THE HISTORY
OF THE JEWS
BY
Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D.
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HEBREW UNION
COLLEGE
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
BLOCH PUBLISHING COMPANY
1910
COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY
BLOCH PUBLISHING COMPANY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I. FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY, 586 B.C., TO THE DESTRUCTION
OF THE SECOND TEMPLE, 70 C.E. 7
II. FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM, 70, TO THE COMPLETION
OF THE MISHNAH, 200 20
III. ERA OF THE TALMUD, 200-600 28
Religious History of the Era 30
IV. FROM THE RISE OF ISLAM, 622, TO THE ERA OF THE CRUSADES,
1096 35
Literary Activity of the Period 39
V. THE JEWS OF EUROPE, 1040-1215 46
Spiritual Life of the Period 48
VI. PERIOD OF OPPRESSION, 1215-1492 53
Jewish Literature, Thirteenth to Fifteenth Century 63
VII. THE PERIOD OF IMPROVEMENT, 1492-1791 70
Intellectual and Literary Life 83
VIII. THE PERIOD OF EMANCIPATION FROM 1791 90
Culture in the Nineteenth Century 100
INDEX 113
PREFACE
There are two main difficulties confronting the historian, when he
attempts to write history. He must always ask himself, First: Are the
facts which I find recorded really facts, and Second: Do I interpret
them correctly? Thiers, in his “Histoire du Consulat,” Paris, 1851, Vol.
XI, p. 71, speaks of the enthusiasm with which the Jews of Portugal,
who numbered 200,000, received the French troops in 1809. There were
perhaps not two hundred Jews living in Portugal at that time, and they
played no part in public affairs. In an address to the convention of
the Order Brith Abraham, Mayor Gaynor, of New York, said on May 15,
1910: “The great Frederick issued a general privilege, and declared it
as a maxim, that oppression of the Jews never brought prosperity to any
state, and Napoleon not only followed the same course but convoked the
Sanhedrin.” The facts are in the main correct, but the presentation
is all wrong. Frederick issued his “Revidierte Generalprivilegium” of
April 17, 1750, for the Jews of Prussia, but it is based on the mediæval
idea of restrictions in the most elementary rights of human beings. His
sentiment with regard to the Jews is evident from a letter which he wrote
to the Minister von Hoym, May 17, 1780, in which he says: “If the Jews
were expelled and Christians would take their places as innkeepers, it
would be for the good of the country, and we would have more human beings
and less Jews” (_Monatsschrift fuer die Geschichte und Wissenschaft
des Judentums_, 1895, p. 379). Napoleon had by the convocation of the
“Assembly of Jewish Notables” and the subsequent Sanhedrin, 1806-1807,
insulted the Jews. The law of September 27, 1791, had declared them as
citizens, and he asked them whether they considered France as their
fatherland, and when these and similar questions were answered in the
affirmative with emphatic protestation of loyalty, Napoleon nevertheless
reintroduced the mediæval principle of Jewish disabilities by issuing
laws restricting Jews in doing business on credit. The facts quoted by
Mayor Gaynor prove the opposite of what he wished to prove by them.
These instances taken from Jewish history could be multiplied endlessly
from every period and every section of the world’s history. Jewish
history has to contend with two additional difficulties. It extends over
every part of the civilized world, but it lacks chronological sequence,
at least until we come to modern times. Another difficulty is that it
deals with almost every known spiritual activity of mankind. The student,
in order to understand Jewish history, should know the constantly
shifting boundary lines of the Italian states from mediæval times until
1870, and he should know something of the morphological theories of
Hebrew grammar and of scholastic philosophy.
These difficulties make themselves especially felt in a brief manual,
and, no doubt, every teacher of Jewish history must have had such an
experience. The Rabbis (Sanhedrin 93, b) find fault with Nehemiah for
having spoken ill of his predecessors in office (Neh. V, 15). I do not
wish to incur the same censure. It remains for the student and the
teacher who use my book to judge whether I improved upon my predecessors.
My object was to place in the hand of the student, who is guided by
a capable teacher, a concise and yet readable manual of the whole
post-biblical history. The biblical period I intentionally omitted, in
order to avoid contested ground and to allow the book to be used in all
schools regardless of dogmatic differences.
GOTTHARD DEUTSCH.
CINCINNATI, O., July, 1910.
HISTORY OF THE JEWS
CHAPTER I
FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY (586 B.C.) TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE SECOND
TEMPLE (70 C.E.)
Palestine, the buffer state between Egypt and Mesopotamia, the two rival
powers of the ancient world, was an important base of operations for all
conquerors, and its possession was eagerly sought. In 722 B.C., King
Sargon of Assyria conquered the northern part, the kingdom of Israel.
The southern part, the kingdom of Judah, was at that time protected by
Assyria’s rising and already powerful rival, the Babylonian empire. When
Babylonia had become the master of Mesopotamia, Judæa’s doom was sealed,
and in 586 Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and made all of Palestine a
province of his large empire.
With the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the great Babylonian empire declined
rapidly, and in 539, Cyrus, the King of Persia, captured the city of
Babylon, and became the master of the whole of the Babylonian empire,
and so of Palestine. He was favorably inclined to the Jews, and gave
permission to the descendants of the exiles from Palestine to return to
the land of their fathers. Only a few thousand made use of this, and
returned under the leadership of Zerubbabel, a descendant of the House
of David, and of Joshua ben Jehozadak, the high priest. Of the right
to build the Temple they made no use for the time, but erected instead
an altar on the site of the former edifice. The development of the new
commonwealth, however, was slow, until Ezra, a man learned in the law,
and, therefore, called the Scribe, returned from Babylonia in 458 B.C.
and taught the people the law of God. He was joined in 445 B.C. by
Nehemiah, the cupbearer of the Persian King Artaxerxes, who received
permission from his ruler to go to Palestine and assist Ezra in his
work. He succeeded, after many difficulties, in rebuilding the walls of
Jerusalem and giving the new community a firm organization. In 432 B.C.
he returned to his post at the King’s Court, but upon learning that the
new community was suffering from many difficulties, he returned again to
Palestine to finish his work there.
It seems that the Jews lived in peace, for during the following century,
while they were under Persian rule, only two incidents are recorded. In
the reign of Artaxerxes III, Ochus (358-337 B.C.), the Jews rebelled; but
the king defeated them near Jericho and sent the rebels to Hyrcania into
exile. About the same time the high priest, Johanan, killed his brother,
Joshua, in the Temple, and the Persian governor fined the Jews very
heavily.
Not long afterwards the mighty Persian empire was conquered by Alexander
the Great (333 B.C.), and the Jews passed under the rule of the
Macedonian king.
There are various legends about Alexander’s kindness to the Jews,
especially one which states that he showed great respect to the high
priest. There is also a report that he exempted the Jews from paying
taxes in the Sabbatical year. His immense empire fell to pieces soon
after his early death, and various generals fought for a portion of
the inheritance, each expecting to become the successor of the great
conqueror. Palestine with Syria was first occupied by Ptolemy, who
founded the dynasty named after him in Egypt in 320 B.C. He lost it to
another general, Antigonus (315 B.C.), who was defeated by Seleucus at
the battle of Gaza (312 B.C.), after which the kingdom of Syria with
Antioch as its capital was founded. The Syrians counted their era from
this date and the Jews adopted this custom, keeping it up until late in
mediæval times. The struggle continued until, in 301 B.C., the battle of
Ipsus decided the issue in favor of Ptolemy and Palestine was united with
Egypt until Antiochus III of Syria annexed it to his dominions in 198 B.C.
The Jews seem to have been treated with fairness until Antiochus IV,
Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.), succeeded his father. The latter had been
defeated by the Romans in the battle of Magnesia (189 B.C.), and
Antiochus IV was sent as hostage to Rome. Knowing that the Romans watched
the growth of the Syrian kingdom with great jealousy lest it should
become a powerful rival, he tried to consolidate his states and for this
reason wished to remove everything which kept the Jews apart from their
neighbors. In his attempt to Hellenize the Jews he was supported by a
party among them. Joseph, the son of Tobias, and the nephew of Onias II,
the High Priest, had already under the Egyptian kings been appointed tax
collector and was very powerful. He and his family supported the Syrian
kings in their desire to Hellenize the Jews.
Simon, a member of this family, quarrelled with the High Priest, Onias
III, and in order to revenge himself he informed the Syrian government
that the Temple of Jerusalem contained large treasures. Heliodorus was
sent to Jerusalem, but for some reason which legend has obscured by
miraculous tales, he was prevented from looting the treasury. Onias
was called to Antioch to answer certain charges of disloyalty, while
his brother Joshua, or Jason as he called himself, took his place.
Jason offered Antiochus a higher tribute than his brother had paid, and
declared his willingness to support the king in introducing Greek customs
among the Jews. He became high priest, but shortly afterwards Menelaus,
another member of the family, offered Antiochus a still higher tribute
and was made high priest in Jason’s place. Unable to pay the sum he had
promised, he appropriated valuable pieces from the Temple treasury to
bribe the King’s officials. Onias reproached him and was assassinated
upon his order.
This fact embittered the Jews. Menelaus was charged with sacrilege, but
as he possessed great influence the case was dismissed and his opponents
were executed. These events enraged the Jews still more, and when in
170 B.C., Antiochus was in Egypt engaged in warfare, the Jews rebelled
at the false report of his death. Antiochus returned and took bitter
revenge, pillaging the city, and desecrating the Temple. Two years later
he sent his general, Apollonius, to punish the rebels and the latter did
it in the most cruel manner. At the same time a strong fort was built
in Jerusalem and the practice of the Jewish religion, particularly the
observance of the Sabbath and the dietary laws, and the study of the
Torah prohibited, on the ground that they tended to keep the Jews aloof
from their neighbors. At the same time an altar to Zeus was erected in
the Temple and other heathenish altars placed in various cities. The Jews
were compelled under penalty of death to offer sacrifices to the Greek
gods.
The pious people fled from Jerusalem into the wilderness in order to
escape the fulfillment of the king’s orders. Among the leaders of those
who were determined rather to die than give up their religion was
Mattathiah, an aged priest of the family of the Hasmonæans. In the little
town of Modin he killed a Jew who made preparations to offer sacrifice
on the heathenish altar, and an officer was sent to execute the king’s
decree. This was the signal for rebellion. Mattathiah had five sons of
whom Judah, called the Maccabee, was the leader in battle. Judah gathered
a small number of the faithful around him and succeeded in defeating
various generals and finally the viceroy, Lysias. Then he entered
Jerusalem, removed all traces of idolatry from the Temple and rededicated
it to the service of God in 165 B.C. Shortly afterwards, in 164 B.C.,
Antiochus IV died and was succeeded by his son, Antiochus V, still a boy,
for whom Lysias governed as regent. The last having many difficulties to
contend with, granted the Jews religious freedom. He and the young king,
however, were soon killed, and Demetrius I, a nephew of Antiochus IV,
came to the throne in 162 B.C.
Demetrius continued to give the Jews religious freedom, but he appointed
a high priest named Alkymus, whom the people disliked, and so the
rebellion started anew. Judah defeated the general Nikanor in 161 B.C.,
but a year later he fell in battle and was succeeded by his brother
Jonathan. Meantime Syria was torn to pieces amid constant rebellion
caused by various claimants to the throne, each of whom tried to win
the Jews over to his side in order to obtain a free hand in fighting
his rivals. Thus Jonathan was confirmed as high priest by the Syrian
king (153 B.C.), but later on, being distrusted, was assassinated by
the Syrian governor, Tryphon (143 B.C.) He was succeeded by the last
surviving son of Mattathiah, Simon (143-135 B.C.). Simon drove the Syrian
garrison from the fort at Jerusalem and was not only confirmed as high
priest but also as ruler of the Jews. He manifested his sovereignty by
issuing coins bearing his name.
The Romans, who were glad to see the power of the Syrian king weakened,
formed an alliance with him, and so Israel was again an independent
nation. Simon was assassinated by Ptolemy, his own son-in-law, and was
succeeded by his son John Hyrcan (135-105 B.C.), who assumed the title
of king and was at the same time the high priest. The Syrian kingdom
became altogether dismembered, and John Hyrcan, aided by the Romans,
united under his sceptre not only the Jews living in Palestine but also
conquered those parts of the country which were inhabited by other
nations. The Idumæans and the Samaritans were forcibly converted to
Judaism. With the growing power of the new kingdom the religious life
of the ruling classes became weakened and the king alienated those
people who had formerly been the most zealous supporters of the Maccabæan
rebellion. Two parties were formed, one called the Sadducees, after the
High Priest Zadok, was in sympathy with the government while the other,
the Pharisees, became its opponent. The Pharisees (separatists) believed
in freedom only as a means of protection of their religious life, and
therefore opposed the king, who wasted the resources of the country in
wars of conquest.
Hyrcan was succeeded by Aristobul, his son, with whose reign a period of
family feuds and palace intrigues began. He ordered his brother Antigonus
to be killed and died soon afterwards, having reigned but one year
(105-104 B.C.). His successor was his brother Alexander Jannai (104-78
B.C.). The latter’s highest ambition was to become a conqueror and he
carried on constant but unsuccessful warfare with Arabic chieftains, and
with the Egyptians and other neighbors. The people rebelled against him,
but he quelled all uprisings with extreme cruelty, and on one occasion
had six hundred pilgrims massacred in the courtyard of the Temple. The
Pharisees were particularly the objects of his hatred.
Upon his death his wife, Salome Alexandra, came to the throne (78-69
B.C.). She made peace with the Pharisees, whose leader Simeon ben Shetach
was her brother, and her reign was happier than that of her husband.
Upon her death she left two sons, Hyrcan II and Aristobul, of whom the
first was to be high priest, while the second was to be king. But they
soon quarrelled, and Hyrcan, who was a tool in the hands of Antipater,
an Idumæan, his adviser, declared himself king. In the subsequent
civil war, Pompey, the Roman general and statesman, was asked to act as
arbitrator. He conquered Jerusalem, entered the Temple, and declared in
favor of Hyrcan, who, however, was not made king, but given the title
of Ethnarch. Aristobul was sent to Rome and the cities inhabited by
Syrians were annexed to the province of Syria (60 B.C.). Aristobul’s
son, Alexander, the son-in-law of Hyrcan, rebelled, but was defeated in
57 B.C. In the following year Aristobul fled from Rome and organized a
rebellion, but was soon defeated and sent a prisoner to Rome with his son
Antigonus.
Crassus, governor of Syria, entered the Temple and looted the treasury
(54 B.C.). Shortly afterwards he fell in battle and the Jews rebelled
again, but the uprising was cruelly suppressed, 30,000 being sold into
slavery (53 B.C.). Cæsar, who was now the ruler of Rome, liberated
Aristobul to use him against his rival Pompey, but Aristobul was poisoned
and his son Alexander executed (49 B.C.). Hyrcan and Antipater joined
Cæsar, who confirmed the former as Ethnarch and bestowed high distinction
on the latter (47 B.C.). Antipater’s son, Herod, was made governor of
Galilee, and as such executed the insurgent leader, Hezekiah, and put
down the rebellion. Called before the Sanhedrin for executing a citizen
without trial, he defied the court, knowing that he had the support of
the Romans. After Cæsar’s assassination Antipater joined Cassius, but was
himself assassinated (42 B.C.). His sons, however, remained in power,
and after the battle of Philippi they joined Antony, who confirmed them
as governors (42 B.C.). Antigonus, the son of Aristobul, now returned,
assisted by the Parthians, enemies of Rome, and was made high priest,
combining again the dignity of king and high priest (40-37 B.C.). Herod
fled to Rome, where he was appointed King of the Jews by the Senate.
Returning to Palestine he defeated Antigonus and reigned as king (37-34
B.C.). He married Mariamne, the granddaughter of Hyrcan and Aristobul,
and appointed her brother, Aristobul, as high priest. Becoming jealous of
his popularity, he caused him to be assassinated soon afterward.
Herod’s reign was marked by its splendor, but he was hated by the people
for his extreme cruelty. He had his wife, Mariamne, three of his sons,
the old High Priest Hyrcan II, and various other members of his family,
assassinated. His unpopularity grew in spite of the fact that the country
was prosperous and that he rebuilt the Temple in magnificent style. As a
descendant of the Idumæans, whom Hyrcan I had converted to Judaism, he
was considered a foreigner who held his power only through the assistance
of Rome. From this time the name Edom became a synonym for Rome in Jewish
Literature.
Herod left three sons, Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and Philip, among whom
he divided his empire. Archelaus received Judæa, Samaria and Idumæa. He
was to reside in Jerusalem and have the title of king. Herod Antipas
was given dominion over Galilee, and Peræa and Philip received the
northern district; both were to be called Tetrarchs. In Archelaus’
kingdom a revolt broke out at once, and 3,000 people were killed in the
Temple courtyard. When he went to Rome to obtain confirmation of his
title another rebellion broke out because of the cruelty of the Roman
commander, and once more a great number of people were killed and the
Temple sacked. Governor Varus was called from Syria to quell the contest
and did so with great cruelty. The Roman Emperor Augustus confirmed
Archelaus as ruler of Judæa but refused him the title of king; he was
merely called Ethnarch. Unable to control the people, who hated him, he
was deposed and exiled to Gaul, and his land made a part of the Roman
province of Syria (6 C.E.). The Roman governors carried on an arbitrary
and oppressive rule. A census ordered by Quirinius was bitterly resisted
and almost led to open rebellion. A party of Zealots was formed under the
leadership of Judah, the son of Hezekiah, whom Herod had executed. Their
object was to overthrow the Roman rule, and for this purpose they began
a reign of terror against all people who were supposed to be in sympathy
with Rome, and assassinations were of daily occurrence.
One of the most cruel of the Roman governors, Pontius Pilate (26-36),
in every possible way provoked the religious sentiments of the people,
and on the slightest show of resistance, ordered wholesale butcheries
of them. Many complaints were sent to Rome and he was finally recalled.
Under his administration the execution of Jesus is reported to have taken
place. Emperor Caligula (37-41), a typical megalomaniac, ordered his bust
placed in the Temple. Petronius, the military commander, reported that it
was impossible to execute this order without driving the people into open
rebellion, and so Caligula modified his demand. Only his assassination
prevented an outbreak of the people. He was a friend of Agrippa, the son
of Aristobul, and the grandson of Herod and Mariamne, and showered his
favors upon him. Agrippa was first appointed the successor of his uncle
Philip with the title of king, in 37. Upon the death of Herod Antipas,
Galilee was added to his dominion, and finally Emperor Claudius, upon
his succession to the throne in 41, gave him Judæa also, so that he thus
obtained the full heritage of his grandfather Herod. While a favorite
of Rome, Agrippa was beloved by the people, but he died in the prime of
his life in 44. His brother Herod, who was his successor, possessed no
other right except to appoint the high priest; similarly Agrippa’s son,
Agrippa II, while honored with the title of king, had practically no
power. For at the death of Agrippa I Palestine was again placed under
Roman governors, seven of whom held office from 44 to 66 and did their
utmost to drive the people into despair by cruel executions and wanton
disregard of religious feeling. The reign of terror continuing, a party
called Sicarii, from Sica, a dagger, which they always carried under
their garments for the punishment of those who were suspected of Roman
sympathies, arose and spread anarchy all through the land.
The last of the governors, Gessius Florus, was the worst of all who held
this office. His extortions and murders drove the people into despair.
Especially in Cæsarea, where the majority of the population was Greek,
and constantly attacked the Jews, he refused to grant them protection.
Agrippa II made an attempt to pacify the Jews and persuade them to send
a committee to Rome, but without avail. The daily sacrifice on behalf of
the Emperor was discontinued and open rebellion was declared (66).
The Jews fortified the Temple, captured several Roman forts, including
that of Jerusalem, and Cestius Gallus, the commander of Syria, was
defeated. Vespasian, the ablest general of the Roman army, was placed in
command and began the war in Galilee, where Flavius Josephus, the famous
historian, was in command of the revolutionary forces (67). Josephus was
besieged in the fortress of Jotapat, and, after weeks of hard fighting,
surrendered. In the fall of 67 all of Galilee was in the hands of the
Romans.
In 68 Vespasian conquered the land east of the Jordan, while in Jerusalem
the reign of terror continued and the Zealots wasted their forces in a
bloody civil war. Meantime a revolution had broken out in Rome and Nero
had committed suicide (68). Three emperors followed each other in quick
succession and the internal troubles caused Vespasian to temporize in his
warfare. But by 69 he had conquered the whole land with the exception
of Jerusalem and three fortified cities held by the patriots. In this
year he was proclaimed Emperor and went to Rome, leaving the work of
continuing the war to his son Titus.
Titus began the siege of Jerusalem in April, 70, and at once the internal
feuds ceased, the besieged doing their utmost to defend the place. Titus
had to take the city step by step. Finally on August 10th the Temple, the
last retreat of the patriots, was stormed and destroyed by fire. Those
who survived intrenched themselves in the upper city and continued their
resistance until September 7th. According to Josephus, 1,100,000 perished
in the war and 97,000 were made captives and sold as slaves or taken to
the circus, where they were torn to pieces by wild beasts. Seven hundred,
selected from the noblest families, were taken to Rome to be shown with
the holy vessels captured in the Temple in the triumphal march. An arch
of triumph was erected as a memorial of victory, which is still standing
in Rome. Titus left the siege of the three remaining fortresses to his
captains. They spent three more years in reducing them, Massada, the last
one, falling in 73. The last defenders of the place killed themselves in
order to escape being taken alive by the Romans. Thus the last vestige of
the independent Jewish kingdom, founded by the Maccabees, disappeared.