THE JEWS OF EUROPE (1040-1215)
The first mention of Jews in Germany is found in two orders of Emperor
Constantine (321), in which he regulated the condition of the Jews
of Cologne. It is possible that this settlement was of a temporary
character, for nothing is heard of the Jews in Germany until the
tenth century. A statement to the effect that Charlemagne called
Rabbi Kalonymus of Lucca in Italy to be Chief Rabbi of all the Jews
of Germany is first reported in the sixteenth century, and is in all
likelihood legendary. Under Charlemagne the Jews appear in Germany only
as travelling traders. In 1016, however, there was already a bloody
persecution of the Jews in Mayence. Gershom ben Judah, a native of
France, was rabbi in Mayence. He occupied so prominent a position that
he was called מאור הגולה (light of the exile). He wrote commentaries
on various parts of the Talmud, responsa, other Talmudic works, and
liturgical poetry. He died in 1028. To him are ascribed various rules,
among them a prohibition of polygamy and an injunction to respect the
secrecy of letters. At the same time there lived in Mayence Simeon bar
Isaac, the liturgical poet, whose hymns are found in the ritual of the
German Jews for the second day of Rosh Hashana.
In 1090 Emperor Henry IV granted charters to the Jews of Worms and
Speyer. These are the oldest laws regulating the status of the Jews in
Germany, granting to them freedom of trade and travel, proclaiming the
inviolability of their cemeteries, and prohibiting the kidnapping and
baptism of their children. Six years later the first crusade broke out,
and the mobs composing the army of the crusaders on the Rhine invaded the
Jewish settlements, chiefly Cologne, Mayence, Speyer and Worms, in that
part of the country. Houses were sacked, synagogues desecrated, and many
Jews cruelly murdered; others committed suicide after killing their own
children in order to save them from forced conversions. A number of Jews
who had been converted to Christianity, in order to save their lives,
later on returned to Judaism in spite of the ecclesiastic law which put
this under the penalty of death. The Emperor, who at that time was in
Italy, sanctioned this in spite of the protests of the Pope.
Another persecution broke out in 1146, when the second crusade began.
But the consequences were not as serious as those of the first crusade.
Bernard of Clairvaux strongly condemned all acts of violence toward the
Jews, who found refuge in the castles of the lords, and the Bishop of
Speyer opened his castle, the Wolkenburg, to them, protecting them from
the attacks of the mob. Still, in Wuerzburg, quite a number were killed,
under the charge of having murdered a Christian. This may be considered
the first blood-accusation on the European continent, although no
particular motive for the crime was given. There is, however, a case on
record in England in 1144, where the Jews were accused of having murdered
a boy, William of Norwich, and nailed him to a cross in order to mock the
crucifixion of Jesus.
During the course of the twelfth century, local outbreaks of mob violence
occurred everywhere in Europe, notably at Blois, France, in 1171, where
thirty-four Jews were burned at the stake. In 1189, on the occasion of
the coronation of King Richard Cœur de Lion, a bloody persecution took
place in London, and soon spread over the other cities of the kingdom.
Notable is the case of Benedict of York, who, in order to save his life,
turned to Christianity and returned to Judaism on the next day. Both King
Richard and the Archbishop of Canterbury permitted this, although it was
against the canonical law.
The climax of the ill-treatment of the Jews was reached in 1215, when
the Lateran Council, presided over by Pope Innocent III, passed various
laws repeating the usual prohibition against office-holding by Jews, and
decreeing that they should wear a distinct mark on their outer garments.
This is the origin of the Yellow Badge, which in some countries continued
to be in force until the end of the eighteenth century. The Pope stated
that the Jews should be like Cain, singled out for their wickedness, and
that their treatment should be an object lesson to Christians.
SPIRITUAL LIFE OF THE PERIOD
The spiritual life of the Jews reached its highest development in Spain,
where the contact with the cultured Arabs, whose language the Jews
spoke, made the works of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientists
accessible to them. In the beginning of the eleventh century Bahya ibn
Pakuda, a philosopher, wrote “The Duties of the Heart,” perhaps the most
popular work of this literature. His ideal of life is asceticism. His
contemporary, Solomon ibn Gabirol (born 1022), wrote a philosophical
book, “The Fountain of Life,” which, however, is only extant in a Latin
translation. He also wrote an ethical treatise, “The Choicest of Pearls,”
and some Hebrew poetry. His poems, of which quite a number have found
place in the liturgy, are among the best works of their class. Of his
secular poems in Hebrew, a wine song is the most famous. About the same
time Samuel Hanagid was secretary to the King of Granada. He was not
only a patron of Jewish learning but an author of considerable note. He
wrote an introduction to the Talmud, and various works which are sequels
to Biblical books, such as Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. His son,
Joseph, succeeded him, and was killed in a riot in 1060.
The greatest Hebrew poet of mediæval times is Judah Halevi (born about
1080, died 1141). Of his numerous poems, some are of a religious, others
of a secular character. Of the latter the best known is a description of
a sea voyage; of the former, the Ode to Zion, embodied in the ritual for
the ninth of Ab and translated into various modern languages. He also
wrote an apology for Judaism, called Kuzari, previously mentioned, which
presents its doctrines in the form of dialogues between the King of the
Chazars and the rabbi who converted him. In 1140 he went to Palestine to
spend the remainder of his days there. He seems to have died before he
reached his goal. A younger contemporary is Abraham ibn Ezra (1092-1167).
He was born in Spain, and travelled through a great part of Europe and
the Orient. Of his numerous works, comprising the fields of poetry,
Hebrew grammar, astrology, and other subjects, the most noteworthy is
his commentary on the Pentateuch, which makes him rank as the first
Biblical critic. He proved by his strong critical arguments that the
Pentateuch as we possess it does not come from Moses but was partly
the product of later times. His contemporary is Moses ibn Ezra, a very
prolific Hebrew poet, whose poems, however, suffer from an excessive play
on words. It is not known whether the two Ibn Ezras were relatives.
The most illustrious author of mediæval times is Moses ben Maimon
(Maimonides, born at Cordova, 1135; died at Cairo, 1204). His first work
was a commentary on the Mishnah, written in Arabic, and translated into
Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon. This work was a preparation for the greatest
work of his life, the “Mishneh Torah,” in which he presents the whole
doctrine and law of Judaism. It is written in clear Hebrew, and, while
in the law following the Rabbinic sources, it shows here and there,
especially in the dogmatic part, the author’s object to harmonize Judaism
with philosophical thought. He is the author of a philosophic work, “The
Guide of the Perplexed,” written in Arabic and known by its Hebrew title,
Moreh Nebukim. His object of harmonizing religion with philosophy is
made manifest in the first part of this work by his attempt to explain
the anthropomorphic passages of the Bible. He also explains prophecy as
a divine gift and tries to present reasons for the divine laws, showing
that they are intended for the instruction and the material and moral
elevation of mankind. The book was translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn
Tibbon in the twelfth century, and by Judah Alcharizi in the thirteenth.
It was at an early date translated into Latin, and in recent times into
various modern languages. Maimonides in addition wrote quite a number of
works on scientific subjects, notably on medicine, and various Rabbinic
works. He was physician in ordinary to the Sultan.
Of the Talmudists of this period, the greatest is Solomon ben Isaac
(Rashi) of Troyes (1040-1105). He wrote a commentary on almost the whole
Babylonian Talmud printed in all Talmuds, and a standard work to-day.
He is the author of commentaries on most of the Biblical books. His
commentary on the Pentateuch contains in clear and concise language the
Rabbinic interpretation of the Mosaic law and well-chosen homiletical
interpretations from the Midrash, and is one of the most popular works
in the Rabbinic literature. It has been printed with the text of the
Pentateuch innumerable times, and is a very popular text-book in Jewish
study circles all over the world. Rashi wrote other Rabbinic works and
religious hymns. The most prominent Rabbinic author of this period in
Spain was Isaac Alfasi (born in Fez, 1013; died in Spain, 1103). He wrote
an abridged Talmud, omitting all discussions of matters not of legal
interest and all the laws not in force after the destruction of the
Temple. By this method he facilitated the rendering of legal decisions.
In Italy there lived at this time Nathan ben Jehiel of Rome, who wrote a
Talmud dictionary “Aruk,” using the work of the same title by Zemach Gaon.
Rashi’s grandsons, Samuel, Isaac and Jacob ben Meir were also
prominent Talmudic authors. Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam) wrote several
Talmudic treatises, supplements to his grandfather’s commentaries,
and a commentary on the Pentateuch somewhat more free from the blind,
unrestricted submission to Rabbinic authority which characterizes his
grandfather’s work. The greatest Talmudist among the brothers was Jacob
ben Meir (Rabbenu Tam, died 1171), whose chief work is “Sefer Hayashar,”
in which he proclaims the principle that the contradictions in the Talmud
must be harmonized. These men are the founders of a school of authors
known as Tosafists, from “Tosafot” (Additions), glosses to Rashi’s
Talmud commentary. These glosses are printed in most of our editions of
the Talmud. Through the activities of these men the French province of
Champagne and Western Germany became the chief seats of Rabbinic studies.