FROM THE RISE OF ISLAM (622) TO THE ERA OF THE CRUSADES (1096)
Jews had been living in Arabia long before the time of Mohammed, perhaps
as early as the pre-Christian era. Their mode of life was like that of
the Arabs. They were divided into tribes, and had fortified places to
which they retreated in case of feuds with their Arab neighbors. Like the
Arabs they had their warriors, who were at the same time poets. A famous
man from the time preceding Mohammed is Samuel ibn Adijah. He is known
among the Arabs as a faithful friend, because when an Arab chieftain,
one of his friends, sought refuge in his fortress, he allowed his son,
who was in the hands of the enemy, to be killed rather than deliver the
fugitive into their hands.
Mohammed had frequent intercourse with the Jews, and received from them
the first impetus to found a new religion in place of the crude worship
of the old Arabs. He laid particular stress on converting the Jews to the
new religion, which was to be a universal theocracy. For this purpose
he adopted some of the Jewish ideas, customs, and modes of worship, the
strict monotheistic idea, the fast of Yom Kippur and the turning toward
Jerusalem in prayer. The Jews, however, were offended at his sensuality,
and ridiculed him for his ignorance. He therefore became their enemy,
and after the capture of one of their forts, killed the inhabitants who
had surrendered. All other Jews were expelled from Arabia, which was to
be a theocratically governed state, where only the religion of Mohammed
would be tolerated.
Under Mohammed’s successors, the Caliphs, Islam rapidly spread over a
great part of Asia and the theocratic principle could not be maintained.
Under Omar (634-644), who conquered Jerusalem in 637, a law called
the Covenant of Omar governing the treatment of non-Mohammedans was
proclaimed. By this law the Jews had to pay a poll-tax, and were exempt
from military service. In spite of certain disabilities, they enjoyed a
relative state of freedom, and, as the literature of the period proves,
greeted the rise of Islam as a relief from the oppression they had
suffered in Christian countries and in Persia. They also looked upon
Islam as the first step toward the realization of the Messianic kingdom.
The improvement of their condition was especially manifest in Spain,
which was conquered by the Mohammedans in 711.
GERMANIC NATIONS
Beginning with the fourth century, various Germanic tribes settled on the
soil of the old Roman Empire, and began to establish independent kingdoms
in the fifth century within its limits, until in 476 the last Emperor,
who was a ruler in name only, was deposed. In Italy, where Theodoric
had founded the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in 493, the Jews were fairly
treated, although Theodoric, a fanatical Christian, considered the Jews
an undesirable element. He would, however, allow no injustice to be
done them, and when a mob in Ravenna destroyed a synagogue in 519, he
ordered the city to make restitution; for this he was severely censured
by Ambrosius, the Bishop of Milan. The Jews held the rule of the Goths to
be preferable to that of the Byzantines, and in the war between these two
powers, which ended with the overthrow of the Gothic kingdom (555) they
aided the former, and their bravery in defending the city of Naples was
highly praised by Greek historians.
After a short period of domination by the Byzantines, the Longobards,
another German tribe, conquered Italy in 568. They do not seem to have
taken any interest in the Jews, as their government was restricted to
members of their own nationality. The Jews, as Roman citizens, were
under the authority of the Roman government, which, as the Byzantines
could not exercise any authority, was left almost entirely in the hands
of the Bishop of Rome, the highest local dignitary. From the records of
this period, we possess information as to the attitude of Pope Gregory
I (590-604), in dealing with Jewish affairs. While naturally not in
sympathy with the Jews, he insisted that they be treated fairly. Thus, he
ordered that a cross, which a Jewish convert to Christianity had placed
in a synagogue to spite the Jews, be removed, and when a synagogue had
been converted into a church, he ordered an indemnity paid to its former
owners. But he very often censured the Frankish kings for allowing the
Jews to hold public offices and to keep Christian slaves.
FRANCE
The Merovingian kings who conquered Ancient Gaul in 496 were the first of
the Germanic rulers to adopt the Roman Catholic religion. All the others
were Arians. In the sixth century they treated the Jews kindly; we hear
of a Jew named Priscus, a favorite of King Hilperic (561-584), whom that
king loved so well that he wished him converted to Christianity. On one
occasion Priscus discussed religious problems very freely in the presence
of the King, with Bishop Gregory of Tours, and criticized Christian
dogmas fearlessly. In spite of the representations of Pope Gregory I, the
Frankish kings entrusted the Jews with offices, such as tax collector,
and allowed them to deal in Christian slaves. Church councils, however,
as early as the fifth century, legislated against social intercourse
between Christians and Jews.
SPAIN
The Visigoths, who ruled over Spain, treated the Jews worse than any
other nation at that time. All the mediæval disabilities, such as the
seclusion of the Jews in certain quarters and the restriction of their
worship, had their origin in that country. Frequently we hear of a law
prohibiting the holding of Christian slaves by Jews. Repeatedly Jews
were converted by force, and occasionally whole communities expelled.
Bishop Isidore of Seville (560-630) wrote a book entitled “Against the
Jews,” which was widely read and translated into different languages.
His example was imitated in later times. In the Frankish kingdom,
Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons (814-840), wrote five books on the Jews,
the titles of which show his animus: “On the Insolence of the Jews,”
“On the Necessity of Guarding Against Having Company with Jews,” etc.
He opposed the law which prohibited the baptism of heathenish slaves
owned by Jews and agitated for their social seclusion. Similar was the
literary activity of Amolo, Archbishop of Lyons (841-852), who wrote a
book against the Jews and dedicated it to Emperor Charles III.
Charlemagne (768-814) is reported to have called Kalonymus of Lucca to
Mayence as chief rabbi of all the Jews of Germany; but this report is
legendary. Equally unauthentic are laws ascribed to Charlemagne, among
them the one imposing upon the Jews an ignominious form of oath. A law
of Charlemagne’s son Louis (814-840), required the markets to be held on
Sundays in order to make it possible for the Jews to attend them.
The Jews in those days were chiefly traders, importers of merchandise
from foreign lands, and slave dealers, and acted as the pioneers of
commerce in the countries of Western and Northern Europe.
LITERARY ACTIVITY OF THE PERIOD
The improvement in the condition of the Jews of Spain, which began with
the Arabic conquest of that country in 711, made itself felt in their
literary activity. Especially was this the case in the Caliphate of
Cordova, under Abderrahman (912-961). At his court, Hasdai ibn Shaprut
rose to prominence, and, like the Mohammedan nobles of the time, gathered
around him a number of eminent authors and scholars. Among them were
Menahem ben Saruk and Dunash ibn Labrat, who first laid the foundation
for a scientific Hebrew grammar. Their disciples were Judah Hayug and
Mervan ibn Ganah, called Marinus. The center of Jewish learning still
remained in Babylonia, where, after the conquest of the Persians by the
Mohammedans, a revival of learning took place.
The two principal schools were those of Sura and Pumbeditha, and at
the head of each was a president, ריש מתיבתא. The one at Sura was
the higher in rank, and was called Gaon (excellency), a title which
later was transferred to the president of the school in Pumbeditha. The
function of the Gaon was to preside over the regular course of studies,
Sidra, and the popular extension course called Kalla, held twice a year
in the months preceding the Passover and the fall festivals. He further
rendered decisions in important cases submitted to him from all parts of
the world. A number of collections of these decisions called Teshubot
(Responsa), have come down to us. They are written partly in Aramaic and
partly in Arabic, according to the language in which the question was
written.
The Gaon licensed rabbis, or judges, as they were called, because their
chief function was to act as judges in civil cases. These licenses
were endorsed by the Exilarch, Resh Galutha, the political head of the
communities in Babylonia, representing them before the government and
appointing the Gaon. The former, in turn, was appointed by the Caliph,
and his office was hereditary as a rule. The oldest literary works of the
period are collections of laws regarding matters of frequent occurrence,
such as liturgy, mourning, the reception of proselytes, etc. They are
known as the “Small Tractates,” and are usually found in the ninth volume
of our editions of the Talmud.
Other compendia of the law are the Halakot Gedolot by Simeon Kayara,
written in the eighth century, and the Sheeltot of Ahai of Shabha, the
latter arranged according to the Pentateuch, and containing some moral
lessons besides the legal exposition of the text. The compilation of
these works was opposed by the Gaonim, who considered them injurious to
the study of the law and detrimental to their own authority.
In the ninth century the first Talmudic dictionary ערוך was written
by Zemah Gaon. His work has not come down to us, but most of it was
incorporated in the Talmudic dictionary of the same name, written by
Nathan of Rome in the eleventh century. The title has also been retained
by subsequent compilers of Talmudic dictionaries, including the Aruch
Completum, edited by Alexander Kohut (1878-1892). At the same time
Amram Gaon compiled the first liturgy, Seder Rab Amram, and thus is the
originator of our present prayer-book. The form in which this compilation
has come down to us is not as the original left the hands of its editor,
for quite a number of later texts are found in it and its order of
services is not exactly identical with any of the rituals in use at
present. Still, it is the groundwork of the liturgy of Judaism to-day all
over the world.
From the same period dates, probably, the first Kabalistic book which
we possess, the “Sefer Yezirah” (Book of Creation). It may be called a
theosophical treatise, written in the language and form of the Mishnah,
and based on the philosophy of the Pythagorean and Alexandrian schools.
Its subject-matter naturally makes it obscure; from the tenth century at
least it has been commented upon. Legend has ascribed its authorship to
Rabbi Akiba, and even to Biblical persons such as Abraham.
In the ninth century we meet the first traces of a scientific literature.
Prominent here is Saadya Gaon (892-942), born in Fayum, and called to
Sura as Gaon, quite an unusual event. His literary activity extends
over the whole field of Jewish literature. He wrote commentaries on the
Bible besides an Arabic translation, and on Talmudic topics. He also
composed religious hymns, but the most important of all his works is his
אמונות ודעות (Dogma and Science), the first attempt at a scientific
apology for Judaism from a philosophical point of view. His independence
brought him into conflict with the Exilarch David ben Zakkai, to whose
dictates he would not submit in a matter which he regarded as unjust;
consequently he was deposed. Saadya contended that this act was illegal
and excommunicated the Exilarch. The latter proved stronger and Saadya
was forced into exile. Later on, however, they became reconciled, and
Saadya was reinstated (934).
The last two Gaonim of any importance lived in Pumbeditha. They were
Sherira, who died in 999, and his son, Hay Gaon, who died in 1038.
From the former we possess a very important historical treatise on the
development of Rabbinic law known as the epistle of Sherira Gaon. It
was written at the request of a man in Morocco, and was inspired by
apologetic motives to prove that the law had been handed down unaltered
from generation to generation. From Hay Gaon we have various Talmudic
works, many responsa, and a didactic poem. Their contemporary was
Samuel ibn Hofni, a rationalistic writer, who rejected the belief in
the miracles related in the Talmud. Otherwise the age of the Gaonim
is characterized by a blind faith, not only in Bible and Talmud, but
also in popular superstitions and in the preservation of superstitious
customs. Hay was succeeded by Hezekiah, who after holding his office for
two years was put to death by the Caliph in 1040. After this time the
office lost all significance. Names of a few of those who held office
after this time are found, but nothing is known of their activity, nor
has any literary work of this age come down to us.
The blind faith which characterized the period of the Gaonim aroused
considerable opposition, culminating in the foundation of a religious
sect called the Karaites, בני מקרא “Sons of the Bible.” Their founder
was Anan ben David (760) who claimed the Bible as the only authority
for faith and practice, and therefore rejected all Rabbinic law. His
successors founded a congregation in Jerusalem, and very soon spread
in the East. The most prominent teachers of the Karaites are Benjamin
of Nehawend, and Salman ben Jeroham, the latter of whom carried on a
literary controversy with Saadya. Judah Hadassi, in the thirteenth
century wrote אשכל הכפר the standard work of the Karaite law, written
in rhymed prose. Other important Karaite scholars are Aaron ben Elijah,
who died in 1369, the author of גן עדן, a compendium of the religious
law, and עץ חיים, a work on religious philosophy.
In the fifteenth century Elijah Bashjazi wrote another compendium of
the Karaite religion entitled אדרת אליהו. By this period a large
Karaite community settled in Lithuania, where Isaac of Troki wrote a very
able polemical treatise directed against Christianity, known as חזוק
אמונה. In 1698, Jacob Trigland, professor at Leyden, made inquiries
concerning the Karaites by means of a letter addressed to their chief
sent through an ambassador to Poland. He received a reply, דודמרדכי,
written by Mordecai ben Nissim. This was, for a long time, the only
source of information on the history of the Karaites. The last Karaite
author of any consequence was Abraham Firkovitch (1787-1874) of Russia,
who discovered and published important Karaite documents. Some of these,
however, he forged in the interest of the Karaite claim that the Karaites
represent the original Judaism from which the Rabbanites seceded.
At the same time that the Karaite schism occurred, the Chazars, a Tartar
tribe, were converted to Judaism. Reports of the existence of a Jewish
kingdom had reached the Jews of Western Europe. Hasdai ibn Shaprut
wrote a letter of inquiry on this. He received a reply from the King of
the Chazars, and these two letters are the chief source of information
concerning this remarkable event. Toward the end of the tenth century
the kingdom of the Chazars was conquered by the Russians. Judah Halevi,
who wrote his Kuzari about 1140, used the story of the conversion of the
Chazar King in the form of a philosophic dialogue between him and the
rabbi who converted him. The knowledge he had of an independent Jewish
state was the basis of the fanciful reports circulated by an adventurer
who called himself Eldad Hadani and pretended to be a descendant of one
of the lost ten tribes. Their habitation and modes of life he described
in a book. He appeared in the tenth century in Morocco, but nothing is
known as to what finally became of him.
In the ninth century, the literature of religious hymns, Piyut, begins.
The authors of these are called Payetanim (poets). Their works are
characterized by arbitrary handling of the Hebrew grammar, by the
creation of new words in an arbitrary style, and finally, by obscure
allusions to the Midrash. The oldest of these poets are Jose ben Jose and
Jannai. Their successor, Eleazar ben Kallir, is the most prolific of all.
Of his life we know nothing with certainty.
The literary activity of the Jews of Europe began in the ninth century.
The first work is probably the Josippon, a history of the Jews from the
destruction of Babylon by Cyrus to the downfall of Jerusalem in 70, which
was ascribed to Josephus Flavius. Another anonymous writer, who lived in
Italy in the ninth century, is the author of the Midrash, called Pirke
Rabbi Eliezer. But the first Jewish author who lived in Europe, known by
name, is Sabbatai Donolo (913-982), who wrote on medicine, astrology, and
Kabbala.