ERA OF THE TALMUD (200-600)
The constant progress made by Christianity in Palestine had an
unfavorable effect on the condition of the Jewish population and the Jews
began to emigrate to Babylonia in constantly growing numbers. The latter
country had, in the meantime, passed from the rule of the Parthians to
that of the neo-Persians, or Parsees (225). These having thrown off the
yoke of foreign invaders, acted like others under similar conditions and
introduced a government marked by religious and national fanaticism,
from which the Jews suffered very severely. The Parsees, who worshipped
fire, would not allow the Jews to have any light on the Sabbath during
their period of mourning, which comprised the shortest winter days, and
consequently the Hanukah lights were also forbidden. Another prohibition,
which the Jews especially resented, was directed against the burial of
the dead, not allowed by the religion of the Parsees.
At the same time, the Roman Empire, passing more and more under Christian
rule, became hostile toward the Jews. Of Diocletian (284-305) it is
reported that, while he tried to suppress Christianity, he allowed the
Jews freedom of worship. Another story reported of him, to the effect
that he ordered Judah Hanasi to appear before him on the Sabbath,
wishing to punish him for the insult he had suffered from Jewish boys,
while a swineherd, is evidently legendary. Constantine (305-337), who
removed all the disabilities from which the Christians had suffered, and
according to some authors, a professing Christian himself, issued the
first edict which discriminated against the Jews. This law prohibited the
circumcision of a slave, and there is no doubt that it was intended to
check propaganda for Judaism.
Julian the Apostate (361-363), who wished to suppress Christianity and
attempted to reintroduce a refined worship of the old gods, is said to
have attempted to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem. The church historians
tell us that an earthquake and similar accidents made this impossible. It
is, however, not unlikely that the whole report was merely an invention
to show that the Temple could never be rebuilt, and that all attempts to
fight Christianity must be vain.
The discrimination against the Jews became stronger when Theodosius
issued the edict of Ravenna (380), which made the profession of
Christianity a requirement for all who held office under the government.
After the death of Theodosius the Roman Empire was divided into an
Eastern and a Western Empire. Palestine and the majority of the Jews
were in the Eastern Empire, with its capital at Constantinople; and they
remained subject to this rule until the Holy Land was conquered by the
Mohammedans in 634.
The legal treatment of the Jews, in both divisions of the Empire, was
hostile, but the authorities tried to protect their lives and properties
against the constantly increasing attacks of the mob. Such outbreaks
occurred especially in the Greek cities of the Orient. Cyril, Bishop of
Alexandria, and St. Simeon, the Stylite, who for years lived on a pillar,
stirred up the religious fanaticism of the masses by setting them against
the Jews. These attacks resulted in loss of life and property, and when
the emperors issued orders demanding the punishment of the lawless
elements, the ecclesiastic leaders condemned this action as the evidence
of partiality toward the Jews. Under Emperor Justinian (527-565) we hear
for the first time of an interference with the internal religious life of
the Jews by the secular authorities. An edict of this Emperor prohibited
the reading of the Deuterosis in the synagogue. The word is a literal
translation of the word Mishnah, but as the Mishnah could not have been
read in the synagogue, we must assume that other Rabbinic works or the
Targum are meant.
The Byzantine Empire frequently had wars with its Persian neighbor, and
one of these which threatened to be very critical occurred under Emperor
Heraclius (622-628). In this, the Jews at first sided with the Persians,
but when the Emperor on his way to the East appeared in Palestine, he
promised them an amnesty if they would join his cause. This they did.
On his return he broke his pledge, the monks assuring him of the divine
pardon for this breach of faith, and punished the Jews severely for their
defection.
RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF THE ERA
The position of the patriarch remained hereditary in the house of
Judah Hanasi, until the office was abolished by the decree of Emperor
Theodosius II (about 420). The successors of Judah Hanasi were Gamaliel
III, Judah II, Gamaliel IV, Judah III, Hillel II, Gamaliel V, Judah
IV, and Gamaliel VI. These patriarchs, however, were not prominent as
scholars, and while they were the religious heads of the community, the
prerogatives of the president of the school of Tiberias were transferred
to a scholar of prominence. Thus Judah Hanasi himself appointed his
son Gamaliel as his successor before his death, but Rabbi Hanina was
named as president of the school. It is probable that the head of this
school presided also over the court sessions, so that he was the Ab
Beth Din; the Nasi, who formerly exercised these prerogatives, was the
representative of the Jewish community only through the dignity of his
office.
Prominent among the disciples of Hanina were Johanan bar Nappaha, Simeon
ben Lakish, and Eleazar bar Padath (250-280). Even at this period the
Mishnah was already considered revealed law, which the teacher could
only explain, but not alter. We therefore very often find their names
in the Talmud at the head of discussions of a passage in the Mishnah.
They introduced the period of the Palestinian Amoraim, as the scholars
following the era of the Mishnah are called in contradistinction to the
teachers of the Mishnah, known as Tanaim. To the school of Johanan belong
all prominent Palestinian rabbis of the succeeding generation. Prominent
among them is Abbahu of Cæsarea. He is known not merely as an expounder
of the law but as a controversialist against Christianity.
Tiberias continued to be the center of Jewish spiritual life, and quite
a number of young scholars from Babylonia came there to finish their
studies; some of them remained in Palestine. Of the teachers of the
fourth century, little more than their names is known. Prominently
mentioned, however, is Rabbi Jose, to whom is ascribed the final
redaction of the Palestinian Talmud (350). At about this time Hillel II
gave up the only tangible privilege of the Nasi, the announcement of the
calendar. Instead of announcing the leap-year whenever it was necessary
to postpone the Passover, fixed rules for the calendar were made. By
this arrangement it became necessary to keep the second holydays, which
had been celebrated in those places the messengers of the Nasi could
not reach in time. Hillel ruled, however, that this practice had become
hallowed by tradition, and that even henceforth the Jews living outside
of Palestine should continue to celebrate two holydays.
When finally the office of patriarch was abolished, Palestine lost
its place as the spiritual center of Judaism. The study of the law
declined, and from the middle of the fourth century we find in Palestine
studies confined to homiletical and exegetical works, due in part to
the controversies with the Christians. Some of their greatest teachers,
such as Jerome, the translator of the Bible into Latin, were disciples
of Palestinian rabbis. Of the homiletical explanations collections were
made; these are called Midrash. The oldest of these collections is the
Midrash Rabba to Genesis, compiled in the seventh century.
BABYLONIA
Although in the fifth century B.C., Ezra is already mentioned as an
expounder of the law, who had come from Babylon, although Hillel is said
to have arrived in Palestine also from Babylon in the first century B.C.
with a reputation for scholarship, and although Judah Hanasi is quoted as
having said that the only man whose superiority he acknowledged was Huna,
the Exilarch of Babylon, we find no distinct traces of literary activity
in Babylon until the third century. At that time two men were prominent
as scholars: Abba Areka, called Rab, and Samuel. Both had spent some
time in Palestine, studying under Judah Hanasi. Rab was a member of the
committee which assisted Judah Hanasi in the compilation of the Mishnah.
Before he left Palestine, he was ordained by Judah Hanasi somewhat
restrictedly, because it was a rule that the full prerogatives of the
members of the Sanhedrin could not be exercised outside of the Holy Land.
Probably for this reason Judah Hanasi refused to confer ordination upon
Samuel. Rab taught in Sura, and Samuel in Nehardea. Both these places
were for centuries the seats of prominent schools.
At this time, Rab was considered the greatest authority on ritual law,
while Samuel was considered learned in civil law. Rab’s decisions are
characterized by rigorous interpretation of the law, especially as to
Passover. Samuel accommodated himself more to the spirit of the times.
From him we have the famous decision which makes the civil law of the
country binding upon the Israelites as a religious obligation. He also
partly abolished those laws of the Sabbatical year which had become
obsolete, such as the cancellation of debts. He also declared that the
celebration of the second holydays was unnecessary. He further laid down
the principle that the Messianic prophecy merely meant the political
independence of the Jews, and not a change in the condition of humanity.
To the next generation (250-300) belong Nahman bar Jacob, who reformed
the legal procedure by introducing an oath in cases where formerly no
oath had been necessary, Huna, Hisda, Shesheth and Judah bar Ezekiel,
the last of whom was the founder of the new school of Pumbeditha,
subsequently the most prominent of all Babylonian schools existing until
the middle of the eleventh century. The characteristics of this age were
the growth of dialecticism, Pilpul, and the neglect of Biblical studies.
To the succeeding generation belong Rabba bar Nahmani and Rab Joseph. The
latter is known as the author or compiler of the Aramaic translation of
the prophets (Targum), more a paraphrase than a translation.
In the succeeding generation we have (350-380) Abaje and Raba, whose
teachings are quoted as the most pronounced type of keen dialecticism.
The most important of Babylonian Amoraim is Rab Ashe (350-431) who
compiled the commentaries and the discourses on the Mishnah, and so
became, with his successor Rabina (died 499), the compilers of the
Babylonian Talmud. The successors of these teachers are called Saboraim
(reasoners). Of their chronology and work we know nothing with exactness
except that they lived during the sixth and in the early part of the
seventh century. They arranged the subject-matter of the Talmud, which
they divided into chapters and to which they added some explanatory
remarks.