FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM (70) TO THE COMPLETION OF THE MISHNAH
(200)
The destruction of Jerusalem had thrown the Jewish people into a terrible
crisis. Although the Jews, as individuals, did not fare worse than during
the preceding one hundred and thirty years, Judæa was now a province of
the Roman Empire.
The only new law, enforced after the destruction of Jerusalem, was that
of a special tax of two Drachmæ, which every male had to pay. This tax,
called “Fiscus Judaicus,” took the place of the half-shekel formerly
paid by every male Jew into the treasury of the Temple, according to the
Rabbinic interpretation of the Law in Exodus xxx, 11-16. Some of the
Jews were sold into slavery; some went to Rome, where they swelled the
congregation existing there since the second century B.C., and where
they had several synagogues and catacombs used as cemeteries. Others
again emigrated to Babylonia, where a Jewish settlement existed since the
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, or settled on the northern
coast of Africa, and on the islands of the Mediterranean.
Under Domitian, the brother and successor of Titus (81-96), the tribute
of the “Fiscus Judaicus” was exacted with great severity. Domitian was
altogether hostile to the Jews; yet in his reign Jewish propaganda
increased in Rome, and people belonging to the highest class of society,
among them Flavius Clemens, a nephew of the Emperor, with his wife
Clementina, were converted to Judaism. Flavius Clemens was put to
death and his wife exiled for their change of faith, as the Roman law
considered it a crime, and called it atheism. Dio Cassius, the historian
of Rome, speaks of a class of people who were not Jews by descent, but
had adopted the Jewish religion. Similar proofs of the existence of a
Jewish propaganda are found in the New Testament (Matthew xxiii, 25)
where the Pharisees are denounced for their efforts in making converts,
and in the daily service, composed about one hundred, in which a special
prayer for the proselytes is offered.
Under Emperor Nerva (96-98) the “Fiscus Judaicus” is said to have been
abolished.
Under Trajan (98-117) serious rebellions of the Jews occurred in Egypt,
Cyprus, Cyrene, and Mesopotamia. About the causes of the disorder and
the battles of the rebellion, we know nothing definite. It may be said,
however, that in all likelihood oppressive taxation, cruel treatment of
the people by the Roman officials, and the traditional enmity between
the Jews and the Greek-speaking population of the Orient were the causes
of this constant friction. Trajan sent his general, Quietus, to quell
the uprising, and made him governor of Palestine. The insurrection was
still in progress when Hadrian came to the throne (117-136). At first
he was friendly toward the Jews and began to rebuild the Temple, by
which he hoped to reconcile them. This new Temple, however, was to be
dedicated to the Jupiter of the Capitol, who, as Hadrian believed, was
also the God of the Jews, although he had a different name. As the Jews,
however, were not willing to accept this condition, Hadrian resorted to
severe religious persecution. He prohibited the practices of the Sabbath,
circumcision, and the study of the Law. The result was another rebellion
under the leadership of Simeon Bar Koziba, who adopted the name of Bar
Kochba—“The Son of the Star”—with reference to the prophecy of the star
which would smite the enemies of Israel (Num. xxiv, 17). Bar Kochba, who
called himself Prince of Israel, and had coins struck with his name, was
supported by a priest, Eleazar of Modin, and by Rabbi Akiba. Details of
this war are unknown. It lasted, however, over three years (132-135), and
then was quelled by Tineius Rufus, and Julius Severus, the latter having
been called from Great Britain to take some of the troops against the
rebels. The victory was complete. Whatever had been left of Jerusalem
after its destruction by Titus was destroyed. The city was called Ælia
Capitolina, in honer of Hadrian, whose first name was Ælius and in honor
of the Jupiter of the Capitol, to whom the Temple, built on the site of
the ancient Temple of Solomon, was erected. Over one of the gates of the
city Hadrian had the head of a swine placed, and the Jews were forbidden
entrance into the city. A great many Jews were killed in battle and
many prisoners, including the most prominent spiritual leaders of the
rebellion, such as Rabbi Akiba, executed. A mediæval legend speaks of
ten martyrs, and gives a list which, however, comprises men who lived in
different ages.
With the death of Hadrian, and the succession to the throne of Marcus
Antoninus Pius (136-161) a change for the better took place. We are
informed that, upon the representations of prominent Jews, Antoninus
repealed the cruel laws passed by his predecessor. Jewish legends have
preserved the name of Antoninus Pius as one of the most benign of rulers,
and they represent him as a close personal friend of Judah the Patriarch,
as a great admirer of Judaism, and even as a secret convert.
Only a few disconnected facts are known about the following emperors.
Under Marcus Aurelius, the philosophic author (161-180), who, in one
instance speaks with contempt of the Jews, we hear of a slave, named
Callistus, sentenced to penal servitude in the mines of Sardinia for
having disturbed the services of a synagogue.
Under Septimius Severus (193-211), we learn of the participation of the
Jews in a rebellion, and an edict, passed in 204, declared conversion to
Christianity from Judaism a crime. It was evidently intended to check
the rapid progress of Christianity. Alexander Severus (222-235) is said
to have been very favorable to the Jews, and his mother, Mammæa, who
was regent during the first years of his reign, is said to have been
favorably inclined toward the Jewish religion. Alexander had a statue of
Abraham in his room and on the wall was inscribed the famous saying of
Hillel, “What is hateful unto thee, do not unto thy neighbor.” The Jews
of Rome had a synagogue which was named the Synagogue of Severus in his
honor; he presented to it a scroll of the Torah which had been brought
from Jerusalem. The mobs in Alexandria and Antioch, ever hostile to the
Jews, called him Archysynagogos, “leader of the Synagogue.”
The spiritual life of the Jews, after the destruction of the Temple,
received its strongest impetus from Johanan ben Zakkai, in Jabneh
(Jamnia), whom legend makes a disciple of Hillel and a member of the
Sanhedrin in Jerusalem at the time of the destruction of the Temple.
Legend further says that he succeeded in escaping from Jerusalem during
the siege at a time when the Zealots in the city would not allow any one
to leave it, and that he came to Vespasian, to whom he prophesied his
elevation to the throne of Rome, for which, out of gratitude, the latter
allowed him to open a school and establish a Sanhedrin in Jabneh. At
any rate, Jabneh became the spiritual centre of Judaism at that time.
Various ordinances, which Johanan ben Zakkai issued, show his desire to
harmonize ancient traditions with the conditions as they developed after
the destruction of the Temple. Thus, it is understood that he ordered the
Shofar to be blown in Jabneh, even if New Year fell on a Sabbath; this
formerly had been done only in the Temple at Jerusalem.
His successor was Gamaliel, usually called Gamaliel II, Gamaliel the
elder, or Gamaliel of Jabneh (100-130). He was the great-great-grandson
of the famous Hillel, who, according to tradition, was president of
the Sanhedrin during the time of King Herod (Hillel, Simeon, Gamaliel,
Simeon, Gamaliel). In the work of harmonizing tradition with the
exigencies of the time, Gamaliel followed in the footsteps of Johanan
ben Zakkai. His main activities consisted in the organization of public
worship. To him is ascribed the introduction of the daily prayer
(Tefillah), the eighteen benedictions (Shemoneh Esreh), to which later
in his life he added one more, containing a petition against sectaries
(Minim). He also composed the grace after meals, and the Passover
Haggadah. He further endeavored, in all possible ways, to strengthen
the authority of the President or Nasi or Ab Beth Din of the Sanhedrin,
especially by claiming for himself the exclusive right to fix the
calendar. In the interpretation of the law he took a lenient attitude,
insisting more on the spirit than on the letter.
Opponents of his hierarchical tendencies were Eliezer ben Hyrkanos and
Joshua ben Hananiah; Akiba occupied an undecided position between the
two parties. Eliezer, who seems to have been favorably inclined toward
Christianity, objected to a fixed ritual, but otherwise was rigorous
in his interpretation of the law, and a firm believer in the authority
of tradition. From obscure reports we learn that he was excommunicated
by Gamaliel, his brother-in-law. Joshua was strongly opposed to
Christianity, and to the hierarchical tendencies of Gamaliel, and his
harsh treatment by the latter caused opposition, with the result that
Gamaliel was removed from office and Eleazer ben Azariah appointed in
his place. But later on a reconciliation took place, and Gamaliel was
reinstated.
Akiba, the disciple of Eliezer, was the strictest opponent of
Christianity, and especially of the principle which declares that the law
is merely a symbol, and also of the demand that the Jews give up their
national distinctiveness. His opposition to the symbolic interpretation
of the law led him into its literal interpretation, based on the view
that every word and letter of the Torah must be explained independently
of the context. He was also a zealous advocate of Israel’s national
independence, and so became the spiritual leader of the Bar Kochba
rebellion. When he said, “Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself; this
is the fundamental principle of the Torah,” he probably gave expression
to his nationalistic sentiments. Evidently in order to accentuate the
universality of Judaism, Simeon ben Azai, Akiba’s contemporary, says
that the words, “This is the book of the generation of Adam,” are
the fundamental principles of the Torah. Rabbi Akiba’s principle of
interpreting the Torah was opposed by his contemporary, Rabbi Ishmael,
who says the Torah speaks the language of men; that is, every text must
be explained by its context. An important figure of that time seems
to have been Elisha ben Abuyah, who is called Acher the Apostate. The
stories told of him are legendary to such an extent that it is impossible
to know how much, if any, historical fact underlies them.
The uprising of Bar Kochba and the subsequent prohibition of the study
of law interrupted, for a while, the development of religious doctrine.
Soon, however, after the succession to the throne of Antoninus Pius,
in 136, the study of the law was resumed. A synod of prominent rabbis,
who were mostly disciples of Akiba, met at Usha, and passed several
resolutions, mostly in regard to civil law, required by the exigencies
of the time. One of these provides that every one shall give one-fifth
of his income to charity, thus diverting the two tithes formerly
devoted to the sacrificial needs, the Levites or the poor, to communal
requirements. Another resolution declared that every father was under
the duty of providing for his son until the latter was twelve years old.
The spiritual leaders of this age were Rabbi Meir, Judah bar Ilai, and
Jose bar Halafta, and the office of Nasi was given to Gamaliel’s son,
Simeon ben Gamaliel II (140-170). The latter was in turn succeeded by his
son, Judah Hanasi, called Rabbi, or Rabbenu-Hakadosh, who according to a
legend was born on the day on which Rabbi Akiba died (135-216). To him is
due the compilation of the Mishnah or compendium of the Rabbinic law.
The word Mishnah is derived from Mishneh Torah (repetition of the law),
the name of Deuteronomy. This compilation was preceded by others on a
smaller scale which we do not possess. They are called, after their
authors, the Mishnah of Rabbi Akiba, that of Rabbi Meir, and that of
Rabbi Nathan. The object of the code compiled by Judah Hanasi was to
collect the whole of the Rabbinic law. The authorities quoted in the
Mishnah are called Tanaim, from תנא which is the Aramaic, for
שנה, the latter being a word derived from Mishnah. The Mishnah was
not intended to be a code of the law but a compendium for its study. It
was soon, however, accepted as an infallible book of laws, and believed
to be based on early tradition dating back to Moses himself.