan_ and 24 _ho_.

ARABLE LAND IN JAPAN[199]

The “Nichi Nichi Shimbun” argues that the real question for the

Japanese to consider is development of agriculture, not a paltry

lightening of the fiscal burden now imposed on agriculturists. When

the area of cultivated land in the various countries of the world is

compared with the total areas of those countries, startling figures

result.

_Ratio of Area of Cultivated Land to Total Area of Country_

Belgium 53.9

Prussia 50.3

France 50.2

Germany 43.4

Denmark 42.5

Italy 39.9

Hungary 37.7

Austria 36.7

Spain 35.7

Holland 27.3

England 27.9

Portugal 24.9

European Russia 16.4

Japan 13.8

Japanese habitually plead that their extraordinarily

low place on this list is the result, not of want of industry, but of

natural obstacles, much of the surface of their islands consisting of

mountains and hills which cannot be made arable. The “Nichi Nichi”

alleges that such an excuse is merely partial, and that a little energy

and resolution would soon change the situation. At any rate, the

opposition offered by politicians to the present land tax is not in the

genuine interests of agriculture, but in the interests of political

popularity.

* * * * *

Mr. Megata, an official of the Finance Department and an expert

statistician, has figured out that in 1901 more than 15,000,000 acres

were in cultivation.

* * * * *

The actual yield of rice for ten years (1900-1909) is indicated in the

following table:—

KOKU.

1900 41,466,422

1901 46,914,434

1902 36,932,266

1903 46,473,298

1904 51,430,321

1905 38,172,560

1906 46,302,530

1907 49,052,065

1908 51,932,893

1909 52,437,662

Average 46,114,451

FRUIT-GROWING IN JAPAN[200]

Fruits originally cultivated, and probably native in Japan, include

the orange, pear, peach, sour plum, almond, grape, persimmon, loquat,

pomegranate, ginko or salisburia, and fig. The mikan, or Japanese sweet

orange, is smaller, sweeter, and less juicy than the oranges raised in

America, and the thin membrane separating the sections of the fruit is

tougher; it has a very pleasant flavor, and is much used for food by

both natives and foreigners. It is cultivated all through the warmer

regions of Japan, and is the most plentiful of the fruits raised there,

being found in the markets from early autumn until late the following

spring. The persimmon comes next to the orange in the number produced,

and is a favorite with the natives, but its season is comparatively

short. It closely resembles the persimmon of America’s Southern States.

The sour plum is extensively cultivated and yields a good crop, but

the other fruits named above, though more or less widely grown, are

produced in much smaller quantities—the fig being most abundant and

most valued of the less important fruits. The government has introduced

peaches, pears, and grapes from Europe and America, and has found the

soil and climate well adapted to their production, so that these are

now cultivated in addition to the native varieties of the same fruits.

Of the fruits wholly unknown in Japan until introduced from abroad, the

apple has proved most successful, and it has become a chief product of

some districts in the Hokkaidō, or northern island. The apples are of

fine appearance and excellent flavor, and the trees yield a profit very

encouraging to the cultivator, so that the area of their production is

being increased. The natives eat fruit chiefly fresh, and its use as a

table diet is not general, although increasing. The processes of drying

and canning fruits are beginning to come into use, but only as a means

of preserving the fruit for home consumption, not for export.

FACTORIES IN JAPAN[201]

======+============+==============+======================

| NO. OF | AGGREGATE | NO. OF FACTORIES

| FACTORIES. | HORSE POWER. | WITHOUT MOTOR POWER.

------+------------+--------------+----------------------

1895 | 2,758 | 61,252 | 4,396

1896 | 3,037 | 64,429 | 4,603

1897 | 2,910 | 63,434 | 4,377

1898 | 2,964 | 79,016 | 4,131

1899 | 2,305 | 76,885 | 4,394

1900 | 2,388 | 95,392 | 4,896

1909 | 6,723 | 554,571 | 8,703

======+============+==============+======================

_Factories with Motor Power_

==========================+============+========+=============

| NO. OF | HORSE | NO. OF

| FACTORIES. | POWER. | OPERATIVES.

--------------------------+------------+--------+-------------

Silk reeling | { 1,046 | 9,362 | 112,887[202]

| { 1,722 | 6,631 | 102,071

| | |

Cotton and silk spinning | { 117 | 12,523 | 56,417

| { 112 | 20,463 | 80,107

| | |

Ships, machines, etc. | { 155 | 2,577 | 16,654

| { 198 | 4,190 | 18,131

| | |

Weaving | { 25 | 3,005 | 7,924

| { 56 | 2,596 | 9,588

| | |

Cement | { 251 | 1,099 | 2,712

| { 37 | 1,825 | 3,554

| | |

Printing | { 30 | 246 | 3,233

| { 15 | 531 | 5,224

| | |

Paper-mills | { 11 | 3,097 | 1,761

| { 18 | 3,398 | 2,909

==========================+============+========+=============

_Factories without Motor Power_

==========================+===================+====================

| NO. OF FACTORIES. | NO. OF OPERATIVES.

--------------------------+-------------------+--------------------

Silk reeling | { 636 | 17,614

| { 496 | 14,077

| |

Cotton and silk spinning | { 2 | 38

| { 21 | 542

| |

Ships, machines, etc. | { 188 | 4,512

| { 99 | 3,195

| |

Weaving | {1,025 | 28,900

| {1,245 | 34,965

| |

Cement | { 136 | 5,099

| { 119 | 2,870

| |

Printing | { 103 | 2,784

| { 95 | 2,617

==========================+===================+====================

CLEARING-HOUSES OF JAPAN

The following table shows the development of the clearing-house

business in the two largest centres:—

==================+=================+=================

| TOTAL OF CHECKS AND BILLS CLEARED.

FIRST HALF-YEAR +-----------------+-----------------

OF | TŌKYŌ | ŌSAKA.

| _Yen._ | _Yen._

------------------+-----------------+-----------------

1895 | 131,600,000 | 34,500,000

1896 | 184,800,000 | 65,700,000

1897 | 250,300,000 | 72,200,000

1898 | 383,400,000 | 97,300,000

1899 | 433,800,000 | 161,600,000

1900 | 675,400,000 | 255,500,000

1901 | 565,000,000 | 263,700,000

1902 | 614,700,000 | 298,700,000

1903 | 756,100,000 | 395,900,000

1908 (whole year) | 2,962,973,000 | 1,418,941,000

1910 (whole year) | 3,841,380,000 | 2,028,605,000

==================+=================+=================

SHIP-BUILDING IN JAPAN[203]

Recent orders which have been placed in the hands of the Nagasaki

Dockyard and Engine Works and the Kawasaki Dockyard Company, Limited,

by the Nippon Yūsen Kaisha and the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha, serve to remind

the resident of the rapid development of the ship-building industry

in this country, while at the same time affording evidence of the

growth of the country’s mercantile marine. The order placed with the

first-named yard is for four large steamers of 6,000, 5,400, 2,500,

and 1,900 tons, respectively, the largest vessels being intended for

the Japan Mail Steamship Company’s European and Australian lines. Nor

is the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha in a different position. This enterprising

company also has found it necessary to order new vessels, and has

found it economical to order them in Japan instead of from abroad. The

fact is worthy of note, for it is the first time in the history of the

country that orders for eight ocean-going steamers have been in hand at

one time. This may, we trust, be held to indicate that the shipping and

ship-building industries are in a healthy and prosperous state.

The contrast between the condition of the local ship-building trade

now and that of a few years back is a striking one. Perhaps the first

real impetus given to private ship-building here was due to the

enterprise of the late Mr. E. C. Kirby, at whose yard at Onohama—the

plant of which was subsequently removed to Kure—one large cruiser and

several smaller gunboats and steamers were successfully launched.

Since then, the yards at Kawasaki, Ōsaka, Ishikawajima, Uraga, and

Nagasaki have taken up the work vigorously, and demonstrated beyond

possibility of cavil their ability to turn out ocean-going craft, and

large river steamers of the highest standard. With the productions of

Ōsaka and Kōbe ship-building establishments trading regularly on the

Yangtze, and 6,000-ton liners from the Nagasaki Shipbuilding Engine

Works, making record voyages between Seattle and the Orient, and others

running regularly between home ports and London, there is no longer

room for surprise in viewing Japan-built steamers. There is no doubt

that with the opening up of additional lines in the China and Japan

seas, sufficient work for local ship-builders will be forthcoming for

some years to come, and it is therefore unlikely that they will enter

into serious competition in the near future with ship-building yards

in Shanghai, Hongkong, and Singapore. The home demand seems likely to

engage their activities for some years yet, though the presence of a

700-ton steamer for the Shanghai customs on the stocks at Kawasaki may

be held to belie the prediction.... Although Japanese ship-builders may

have quite enough to do in the near future to meet the home demand,

a young rival has entered the lists against the great ship-building

concerns of the West; and this in itself is no small credit to the

nation, which is already able to plume itself upon having accomplished

more in a generation than any other people in Asia or in the South

Seas, and as much, relatively, as the American and English peoples

whose homes are on the Pacific slope.

THE ŌSAKA EXHIBITION[204]

Considering that as recently as 1873 Japan had no such institution

as a factory, and knew nothing whatever of iron foundries or machine

shops, the Japanese-made machinery display at the exhibition at Ōsaka

was astonishing. There we found silk-weaving and mat-making machines,

electrical motors and generators, gas and oil engines, locomotives,

electrical fittings, tools, beltings, match-making machine,

lemonade-making machine, distilling machine, fire-brigade appliances,

rice-cleaning machines, huge steam navvy, oil tanks, soap-making

machines, printing machines, massive hoisting engine, tea-refining

machinery, heavy mining machinery, and many other smaller machines, all

of Japanese manufacture, admirably made and efficient.

In general manufactures the empire made a good showing. Straw braid;

_shibori_, a beautiful stuff, making pretty dress material; woollen

serges and woven silks, particularly a delicate fabric of mixed silk

and cotton (the output of this fabric exceeding $1,500,000 per annum);

cheap and good cotton blankets, Japanese towels, artistic designs

in tiles and roofing materials, drainpipes, fireproof bricks. In

drinkables, also of home manufacture, there was beer by the carload;

_sake_, the famous native drink, enough to quench the thirst of an army.

One of the best exhibits was in clocks; some of them very handsome

and very cheap, made by one or other of the twelve Japanese clock

companies. The porcelain exhibition was good, consisting of beautiful

vases, artistic porcelain trays, basins, teacups, etc. The exhibit of

Japanese-made shoes was quite creditable. Other native manufactures

exhibited were bamboo furniture, whatnots, over-mantels, fire screens,

shell buttons, paper lanterns, fine silken rugs, shawls, paper,

camphor, oils, soap, all kinds of sauces and relishes, silks of every

hue and description, silk lace, gold and silver thread, linen, duck,

tent cloths, ivory work, bronzes, lacquer and silver work, surgical

instruments, pianos, organs, and other musical instruments, bicycles,

gymnastic and athletic goods, microscopes, cameras, barometers, and

almost every kind of educational apparatus.

The natural products of the country were exhibited to good advantage.

Rice, tobacco (manufactured and un-manufactured), silkworms, various

varieties of silk cocoons, tea, huge oranges, sugar, furs, woods,

pearls, coral, fish (dried and salted). Mushrooms were a special

exhibit of one prefecture, tea of another, and so on. The whole section

of the agricultural experiment station was complete and admirable in

every way.

In the foreign section we found weaving-machines (only introduced

October, 1902, and already largely sold), German shoe-making and

cigarette-making machines, and searchlights from Nuremberg, match and

matchbox-making machines, rifles, wire samples, chemicals, perfumes,

British-made electrical appliances, timber, paints, varnishes, gas and

oil engines, steam-engines (British), a turbo-alternator (electric)

from Newcastle-on-Tyne, rubber and steel goods from England, Maxim’s

famous guns, fountain pens, typewriters, Indian cotton, American bone

goods, American motor cars and bicycles, meat extracts, American

provisions, American lighting and heating apparatus for railway

carriages and street cars, refrigerator cars, Boston pile-sinking

outfits, New York pumps, marine gasolene engine, and sewing-machines.

Canada also made a good exhibit of the cereals and food products of the

Dominion, with the Canadian system of cold storage, and of pulp woods,

furniture, and iron work.

COST OF LIVING IN JAPAN

_How Laborers Live_

The following tables are from “The Labor World” for July 1, 1898. The

editor sent a form to be filled out by the laborers themselves, to get

accurate statistics of their lives and work. A few samples throw light

upon the inner life of Japanese laborers:—

No. 1.—House, two rooms; a family,—man (30), wife (23), mother (53),

two sisters (14 and 11); occupation, blacksmith.

Working days in a month 26

Working hours in a day 12

Daily wages $0.52

Monthly income 13.83

Monthly expenses 13.65

House rent, one month 0.96

Rice 5.76

Fuel and light 1.08

Vegetables. 0.87

Fish 0.96

_Sake_ (rice beer) 0.24

_Soy_ (Japanese sauce) 0.73

Tobacco 0.20

Hair cutting and dressing 0.83

Bath 0.88

Pin money 0.25

Sundries 0.89

No. 55.—House, two rooms, with kitchen; a family,—man (27), wife (25),

boy (6), girl (2); business, iron worker.

Daily wages $0.25

Overtime income for one month 1.50

Monthly income 8.28

Monthly income 8.28

Monthly expense 9.44

House rent 0.75

Rice 3.25

Fuel and light 0.41

Vegetables 0.60

Fish 0.60

_Soy_ and _miso_ 0.23

Tobacco 0.25

Hair cutting and dressing 0.18

Bath 0.20

Pin money 0.60

Sundries, including interest on debt 2.37

_Increase in Living Expense_

The following interesting comparison between the cost of living in 1889

and 1899 is from “The Miyako”:

(Calculated monthly expenditure of a family of six members—a married

couple, a parent, two children, and one servant—living with strict

economy.)

1889. 1899.

_yen._ _yen._

House rent (a house containing the

furnished rooms of 6, 4-1/2, and

2 _mats_, respectively 2.50 5.00

Cleaned rice (at the rate of

2 _shō_ per day) 4.50 7.00

1 _to_ 3 _shō_ (8 _shō_ 5 _gō_

per _yen_.) per _yen_.)

_Soy_ 0.45 0.75

Salt and _miso_ (including 1-1/2

_gō_ of salt and some _miso_) 0.40 0.70

Oils (3 _shō_ of kerosene and 5

_gō_ of vegetable oil) 0.45 0.69

Sugar 0.60 0.90

Milk (1 _gō_ per day) 0.90 1.10

Newspaper (only 1) 0.25 0.35

School expenses (for 2 children) 0.80 0.90

Stationery expenditure

(for the children) 0.60 0.90

Hair dressing 0.34 0.69

Price of bath (every other day for

the family) 0.90 1.50

Vegetables 0.90 1.50

Fish food (9 messes for the family) 1.08 1.80

Beef (6 messes for the family,

about 2/3 of 1 pound) 0.60 1.20

Tsukudani and other auxiliary foods

(6 messes) 0.24 0.42

Tea 0.40 0.50

Fuel 1.00 1.80

----- -----

Total 17.21 28.20

Security money for rent 7.00 15.00

These include necessaries, but if other petty expenses are taken into

calculation, a family of 6 members as mentioned above will require a

monthly income of at least 35 _yen_ on which to maintain themselves

decently.

_Wages of Japanese Workmen_

Following is a table of the average wages:—

1902. 1911.

_Yen._ _Yen._

Carpenter per day .775 1.063

Plasterer „ .863 1.150

Painter „ .860 1.238

Tile Roofer „ .613 1.225

Roofer „ .913 1.213

Bricklayer „ .900 1.250

Furniture Maker „ .800 .988

Stone Mason „ .925 1.250

Gardener „ .600 .838

Paper Hanger „ .825 1.025

Matting Setter „ .900 1.175

Sawyer „ .863 1.088

Compositor „ .575 .750

Printer „ .400 .650

Wooden Clog Maker „ .638 .625

Cooper „ .700 .528

Fireman „ .550 .813

Coolie „ .450 .575

Jeweller „ .650 .650

Tailor, Jap. clothes „ .688 .738

[205]Cabinet Maker „ .550 .888

[205]Lacquerer „ .513 .600

[205]Shoemaker „ .750 1.038

[205]Harness Maker „ .675 1.038

[205]Cart Maker „ .550 .588

[205]Founder „ .813 .700

[205]Blacksmith „ .813 1.075

[205]Rice Pounder „ .375 .483

[205]Dyer per month 8.875 8.375

[205]Washerman „ 10.000 7.750

[205]Jap. Sock Maker „ 6.000 9.500

[205]Eur. Confectioner „ 9.750 13.000

[205]Male Servant „ 2.625 4.000

[205]Female Servant „ 2.000 3.250

[205]Tailor, Eur. clothes „ 17.625 30.000

RAILWAYS IN JAPAN

The report on railway development shows that since the government

constructed its first line of eighteen miles from Yokohama to Tōkyō

in 1872, a great trunk line of 1,200 miles has been built, and the

total mileage in the country increased to 6,042, which in 1910 handled

153,088,066 passengers and 25,815,000 tons of freight. Of this entire

mileage, 506 miles are owned by private corporations, and 5,536 by the

government, which was the pioneer in the movement to give the country

modern land transportation. No private construction was done until

1883, when the government had 181 miles of railway under operation;

and it was not until 1889 that private enterprise for a time led the

governmental effort. The state railways to August, 1905, cost the sum

of 85,573,511 _yen_, while the private systems represented a cost for

construction to the same date of 191,230,291 _yen_. In 1910 the grand

total had reached almost 577,000,000 _yen_.

[Illustration: MILITARY REVIEW, HIMEJI]

According to the reports made on the railways at the end of the year

1910 the gross earnings of both state and private railways for that

year were 89,000,000 _yen_, the gross expenditures 46,796,000 _yen_,

and the net profit over 43,700,000 _yen_.

The government has arranged plans for railway construction and

development which involve an outlay of 174,523,365 _yen_, the

construction to extend through eight years, and the improvements

through twelve.

The line from Nagoya to Haichioji, near Tōkyō, opened to traffic in

1911, is about 224 miles long. The construction represents the best

engineering skill, and an outlay of $17,500,000. It has ninety-five

tunnels and 350 bridges.

The people of the country opposed the construction of the first line

from Yokohama to Tokyo as a dangerous thing, and it was several years

before public opposition to the innovation was entirely removed. Bond

issues for railway construction were opposed, but the government

insisted on its policy and finally won the people to its general

support, so that by the end of the year 1908 on all lines there were

2,156 locomotives, 5,951 passenger coaches, and 34,045 freight cars in

use.

POSTAL SAVINGS IN JAPAN[206]

It must be admitted at the outset that the system of postal savings

in Japan cannot boast of any particularly brilliant record. The study

of it reveals, however, a state of things which is not without some

encouraging features. We give below the amounts of the deposits and

some other items for every third year since the inauguration of the

institution:—

======+==================+====================+============

| DEPOSITS AT THE | | AMOUNT PER

YEAR. | END OF THE YEAR. | NO. OF DEPOSITORS. | DEPOSITOR.

| _Yen._ | | _Yen._

------+------------------+--------------------+------------

1875 | 15,000 | 1,800 | 8

1878 | 286,000 | 14,100 | 20

1881 | 821,000 | 38,900 | 21

1884 | 5,260,000 | 141,200 | 37

1887 | 18,213,000 | 568,800 | 31

1890 | 19,197,000 | 833,700 | 25

1893 | 26,155,000 | 1,060,200 | 24

1896 | 28,251,000 | 1,273,300 | 21

1899 | 23,455,000 | 1,397,600 | 16

1902 | 28,536,000 | 2,707,500 | 10

1905 | 54,754,096 | 5,858,560 | 9

1908 | 92,389,473 | 7,886,279 | 12

1911 | 200,000,000 | 12,000,000 | 17

======+==================+====================+============

The sudden drop between the years 1896 and 1902 is

owing to the fact that the extraordinarily high interest offered by

the ordinary banks during that period of monetary stringency diverted

deposits from the Post Offices. The gradual fall in the general rates

of interest since then has already begun to turn the tide back in

favor of the Post Offices, as shown by the figures for late years.

What is particularly satisfactory is the increase in the number of

depositors, the increase in this respect being far more remarkable

than the increase in the amount of the deposits, as shown by the

decreasing amount per depositor. This means, if it means anything, that

the advantages offered by the Postal Savings Bank are more and more

extensively appreciated by the poorer classes.

The amount of deposits at the Postal Savings Bank seems to be steadily

increasing, as is shown by the table. The figures for 1909, not given

there, show 9,717,236 depositors, and 122,098,101 _yen_ deposits.

Not altogether unsatisfactory as is this result of the official efforts

to encourage the saving habit among the people, it must be noted that

we are in this respect far behind some of the European countries.

Consulting the statistics for the year 1898, we find the postal savings

reached in that year to £120,000,000 in England, £33,000,000 in France,

£21,000,000 in Belgium, £4,800,000 in Austria, £1,000,000 in Hungary,

£2,700,000 in Holland, and £3,400,000 in Sweden. In spite of the great

improvement effected in the system of late years, especially in the way

of simplifying the official procedure connected with the acceptance

and repayment of the deposits, much still remains to be done in order

to bring the facilities provided by it within easy reach of the people

by increasing the number of the Post Offices authorized to receive

deposits throughout the country.

While speaking of savings, it may not be uninteresting to mention a

few figures on the state of the deposits at the ordinary banks. We do

not happen to have at hand the statistics covering all the banking

concerns in the country. The “Ginkō Tsushin-Roku,” however, supplies us

with reliable statistics up to February, 1902, so far as the principal

banking centres are concerned. We find, then, that the total amount of

deposits at the banks belonging to the clearing-houses of Tōkyō, Ōsaka,

Kyōto, Nagoya, Yokohama, and Kōbe, stood at the end of February at

308,289,000 yen, made up as follows, not including the deposits at the

Bank of Japan:

_Yen._

Tōkyō 119,268,000

Ōsaka 75,824,000

Yokohama 49,280,000

Kōbe 23,423,000

Kyōto 22,616,000

Nagoya 17,878,000

In June, 1910, the Bank of Japan had a paid-up capital of 37,600,000

_yen_; in 1909 the deposits were 220,101,784 _yen_. At that time the

Industrial Bank of Japan had deposits of 8,930,050 _yen_. The deposits

in all the Japanese banks in 1909 amounted to 1,617,873,711 _yen_.

THE OIL INDUSTRY IN JAPAN[207]

Japan’s oil industry has a brilliant future before it. The use of

kerosene in the country has grown at a wonderfully rapid pace. In the

first year of _Meiji_ the amount of oil imported was 639 _koku_. In

1901 it had reached 1,300,000 _koku_. The value of the oil imported

in 1868 was only 7,236 _yen_; that imported in 1901 was 14 million

_yen_.[208] The following table shows the rate at which the import of

kerosene into Japan increased:—

=======+===========+============

| | VALUE.

YEARS. | _Koku._ | _Yen._

-------+-----------+------------

1868 | 639 | 7,236

1872 | 8,936 | 160,608

1877 | 53,645 | 605,598

1882 | 413,644 | 2,320,905

1887 | 421,177 | 1,871,428

1892 | 653,785 | 3,328,398

1897 | 1,221,164 | 7,667,350

1900 | 1,356,846 | 14,162,652

1901 | 1,379,927 | 14,943,400

=======+===========+============

Notwithstanding the large supply that has come from abroad, of late

years the demand for the Echigo oil has gone on increasing, as shown in

the subjoined table, which covers seven years.

=======+=================+===========

| _Koku_ OF CRUDE | VALUE.

YEARS. | PETROLEUM. | _Yen._

-------+-----------------+-----------

1895 | 158,334 | 526,976

1896 | 207,470 | 619,333

1897 | 257,614 | 668,677

1898 | 355,006 | 670,308

1899 | 544,583 | 1,450,904

1900 | 836,628 | 2,142,003

1901 | 1,115,807 | 2,345,916

=======+=================+===========

It is calculated that about 5/10 of the total quantity of this crude

petroleum was used for lighting purposes. It would seem, then, that

Echigo supplied 3/10 of the total amount of oil used for lighting in

Japan during the seven years, and that the remaining 7/10 came from

abroad. Taking the year 1901, the value of the crude petroleum being

2,345,916 _yen_, it is estimated that when refined this amount of

petroleum would fetch not less than 4 million _yen_. But the fact

remains that the proportion of oil imported is still very large, so

that there is room for a further great development of the business.

In 1908 Japan’s output of petroleum was 1,872,592 U. S. barrels.

Echigo is by no means worked out: new fields are constantly being

discovered in that province. Then petroleum has been found in Hokkaidō

and in the Yamagata and Shizuoka prefectures. So that among Japan’s

modern industries her oil trade may be pronounced to be full of

promise. How the quality of the Japanese oil compares with the American

and Russian brands, we are not told by the _Jiji_, but from other

sources we gather that when properly refined Japanese petroleum is

equal to the best American and Russian oils.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.

The following table shows the national development in population,

finance, trade, railway, vessels, telegraphs, savings, and currency,

during the 30 years from 1872 to 1902.

========+===============+==============+=============+==========

| | STATE | | RAILWAY.

YEAR. | POPULATION. | EXPENDITURE. | TRADE. | MILES.

| (IN THOUSAND) | _Yen._ | _Yen._ |

--------+---------------+--------------+-------------+----------

1872 | 33,210 | 57,730,025 | 43,204,462 | 18

1873 | 33,300 | 62,678,601 | 49,742,830 | 18

1874 | 33,625 | 82,269,528 | 42,779,120 | 38

1875 | 33,997 | 69,203,242 | 48,586,738 | 38

1876 | 34,338 | 59,308,956 | 51,676,296 | 65

1877 | (unknown) | 48,428,324 | 50,769,424 | 66

1878 | „ | 60,911,336 | 58,862,974 | 68

1879 | 35,768 | 60,317,578 | 61,128,772 | 73

1880 | 35,929 | 63,140,896 | 65,021,987 | 98

1881 | 36,358 | 71,460,321 | 62,250,133 | 122

1882 | 36,700 | 73,480,667 | 67,168,344 | 170

1883 | 37,017 | 83,106,859 | 64,712,861 | 244

1884 | 37,451 | 76,663,108 | 63,544,112 | 262

1885 | 37,868 | 61,115,313 | 66,503,659 | 353

1886 | 38,507 | 83,223,960 | 84,044,745 | 430

1887 | 39,069 | 79,453,036 | 96,711,932 | 593

1888 | 39,607 | 81,504,024 | 131,160,744 | 912

1889 | 40,072 | 79,713,671 | 136,164,472 | 1,136

1890 | 40,453 | 82,125,403 | 138,332,086 | 1,339

1891 | 40,718 | 83,558,891 | 142,454,540 | 1,716

1892 | 41,089 | 76,734,740 | 162,428,833 | 1,870

1893 | 41,388 | 84,581,872 | 177,970,036 | 1,938

1894 | 41,813 | 78,128,643 | 230,028,141 | 2,118

1895 | 42,270 | 85,317,179 | 265,372,756 | 2,290

1896 | 42,706 | 168,856,509 | 289,517,234 | 2,507

1897 | 43,228 | 223,678,844 | 382,435,848 | 2,948

1898 | 43,763 | 219,757,568 | 443,255,909 | 3,120

1899 | 44,260 | 254,165,537 | 435,331,802 | 3,638

1900 | .... | 292,726,996 | 491,691,839 | 3,855

1901 | .... | 266,856,824 | 508,166,187 | 4,026

1902 | .... | 275,751,194 | |

--------+---------------+--------------+-------------+----------

========+==============+=============+============+=============

| VESSELS. | TELEGRAPHIC | | MONEY IN

YEAR. | TON. | LINES. | SAVINGS. | CIRCULATION.

| | _Ri._ | _Yen._ | _Yen._

--------+--------------+-------------+------------+-------------

1872 | 22,364 | 87 | .... | 132,611,498

1873 | 26,988 | 806 | .... | 159,423,361

1874 | 26,120 | 1,758 | .... | 157,660,830

1875 | 42,304 | 1,833 | 15,224 | 154,931,596

1876 | 40,248 | 2,156 | 41,845 | 163,692,344

1877 | 49,105 | 2,876 | 100,138 | 175,432,023

1878 | 43,899 | 3,512 | 286,289 | 221,994,874

1879 | 42,763 | 3,842 | 494,114 | 215,912,239

1880 | 41,215 | 4,489 | 662,091 | 203,994,171

1881 | 41,044 | 5,078 | 821,938 | 195,742,688

1882 | 42,107 | 5,477 | 1,058,225 | 186,376,681

1883 | 45,350 | 5,871 | 2,298,502 | 182,625,317

1884 | 49,845 | 6,122 | 5,260,484 | 177,978,053

1885 | 59,613 | 6,283 | 9,050,255 | 181,433,916

1886 | 63,314 | 6,353 | 15,462,054 | 198,557,838

1887 | 72,322 | 6,818 | 18,417,022 | 200,157,163

1888 | 81,066 | 7,588 | 20,142,169 | 207,825,609

1889 | 88,816 | 8,191 | 19,976,419 | 220,748,343

1890 | 93,812 | 9,250 | 19,197,942 | 205,408,438

1891 | 95,588 | 9,113 | 26,424,174 | 210,872,584

1892 | 102,301 | 9,920 | 30,031,483 | 219,848,385

1893 | 110,205 | 10,230 | 32,199.954 | 244,847,437

1894 | 169,414 | 11,502 | 32,772,652 | 256,088,534

1895 | 213,221 | 12,212 | 41,143,695 | 291,665,016

1896 | 227,841 | 15,431 | 46,693,884 | 307,461,803

1897 | 426,624 | 18,360 | 51,550,536 | 330,470,142

1898 | 464,246 | 20,561 | 52,532,992 | 285,589,698

1899 | 498,376 | 24,342 | 68,829,712 | 332,702,090

1900 | 534,239 | 27,390 | 72,897,286 | 318,280,814

1901 | .... | .... | .... | 306,315,006

1902 | | | |

--------+--------------+-------------+------------+-------------

NOTE.—In expenditure, the figures from 1872 up to 1898 are taken

from the settled account, and those of 1899, 1900, and 1901 from the

actual account. 1902 is from the Budget. In railways, the figures

show the mileages of the lines belonging to the government as well

as those belonging to private firms opened to traffic at the end of

the respective years. The tonnage of vessels shown in the table is

that of steamers. Before 1896, the figures represented the aggregate

amount of both registered and unregistered tonnage, while from that

year up to 1902, the figures only represented registered tonnage. In

savings, the figures show the total amount saved in the post offices

as well in the savings banks at the end of the respective years.

The figures from 1890 to 1900 indicate, however, the amounts of the

postal savings only.

From the “Tōyō Keizai Shimpō” (Oriental Economist).

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOREIGN TRADE OF JAPAN

From the official statistics we give a table of Japan’s foreign trade

each year from 1868 to 1901, and for 1909.

=======+====================+=====================+===================

| | |

| EXPORTS. | IMPORTS. | TOTAL.

| _Yen._ | _Yen._ | _Yen._

| | |

-------+-------------+------+--------------+------+--------------+----

1868 | 15,553,472 | 870 | 10,693,071 | 790 | 26,246,544 | 660

1869 | 12,908,977 | 990 | 20,783,633 | 090 | 33,692,611 | 080

1870 | 14,543,012 | 510 | 33,741,637 | 360 | 48,284,649 | 870

1871 | 17,968,608 | 660 | 21,916,727 | 650 | 39,885,336 | 310

1872 | 17,026,647 | 220 | 26,174,814 | 930 | 43,201,462 | 150

1873 | 21,635,440 | 850 | 28,107,390 | 030 | 49,742,830 | 880

1874 | 19,317,306 | 090 | 23,461,814 | 400 | 42,779,120 | 490

1875 | 18,611,110 | 610 | 29,975,627 | 620 | 48,586,738 | 230

1876 | 27,711,527 | 500 | 29,964,678 | 960 | 51,676,206 | 460

1877 | 23,348,521 | 600 | 27,420,902 | 950 | 50,769,424 | 650

1878 | 25,988,140 | 280 | 32,874,834 | 170 | 58,862,974 | 450

1879 | 28,175,770 | 190 | 32,953,002 | 390 | 61,128,772 | 580

1880 | 28,395,386 | 660 | 36,626,601 | 000 | 65,021,987 | 660

1881 | 31,058,887 | 930 | 31,191,246 | 020 | 62,250,133 | 950

1882 | 37,721,750 | 570 | 29,446,593 | 980 | 67,168,344 | 550

1883 | 36,268,019 | 590 | 28,444,841 | 780 | 64,712,861 | 370

1884 | 33,871,465 | 500 | 29,672,647 | 450 | 63,544,112 | 950

1885 | 37,146,691 | 430 | 29,356,967 | 920 | 66,503,659 | 350

1886 | 48,876,312 | 790 | 32,168,432 | 260 | 81,044,745 | 050

1887 | 52,407,681 | 150 | 44,304,251 | 690 | 96,711,932 | 840

1888 | 65,705,510 | 210 | 65,455,234 | 010 | 131,160,744 | 220

1889 | 70,060,705 | 820 | 66,103,766 | 600 | 136,164,472 | 420

1890 | 56,603,506 | 030 | 81,728,580 | 500 | 138,332,086 | 530

1891 | 79,527,272 | 340 | 62,927,268 | 380 | 142,454,540 | 720

1892 | 91,102,753 | 630 | 71,326,079 | 500 | 162,428,833 | 130

1893 | 89,712,864 | 590 | 88,257,171 | 710 | 177,970,036 | 300

1894 | 113,246,086 | 150 | 117,481,955 | 460 | 230,728,041 | 610

1895 | 136,112,177 | 920 | 129,260,578 | 280 | 265,372,756 | 200

1896 | 177,842,700 | 620 | 171,674,474 | 250 | 289,517,234 | 870

1897 | 163,135,077 | 320 | 219,300,771 | 640 | 382,435,848 | 960

1898 | 165,753,752 | 880 | 277,502,156 | 510 | 443,255,909 | 390

1899 | 214,929,894 | 310 | 220,401,925 | 990 | 435,331,820 | 300

1900 | 204,429,998 | 980 | 287,261,845 | 680 | 491,691,839 | 560

1901 | 252,349,542 | 100 | 255,816,644 | 700 | 508,166,187 | 800

=1909= |=413,112,511=| .. | =394,198,843=| .. | =807,311,354=|

=======+=======================================

| IMPORTS COMPARED WITH EXPORTS.

+--------------------+------------------

| INCREASE. | Decrease.

| _Yen._ | _Yen._

-------+-------------+------+-------------+----

1868 | ....... | .. | 4,860,401 | 080

1869 | 7,874,655 | | |

1870 | 19,198,624 | 850 | |

1871 | 3,948,118 | 990 | |

1872 | 9,148,167 | 710 | |

1873 | 6,471,949 | 180 | |

1874 | 4,144,508 | 310 | |

1875 | 11,364,517 | 010 | |

1876 | ....... | .. | 3,746,848 | 540

1877 | 4,072,381 | 850 | |

1878 | 6,886,693 | 890 | |

1879 | 4,777,232 | 200 | |

1880 | 8,231,214 | 340 | |

1881 | 132,358 | 090 | |

1882 | ...... | .. | 8,275,156 | 590

1883 | ...... | .. | 7,823,177 | 810

1884 | ...... | .. | 4,198,818 | 050

1885 | ...... | .. | 7,789,723 | 510

1886 | ...... | .. | 16,707,880 | 530

1887 | ...... | .. | 8,103,429 | 460

1888 | ...... | .. | 250,276 | 200

1889 | ...... | .. | 3,966,939 | 220

1890 | 25,125,074 | 470 | |

1891 | ...... | .. | 16,600,003 | 960

1892 | ...... | .. | 19,776,674 | 130

1893 | ...... | .. | 1,455,692 | 880

1894 | 4,235,869 | 310 | |

1895 | ...... | .. | 6,851,599 | 640

1896 | 53,831,713 | 680 | |

1897 | 56,165,694 | 320 | |

1898 | 111,748,403 | 630 | |

1899 | 5,472,031 | 680 | |

1900 | 82,831,851 | 600 | |

1901 | 3,467,101 | 600 | |

=1909= | | | |

THE WEALTH OF JAPAN

The following estimate gives an idea of the wealth of Japan and its

distribution:—

Land 7,000 millions _yen_.

Mines 500 „ „

Live-stock 80 „ „

Buildings 1,900 „ „

Furniture 400 „ „

Railroads 350 „ „

Warships and merchant-ships 250 „ „

Specie 200 „ „

Miscellaneous 300 „ „

Goods and other products 800 „ „

------

Total 11,080 „ „

* * * * *

The output of gold in 1908 was 168,883 ounces.

* * * * *

On the position Japanese occupy as regards the acquisition of wealth

Mr. Kure Bunso, the well-known statistician, writes in the “Shakaigaku

Zasshi” as follows: There are only two men in Japan who pay an income

tax on over 250,000 _yen_. There are only 13 men in the whole country

who pay on 39,000 _yen_, being in the proportion of 4 persons to every

100,000 inhabitants; only 67 who pay on 24,000 _yen_, being in the

proportion of 2 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants; 96 persons who

pay on 17,000 _yen_, being in the proportion of 2.8 persons to every

10,000 inhabitants; those who pay on 11,000 _yen_ number 140, being in

the proportion of 4 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants. Out of every

1,000 inhabitants there are only 7 persons who make 2,700 _yen_ a year.

Thus it is seen that when compared with the French and the English

the Japanese are extremely poor. The Germans seem to be rich to the

Japanese, though when compared with the French and English they are

poor. General Grant, when in Japan nearly twenty years ago, remarked

that Japan was fortunate in having such an equality among all classes

of the people. He said that the gulf between the rich and the poor did

not exist here. Equality may be all very well in its way, but, says

Mr. Kure, a state of equality in which most of the people hardly have

enough to live on is anything but desirable.[209]

* * * * *

The new building of the Mitsui Company in Tōkyō is constructed upon

steel frames, and is the only one of its kind in the East. The Mitsui

Bank is the oldest banking establishment in Japan, more than 200 years

old. The building area is 2,600 square yards on a site covering 2-1/2

acres.

JAPANESE YEAR PERIODS

It should be borne in mind that the Japanese year periods do not

regularly correspond with the reigns of the Emperors, because “a new

one was chosen whenever it was deemed necessary to commemorate an

auspicious or ward off a malign event.” But hereafter the era will

correspond with the reign of an Emperor. The names of some of these

eras are quite famous, like the Elizabethan or the Victorian Era in

English history. As the first era was a time of great reforms, it is

known as the Taikwa Reformation; the Engi Era, in the tenth century,

is celebrated for important legislation; the Genroku Era, in the

seventeenth century, was “a period of great activity in various arts”;

and the Tempō Era, of recent days, was “the last brilliant period of

feudalism before its fall.” This name was also given to the large

8 _rin_ piece coined in that era. The Wadō Era, in the fourteenth

century, was so named on account of the discovery of copper; and the

second era, Hakuchi, commemorates a “white pheasant,” presented to the

Emperor.

LIST OF JAPANESE YEAR PERIODS.[210]