PLUMBING
The term plumbing is usually understood to cover all piping and
fixtures that carry water into the house and remove the waste material
in the form of sewage. It does not include the pipes of the heating
system. Although the work of installing heating plants is frequently
done by plumbers, pipe fitting and plumbing are two distinct trades.
In the process of building a house the rough plumbing is put into place
as soon as the structure is enclosed and the rough floors are laid.
The rough plumbing includes the soil pipe, into which the waste pipes
from the various fixtures empty, and those pipes which must occupy a
position inside the partition walls and beneath the floors.
The connections here described are for a city dwelling and apply to the
custom of local conditions. The same system might be used for a country
residence except in regard to the water supply and method of sewage
disposal. Plants of this type are discussed in the chapter on _septic
tanks_.
Fig. 58 shows a cross-section of the street, exposing the sewer _S_,
the water main _W_, and the connections with the house. The side of the
house has been removed to permit a view of the water and sewer pipes,
connecting with the bathroom, kitchen, laundry and other basement
fixtures.
The lateral sewer or house drain, which connects the house with the
street sewer _S_, is provided with a trap _G_, located, in this case,
just outside the basement wall. The house drain is made of vitrified
tile, laid so as to grade into the street sewer with the greatest
possible pitch. The sections are laid as true as conditions will permit
and the joints are all carefully filled with cement mortar to prevent
leakage. The object of the trap _G_ is to prevent sewer gas from
entering the house from the main sewer. The trap prevents the gas from
passing because the water in the bend of the trap forms a water seal,
beyond which the polluted air from the sewer cannot travel.
[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Cross-section of a city street showing the
watermain and sewer pipe with their connections to a dwelling.]
Next inside the trap is the vent pipe _E_, that extends to the surface
of the ground. In this case it is just outside the basement wall.
The top is covered with a metal cap. Another arrangement often made
to accomplish the same purpose is shown in Figs. 61 and 62, where a
piece of soil pipe in the form of a bend is made to take the place of
the cap. Inside the basement and extending up through the partition
walls to the roof is the _waste stack_ or soil pipe _A_. This pipe as
is explained in detail later, is made of cast iron and is put together
with calked lead joints. The top of the stack at the point where it
passes through the roof is shown in Fig. 59. In extending through the
roof the pipe _A_ must make a water-tight joint to prevent water from
leaking through. This is accomplished by means of the metal plate _D_,
which is set under the shingles and the piece _C_, that is soldered to
_D_. The joint between _C_ and _A_ is best made with lead the same as
the other joints of the stack. In the case of very high stacks, the
bottom should be supported by a pier or iron pipe rest. Besides being
supported at the base the stack should be secured to the side walls or
floor beams at each floor. This is to keep the pipe from moving out of
place and the consequent opening of joints.
[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Detail of soil pipe connection.]
[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Cross-section of cellar-drain.]
All of the waste pipes from the bathroom, kitchen and basement drain
into the waste stack. The cellar drain for draining the basement is
shown at _T_ in Fig. 58. It also appears in detail in Fig. 60. The
plate _B_, in the latter figure, is set flush to the surface of a
depression in the floor that serves as a collecting point for water.
The floor is constructed to drain toward this point. The plate is
perforated to let the water through and is generally hinged so that
in case of stoppage the cover may be raised. The bell-shaped piece
under the cover surrounds the piece _C_, to form a water seal when the
level of the water is at _A_. In addition to this water seal there
is generally a trap between the drain and the sewer as shown in the
drawing.
The method of connecting the bathroom waste pipes with the stack is
shown in Fig. 99 and will be described later. All of the sewage of the
house is emptied into the stack by the most direct route, and from the
stack it is conducted as directly as possible into the sewer. From the
drawing it will be seen that all openings to the sewer are sealed in
two separate places, once at the outlet to prevent the air from the
street sewer entering the house drain _G_, and again at each opening to
prevent escape of the sewer gas from the drain into the house.
[Illustration: FIG. 61. FIG. 62.
FIG. 61.--House drain with outside vent, and running trap placed inside
the basement wall.
FIG. 62.--House drain with outside vent, and running trap placed
outside the basement wall.]
The openings at _E_ and _A_ at each end of the stack permit a constant
circulation of air for ventilation. The length of the stack and its
location causes it to act as a chimney and the draught produced takes
the air in at _E_, and discharges it at the top. In large houses there
is sometimes added a vent stack to produce further ventilation, but
in the average dwelling the arrangement here shown covers the common
practice.
In Figs. 61 and 62 are shown in detail two methods of arranging
the sewer connections in the basement to permit of the removal of
obstructions in case the pipes at any time become stopped. The trap,
vent, etc., are easily recognized. With the arrangement as shown in
Fig. 62, the clean-out is so placed as to give access to the inside
of the pipe. Should an accumulation or obstruction of any kind become
lodged in the pipe, the stop in the clean-out is removed and a
flexible metal rod is used to remove the stoppage. The trap outside the
wall has an opening through which the obstruction may be reached in
case it cannot be removed from the first clean-out. The disadvantage in
using the outside trap, as here shown, is that it can be reached only
by excavation.
Fig. 61 shows another common method of installation. Here the trap is
placed inside the basement wall. This gives an easier means of opening
the trap than Fig. 62 affords and accomplishes the same purpose. The
connections with the stack are the same as in Fig. 62. Obstructions in
the sewer pipe are most likely to become lodged in the trap and for
this reason the trap should occupy a position that is reasonably easy
of access.
The outside trap as described above is quite generally installed in
buildings of all kinds, but its use is by no means universal. In some
communities it is not used at all, and many plumbers consider it only
an added means of causing stoppage and an extra expense to install.
The object of the outside trap is to keep the air of the street sewer
from entering the house drain. It is at once inferred that the air
of the street sewer is more dangerous than that of the house drain.
The street sewers, however, are ventilated at each street corner and
at each manhole. There cannot then be much difference in the air of
the two places. The traps on the fixtures that prevent sewer gas from
entering the house would be just as efficient if the outside trap did
not exist.
While the methods shown in Figs. 61 and 62 are considered good
practice, there is considerable objection to the vent being placed near
the dwelling, because of the sewer gas that is forced out, whenever
a sudden discharge of water goes into the drain. Each time a closet
is flushed, a large volume of water enters the stack and completely
fills the pipe. When this occurs, the descending water forces out the
air of the pipe ahead of it, and a gush of offensive air filled with
sewer gases is forced out of the vent. It is evident that such a vent,
located near an open window or where it will reach the nostrils of the
inhabitants is a thing not greatly to be desired.
Outside traps when placed near the surface sometimes freeze. The
circulation of air through the vent is occasionally sufficient in cold
weather to freeze the water and stop the trap.
[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Corporation cock with lead connecting pipe.]
=Water Supply.=--The water supply taken from the street main is
conducted to the house by the pipe shown in Fig. 58, at _C_. This pipe
is generally of lead as piping of that metal is the most durable for
underground work. Iron used under the same conditions will last only
a few years. The connection is made with the water main by use of a
_corporation_ cock. This is a special style of cock that is shown in
Fig. 63. In the figure the cock is connected with a short piece of lead
pipe that is used for making connection with the service pipe in the
house.
[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Curb cock as it appears attached to the
service pipe.]
Located at the left of _C_, in Fig. 58, is the _curb-cock_, used
for shutting off the water from the city lot. The curb-cock, being
underground, is reached through an iron tube by means of a wrench
attached to a long iron rod. The curb-cock has a protective covering
in the form of an iron pipe. The lower end of the pipe screws into the
body of the cock. The top end comes just above the grade line of the
curb and is covered with an iron screw-cap. The curb-cock is shown in
detail in Fig. 64. The pipe _B_ is fastened to the valve at _D_ and A
is the screw-cap. In opening and closing the wrench fits over the part
_C_ of the valve.
On entering the building the supply pipe should be provided with a
_stop_ and _waste-cock_ for shutting off the water from the house and
draining the pipes that compose the system of circulation. At _V_, in
Fig. 58, is indicated a stop and waste-cock with the waste pipe _B_
connected with the sewer. This cock is shown in detail in Figs. 65 and
66. The cock is so made that when closed there is a small opening at
_A_, that allows the water from the system to escape through the waste
pipe.
From the water supply, the cold-water pipes may be traced in the
drawing directly to each of the fixtures of the house. The hot-water
pipe leaves the range boiler at the top and connects with each fixture
using hot water, thus making the circuit complete. Details of the
piping which provides hot water is described under range boiler, page
116.
[Illustration: FIG 65.--Stop and drain cock with lever handle.]
[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Stop and drain cock with =T= handle.]
WATER COCKS
The development of modern plumbing has brought about the use of a
great number of household mechanical appliances, that have received
trade names little understood by the average person. The lack of
distinguishing terms, or language in which to describe plumbing
fixtures, often leads to embarrassment, when such articles are to
be described to workmen. Common household valves and cocks are so
classified by the trade, that mistakes are often made in their
designation, because of a limited knowledge of the use of the various
articles. A little consideration of the different classes of fixtures
will make it possible to state to a tradesman the exact article in
question.
The term _valve_ is intended to define an appliance that is used to
permit, or prevent, the passage of a liquid through the opening or port
which it guards. The term is so general in its application that there
are hundreds of different kinds of valves. Even for a single purpose
there are many styles of a given kind.
A _cock_ was originally a rotary valve or spigot used for drawing
water. Today there are many kinds of cocks that are not rotary in their
movement.
It would be impossible in this work to describe in detail all of
the kinds of cocks and valves used in household plumbing. It will,
therefore, be the aim to confine attention to one article of a type
and to choose such examples as are in general use and that are good
representatives of their classes.
[Illustration: FIG. 66_a_.--Kitchen sink with Fuller bibb-cocks.]
=Bibb-cocks.=--On the kitchen sink, the water faucets, such as those
shown in Fig. 66_a_, are termed bibb-cocks by the plumber. If the
nozzle is plain, it is a _plain bibb_. If the nozzle is threaded so
that a hose connection may be attached as in Fig. 67, it is a _hose
bibb_. Bibb-cocks are found in three general styles: compression bibbs,
ground-key bibbs, and Fuller bibbs. The compression bibb takes its
name from the method of closing the valve. Fig. 68 gives an example
of its mechanical construction. This is a plain _solder bibb_ because
the shank _A_ is to be attached by a solder joint. If the part _A_
contained a thread to make a screw joint, such as Fig. 67, it would
be a plain, compression, _screw bibb_. Fig. 68 is another style of
compression bibb-cock, largely used on sinks; this cock, being finished
with a flange, is a _compression flange bibb_.
[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Compression hose bibb.]
[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Compression flange bibb.]
[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Cross-section of plain compression bibb-cock
for a solder joint.]
Fig. 69 shows quite clearly the mechanical arrangement of the
compression cock. When the handle is turned the nut _C_ lifts the valve
from its seat _B_, allowing the water to escape. The piece _D_ is
generally made of composition rubber that may be bought at the dealers
for a trifling amount but it may be replaced temporarily with a piece
of leather. The part _E_ is packing, to keep the water from leaking
out around the stem. The packing may be obtained from the dealer
especially for the purpose or it may be made of a disc of sheet rubber.
In fact, anything that can be put into the space will answer the
purpose temporarily. The valve is closed by compression, hence the name
compression cock. All cocks made to open and close in the same manner
are compression cocks.
[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Cross-section of plain self-closing bibb-cock
for lead pipe.]
[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Cross-section of lever handle, plain bibb.]
[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Cross-section of plain Fuller bibb for lead
pipe.]
=Self-closing Bibbs.=--In Fig. 70 is one example of the many styles of
self-closing bibb-cocks. When the handle of this cock is turned, the
steep-pitched screw _A_ opens the valve and at the same time compresses
the spiral spring _B_, when the handle is released, the valve is
pressed back on its seat by the spring. Self-closing cocks are used to
prevent the waste of water at drinking fountains, wash basins and other
places where the water is apt to be left running through carelessness.
=Lever-handle Bibbs.=--Fig. 71 is an example of the _lever-handle_,
_ground-key_ bibb-cock. The key is the piece _A_, which is tapered and
forms a ground joint with the part _B_. The cock takes its name from
the form of the handle. The term ground-key means that the key has been
ground into place with emery dust. This cock is kept from leaking by
adjustment of the screw _C_.
=Fuller Cocks.=--These cocks take their name from their inventor. They
are made to suit every condition for which water cocks are used. Their
universal use attests to their utility and excellence in service. Fig.
72 shows the principle on which all Fuller cocks work. The varying
conditions under which the cocks are used require a great many forms,
but the working principle is the same in all. In these cocks, the
valve is a rubber plug or ball that is drawn into the opening by an
eccentric piece attached to the handle. The piece _D_ in the drawing
is the rubber plug that is drawn against the opening by the crank _B_,
which is worked by the lever handle _A_. This cock may be repaired, in
case it leaks, by unscrewing it at the joint nearest the plug. A wrench
and a pair of pliers are all the tools required. The pieces _D_ must
be obtained from the dealer. The part _J_ is the packing that keeps
the water from leaking out around the stem. The screw-cap _H_ forces a
collar _I_ down on the packing to keep it water-tight.
[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Repairs for Fuller cocks.]
The parts for the Fuller cock that may be obtained for repair are shown
in detail on Fig. 73. The ball, which appears in Fig. 73 at _D_, is the
part that receives the greatest amount of wear. If the cock at any time
fails to stop the flow of water, a new ball may be put in place by the
aid of a wrench and a pair of pliers. The water being first shut off
from the system, the cock is unscrewed and the cap _E_ removed with a
pair of pliers. The worn ball is then removed and a new one substituted.
=Wash-tray Bibbs.=--A special style of cock is made for laundry wash
trays in both the Fuller and compression types. Of these the Fuller
type is the most convenient as the handle is placed on the side and but
one movement is required to open the cock. This style of cock is used
on the wash trays shown in Fig. 83.
=Basin Cocks.=--Water cocks for wash basins are made in two general
types--the compression and the Fuller types of cocks. Their mechanism
is much the same as for other similar styles adapted to the use for
basins. The self-closing cocks used so largely on wash basins are
compression cocks. Fig. 74 is an example of Fuller basin cock in
general use. Compression cocks for the same purpose are shown on the
wash basin in Fig. 90.
[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Fuller basin cock.]
=Pantry Cocks.=--In general form, pantry cocks are the same as those
used for basins except that the outlet is elongated.
[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Sill cock in place attached to the water pipe.]
[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Cross section of sill cock.]
=Sill Cocks.=--As a means of attaching garden hose or lawn sprinklers,
sill cocks are placed on the side of the building at any place
convenient for their use. Fig. 75 illustrates the method of attaching
the cock to the water supply. Fig. 76 shows in cross-section its
mechanical arrangement. The part _A_ is screwed into the water supply,
and _B_ furnishes the hose attachment. The valve is operated the same
as any other compression valve. In Fig. 75 the cock is shown at _A_
with a garden hose attached. The pipe to which _A_ is attached passes
into the basement and connects to the water supply. The stop-cock _B_
is used to shut off the water. When the stop-cock _B_ is closed, _A_
should be opened, so that the pipe will drain. If this is neglected
during freezing weather, the pipe is apt to freeze and burst.
=Valves.=--The distinction between a cock and a valve is not at
all definite. Custom has determined that in certain places a cock
shall stop the flow of a liquid but in another place, perhaps of a
similar nature, a valve shall accomplish the same purpose. The chief
distinction between a cock and a valve is that of its external form.
In Figs. 77, 78 and 79 are three examples of valves that are very
generally used on pipes carrying any kind of fluid. The valves are
shown in cross-section to display the arrangement of the mechanism.
[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Cross-section of globe valve with detachable
valve disc.]
[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Cross-section of angle globe valve.]
[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Cross-section of gate valve.]
Fig. 77 is an example of the common _globe-valve_. The name was
originally intended to define a valve the body of which was in the form
of a globe. The hand-wheel _H_, attached to the screw-stem _S_, raises
the valve _A_ when desired. The valve makes close contact with the
seat _C_, by means of a composition rubber disc _B_. The disc _B_ may
be renewed when worn out as in the case of the radiator valve already
described.
Fig. 78 represents an _angle globe-valve_. In general construction it
is quite similar to Figs. 14 and 15, but the valve _V_ in this case
is a cone-shaped piece of brass, which makes a seat in a depression
provided for it. The valve _V_ and the seat are formed as desired and
then ground into contact with emery dust or other abrasive material, to
assure a perfectly tight joint. When this valve becomes worn and begins
to leak, it may be repaired by regrinding, but such work requires the
services of a pipe-fitter. The tendency of modern practice is to use
valves with the detachable discs, such as that of Fig. 77, because they
are easily repaired.
The valve shown in Fig. 79 is known as a _gate-valve_. The upper part,
including the screw and stem, is the same as the globe style but the
valve proper is made in the form of two flat gates _A-A_. When the
valve is closed, as it appears in the drawing, the gates are forced
against the seats by the cone-shaped piece _B_, which acts as a wedge,
to tightly close the opening. When the hand-wheel is turned to open the
valve, the gates are raised and are taken entirely out of the path of
the flowing liquid. Gate-valves are used in places where it is desired
to obstruct the flow as little as possible. They are somewhat more
expensive than globe-valves but are considered worth the extra expense
in service.
=Kitchen and Laundry Fixtures.=--The development in modern plumbing has
wrought many changes in the styles of household fixtures but none has
been so great as that in the kitchen sink. The old style, insanitary,
wooden sink has been almost entirely replaced by those made of pressed
steel or enameled iron. They are made in every desired size and to
suit all purposes. They may be plain or galvanized as occasion may
require, or the enameled sink is obtainable at a very slight addition
in price. The enameled sink has reached a degree of perfection where
its durability is unquestioned, and as a consequence kitchen furniture
is vastly improved at but little advance in cost.
[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Model kitchen.]
[Illustration: FIG. 81.--White enamel kitchen sink.]
A modern kitchen in which gas is used as fuel is shown in Fig. 80.
Simplicity and neatness of arrangement are the noticeable features.
This kitchen is intended to suit the average-sized dwelling and
contains all necessary plumbing, cooking and heating apparatus. The
hot-water boiler is here shown attached to an instantaneous heater. The
common kitchen sink is supplemented with a slop sink and covered with
a drain board. This simple kitchen may be elaborated to any extent.
Fig. 81 shows a kitchen sink of white enamel with two enameled drain
boards. The drain boards are sometimes covered with perforated rubber
mats.
[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Model laundry.]
[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Enamel wash trays in a basement laundry.]
In Fig. 82 is shown an example of the modern basement laundry. The
wash-boiler heater is shown on the left. An automatic instantaneous
water heater is on the right. The stationary tubs or wash trays occupy
the center of the picture. In detail these wash trays appear in Fig.
83. These are enamel-covered ware and are provided with the wash-tray
bibb-cocks described above. This type of plumbing represents the most
modern of sanitary arrangements.
THE BATHROOM
With the present-day improvements in plumbing, and the perfection
in the manufacture of porcelain and enameled iron, the bathrooms of
houses of moderate cost have become places of cleanliness, attractive,
relatively free from offending odors and supplied with all necessary
sanitary fixtures.
[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Model bath room for the average dwelling.]
Enameled iron has reached a state of perfection where it rivals
porcelain in beauty. The forms of the various bathroom pieces have been
modeled for convenience in use and grace of form, at the same time the
strife of the designer has been to produce articles that not only look
well but are convenient and easily kept clean.
Bathrooms need not be expensive in order to be convenient, attractive
and useful. The bathroom shown in Fig. 84 is such as is installed in
dwellings of moderate price. It possesses every feature necessary
to usefulness and comfort. In this room the furnishings are all of
enameled iron. The floor is covered with linoleum and the wainscoting
with enamel paint.
=Bath Tubs.=--Bath tubs are made in sizes that vary in length from
4-1/2 to 6 feet. They are constructed in a variety of forms and of
materials to suit all conditions of service. For domestic use they
are very generally made of enameled iron. This form of construction
produces serviceable and handsome furnishings for the bathrooms of the
modest house as well as for the sumptuous bath of the most pretentious
residence. An elaboration of Fig. 84 might include the Sitz bath
shown in Fig. 85 and the fittings may be chosen from a great variety
of forms. The recent styles of enameled tubs are, in design, much
handsomer than those with the roll rim and in form such as permits a
clean room with the minimum of labor. They are also provided with more
convenient water and drainage fixtures.
[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Sitz bath.]
The tub of Fig. 86 sets flat on the floor and makes a close joint with
the wall. It thus prevents the accumulation of dust that is difficult
to remove. In addition the fixtures are arranged in a more commodious
manner and the general appearance is most pleasing. The arrangement
of the fixtures in Fig. 87 gives still greater convenience and being
arranged with a shower and protecting curtain, provides all of the
conveniences of a luxurious bath without greatly increased cost over
the simple tub. The fixtures in this design are all in position of
greatest convenience and attached to pipes that are concealed in the
wall.
[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Enameled iron bath tub.]
[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Bath tub with shower.]
The fixtures usually provided with the tub are double Fuller or
compression cocks for hot and cold water, the overflow and strainer,
for the discharge of the water into the sewer in case the tub
overflows, and a drain and bath plug.
The double Fuller cock is shown in Fig. 88. It is made to open
and close by the same sort of mechanism as is shown in Fig. 71, a
description of which appears on page 90.
[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Double Fuller cock for bath tubs.]
The overflow is shown in detail in Fig. 89. The part _A_ appears inside
the tub. It is made water-tight around the edge _C_ by a rubber washer
that is clamped tight to the surfaces by the nut _B_. In case of
leakage, the overflow may be removed for repair by unscrewing the union
attached to the piece _D_ and removing the nut _B_.
[Illustration: FIG. 89. FIG. 89_a_.
FIG. 89.--Overflow attachment for bath tubs, lavatories, etc.
FIG. 89_a_.--Drain attachment for bath tubs, lavatories, etc., showing
locknut and union connection.]
The drain-pipe connection is shown in Fig. 89_a_. The plug _D_ and the
flange _A_ show inside the tub. The flange is made water-tight by a
rubber washer that the nut _B_ clamps tight to the tub. The part _C_
is a union which permits the tub to be detached from the drain pipe.
Repairs to this joint may be made as in the overflow.
[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Old style marble finished lavatory.]
[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Types of lavatory plumbing not now used in
good practice.]
=Wash Stands and Lavatories.=--Wash stands for bathrooms are obtainable
in many forms, either plain or ornate, to suit every condition and
style of architectural finish.
[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Enameled iron wall wash basin.]
[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Enameled iron pedestal wash basin.]
They are made in marble, porcelain and enameled iron, the last being
the most commonly used. They are made to suit the part of the room to
be occupied, whether that is against a wall, a corner, or to stand on
a pedestal on the floor. Those intended to fasten to the wall may be
supported by brackets or suspended at the back from pieces secured in
the wall.
In Figs. 90 and 91 are shown samples of marble-finished wash basins.
In former years basins of this type were very much in use, and until
the introduction of the modern porcelain and enameled ware, it was the
highest type of sanitary plumbing. The water cocks and traps are of the
same style and grade as appear on the most modern examples of enameled
ware of Figs. 92, 93 and 94. The water cocks used in Fig. 90 are of the
compression type. All of the others are of the Fuller type. The basin
in Fig. 93 is provided with extra shut-off cocks on the water pipe
under the basin. They are added to the plumbing merely as a convenient
means of shutting off the water for repair. The wash stand is usually
provided with hot and cold water cocks, a waste pipe with its traps and
overflow connections.
[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Corner wash basin.]
=Traps.=--The waste pipes from the wash basin and bath tub are always
provided with some form of trap, to prevent air from entering the room
from the sewer, charged with offending odors. Traps are made in many
forms, but the purpose of all is to prevent the escape of sewer gas.
The plain trap _S_, shown in Fig. 95, is that used under the basin in
Fig. 91. It makes a tight joint by means of the nut _B_ and a rubber
washer as in the case of other joints of the kind. The parts _C_ and
_E_ are unions that permit the pipe or bowl to be removed without
disturbing the remainder of the plumbing. From the form of the trap
it will be seen that the U-shaped part below the dotted line _F_ will
always remain full of water and so prevents the escape of air from
the sewer. In case the trap becomes stopped the obstruction will
likely become lodged in this part of the pipe. To clean the trap the
screw-plug _D_ is taken out with a pair of pliers and the obstruction
removed with a wire.
The traps used in Figs. 90 and 92 are the same in principle as Fig. 95
but are made to discharge into a pipe placed in the wall instead of
under the floor. The trap in Fig. 94 is a form known as the bottle-trap
that is sometimes used in the more expensive plumbing.
[Illustration: FIG. 95.--The S trap of nickel-plated brass tubing.]
[Illustration: FIG. 96.--The Bower non-siphoning trap.]
[Illustration: FIG. 97.--The drum type of non-siphoning trap.]
[Illustration: FIG. 98.--An S trap made of lead pipe.]
Another style much used with lavatories is the Bower trap shown in Fig.
96. In this trap the water comes down the pipe _B_ and pushing aside
the hollow rubber ball _A_, enters the space surrounding it and is
discharged at _C_. The ball, being light, is held against the end of
the pipe by the water and acts as a stopper to prevent evaporation from
taking place. Open traps, such as Fig. 95, if left standing for a long
time, may lose sufficient water by evaporation to destroy the water
seal and allow the sewer gas to escape. In the use of the Bower trap
such occurrence is much less likely to take place.
Fig. 97 is another trap much used on sinks; it is known under the
trade name of the Clean Sweep trap. The part _C_ is much larger than
the common trap and the water seal is less likely to be broken. The
clean-out is larger and the interior is easy of access in case of
stoppage.
The simplest and most commonly used trap in cheap plumbing is that of
Fig. 98. It is a lead pipe bent in the form of an _S_. It is the same
in shape as Fig. 95 and performs its work as well but does not have the
means of detachment shown in the latter. Traps of many other forms are
in use but all have the same function to perform and the mechanical
make-up is much the same as those described.
[Illustration: FIG. 99.--A method of bath-room plumbing using the drum
trap.]
The plan of attachment of the various bathroom fixtures of the soil
pipe must always depend on local conditions. The object is to conduct
the waste water to the sewer in such a way as to give the least
opportunity for stoppage and to prevent sewer gas from escaping into
the house. To accomplish this purpose the pipes and traps are arranged
according to a plan proposed by the architect, plumber or other person
familiar with the principles of plumbing. Since these pipes are
placed in the walls and under the floors, where they are not readily
accessible, it is necessary that their arrangement be made with care
and that the workmanship be such as to assure correct installation.
In Fig. 99 is shown a common method of connecting bathroom fixtures
with the sewer. The drawing shows a bathroom with the floor broken away
to show the pipe connections with the bath tub, wash basin and closet.
The overflow pipes _O_ and _V_ and the drain pipes _D_ and _R_ from
the wash basin and bath tub empty into a large lead drum-trap _T_, set
under the floor. This trap takes its name from its shape. It is set
in position as dictated by the conditions under which it is used. The
nickeled plate _P_, screwed into the top of the trap, comes just above
the bathroom floor. This plate is easily removed in case of stoppage.
It is made air-tight by a rubber ring placed under the cover and which
makes a joint with the top edge of the drum.
It will be noticed that the waste pipes from the bath tub and wash
basin enter the trap near the bottom and discharge at the opposite side
near the top. The water will stand in the trap and pipes level with
the bottom of the discharge pipe and thus form a seal that prevents
the escape of sewer gas. This is a common form of non-siphoning trap.
It is non-siphoning because it cannot lose its seal by reason of the
siphoning effect of the water as it passes through the waste pipes
on its way to the sewer. Another form of non-siphoning trap is the
clean sweep trap shown in Fig. 97. Such traps as Figs. 95 and 98 are
siphoning traps, since it is possible, in this form of trap, for the
water to be so completely siphoned that not enough remains to form
a seal. The small drawing, marked _Detail L_, is another method of
connecting the same arrangement of fixtures. The waste pipe enters the
trap as before but discharges immediately opposite. The level of the
water stands in the pipes as indicated by the dotted line.
=Back-venting.=--To prevent the possibility of loss of seal by
siphoning and the escape of sewer gas, traps are back-vented to the
main stack or to a separate vent stack. The venting is accomplished by
joining a pipe to the top of the trap or to some point in its immediate
neighborhood, and connecting this with the main stack or the vent
stack. The water in a trap so vented will be open to the air from both
sides and consequently can never be subject to siphonic action.
In the average-sized dwelling where non-siphoning traps are used,
back-venting is not necessary, but in large houses and in plumbing
where siphon traps are used, vent pipes must be attached to the traps
to assure a satisfactory system.
Fig. 100 furnishes an example of back-venting, applied to the bathroom
shown in Fig. 99. In the former figure the bath tub and wash basin
are connected with the waste pipe by siphon traps. A siphon trap may
lose its seal in two ways: by self-siphonage, or by aspiration caused
by the discharge of the water from other fixtures. In the discharge
of the siphon trap, such as _B_, in Fig. 100, the long leg of the
siphon, formed by the discharge pipe, may carry away the water so
completely that not enough remains in the trap to form a seal. Again,
the discharge of the water from the bath tub through the waste pipe
tends to form a vacuum above it and in some cases the seal in _B_
is destroyed by the water being drawn into the vertical pipe. The
possibility of either of these occurrences is prevented by back-venting.
[Illustration: FIG. 100.--An example of back-vented plumbing as applied
to the bathroom.]
In Fig. 100, a pipe from the main stack is connected with the bend of
the trap at _B_ and also to the waste pipe outside the trap at _T_. A
vent is also taken from the drain _C_, at a point just below the trap
in the closet seat. The object of all of the vents is to prevent the
tendency of the formation of a vacuum from any cause that will carry
away the water seal of the trap and allow sewer gas to enter the house.
The closet seat also contains a trap which will be described later. It
connects with soil pipe _S_, leading to the sewer by a large lead pipe
_C_.
All of the pipes under the floor, leading to the soil pipe, should
be of lead. The pipes above the floor are generally of iron or
nickel-plated brass. All of the connections in the lead pipes are made
with _wiped joints_; that is, the connections are made by wiping hot
solder about the joint, in a manner peculiar to this kind of work, in
such a way as to solder the pipes together. The joints made in this
manner are perfectly and permanently tight. Lead pipes are used under
such conditions, because lead is the least affected by corrosion of any
of the metals that could be used for such work.
=Soil Pipe.=--The soil pipe, of which the waste stack or house drain is
composed, is made of cast iron and comes from the factory covered with
asphaltum paint. It may be obtained in two grades, the standard and
extra heavy. The only difference is in the thickness of the pipe. The
former is commonly used in the average dwelling. One end passes through
the roof and the other end joins to the vitrified sewer tile under the
basement floor. The joints must be perfectly tight, because a leak in
this pipe would allow sewer gas to escape into the house. One end of
each section is enlarged sufficiently to receive the small end of the
next section. The joints are made with soft lead. The pipes are set in
place and a roll of oakum is packed into the bottom of the joint, after
which molten lead is poured into the joint, filling it completely. The
oakum is used only to keep the lead in the joint until it cools. After
the lead has cooled it is packed solidly into the joint with a hammer
and calking tool. The calking is necessary because the lead shrinks
on cooling and makes a joint that is not tight. Well-calked joints
of this kind are air-tight and permanent. _Detail N_ (Fig. 99) shows
the arrangement of the parts of the joint as indicated at _A_. The
blackened portion represents the lead as it appears in the joint.
_Detail M_ (Fig. 99) shows the methods of attaching the closet seat
to the lead waste pipe _C_. The end of the lead pipe is flanged at
the level of the floor, as shown at _C_ in the detail drawing. The
depression _D_, around the connection, is then filled with glazier’s
putty and the seat is forced down tightly in place and fastened with
lag screws.
The pipe _C_, from the closet, and that from the trap _T_, being of
lead, a special joint is necessary in connecting them with the soil
pipe, because a wiped joint cannot be made with cast iron. To make such
a connection the end of the lead pipe is “wiped” onto a brass thimble,
heavy enough to allow it to be joined to the soil pipe by a calked lead
joint. The brass thimble is then joined to the cast-iron pipe by a
calked lead joint.
[Illustration: FIG. 101.--The wash-out closet.]
[Illustration: FIG. 102.--The wash-down closet.]
=Water Closets.=--Water closets are made in a great number of styles to
suit the architectural surroundings and the various conditions under
which they are to be used. Many forms of water closets are manufactured
to conform to special conditions, but those commonly used in the
bathrooms of dwellings are of three general types. The mechanical
construction of each is shown in the following drawings, Figs. 101,
102 and 103 showing respectively in cross-section the principle of
operation of the _washout_ closet, the _washdown_ closet and the
_siphon-jet_ closet.
_Washout Closets._--This type of closet has in the past been used to
a very great extent. It does not perform the work it has to do, so
perfectly as the others, because the shallowness of the water in the
bowl allows it to give off odors, and because it is difficult to keep
clean. The action of the closet is as follows: When the closet is
flushed the water enters the rim at _A_, and the greater portion of
it is washed downward at _B_ to dislodge the contents of the bowl. A
lighter flush is sent through the openings in the side, which serves
to wash the entire surface. The direction of discharge is forward,
where it dashes against the front of the bowl and then falls into
the trap. The only force received to carry the water to the trap is
from falling through the distance from the point where it strikes the
front. The flushing action is obtained from the use of a large volume
of water. As the discharged matter is dashed against the front of the
bowl, the flushing action of the water is not sufficient to remove all
the stains; the result is an accumulation of filth. This part of the
bowl is out of sight; hence, it is seldom kept clean. The name washout
comes from the action of the water to wash out the contents of the bowl.
[Illustration: FIG. 103.--The siphon-jet closet.]
[Illustration: FIG. 104.--A poor design of wash-down closet.]
=Washdown Closets.=--As shown in Fig. 102, the action of this closet is
to wash the contents of the bowl directly down the soil pipe. The depth
of the water at _A_ is much greater than at the corresponding point in
the washout closets; as a consequence fecal matter is almost submerged.
The main objection to this closet is that it is noisy. Fig. 104 shows
another form of washdown closets. This closet is open to objection
because of faulty design; the part _A_ is difficult to keep clean
because of its shape.
=Siphon-jet Closet.=--What is considered by many to be the most
satisfactory closet yet designed, is that of the siphon-jet type shown
in Fig. 103. The flushing action of this closet is entirely different
from that of the others described. The flushing water enters at _A_
and fills the rim _B_. Part of the water washes the sides of the bowl,
while the remainder flows through the jet _C_, and is discharged
directly into the outlet. The ejected water enters the outlet _D_,
which, as soon as it fills, acts as a siphon to draw the water into
the soil pipe. This closet is most positive in its action, since
the discharge is made by the siphon and also receives the additional
momentum due to the water flowing through the jet. Its action is
attended with but little noise.
[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Siphon-jet closet with the high flush tank.]
[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Form of closet not now used in good practice.]
=Flush Tanks.=--The water closet depends for its action on one of two
general types of flush tanks, the high and the low forms. The tank
is automatically filled with water and when wanted, a large volume
of water is suddenly discharged into the sewer, carrying with it the
contents of the seat. The tank again fills and is ready for use when
required.
As illustrations of high flush tanks, those shown in Figs. 105 and 106
furnish examples of a simple and efficient form. The details of the
mechanism of this type of tank are shown in Fig. 107. The pipe from the
water supply is attached at _G_ to the automatic valve _F_, which keeps
the tank filled with water. The piece _F_ of the valve is held against
the opening by the pressure exerted through the float _E_. The float is
a hollow copper ball. As the ball is lifted it exerts a pressure in
proportion to the amount it is submerged. When the water reaches the
level _A-A_, the valve is tightly closed. As the water is discharged
from the tank the ball follows the level of the water and opens the
valve, allowing the water to enter and again fill the tank.
[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Details of construction of a simple type of
siphon flush tank.]
The siphon is made of cast iron, and in the figure is shown cut through
the center. The lower end fits loosely in the piece _K_, and makes a
water-tight joint around its outer edge, by resting on a rubber ring
_C-C_. The right-hand side of the siphon is open at _H_, and when the
tank is full, the level of the water is at _A-A_, which is almost
at the top of the division plate. To discharge the tank, the chain
_L_, attached to the lever _B_, is pulled down; this action raises
the siphon from its seat. As soon as the siphon is lifted, the water
rushes through the opening around _C-C_, into the pipe _K_; this causes
a partial vacuum to form in _D_, and the water is lifted over the
division plate _K_, and flows out at _D_, forming the siphon. As soon
as the siphonic action begins the siphon may be dropped back on the
seat and the water will continue to discharge until the tank is empty.
=Low-down Flush Tank.=--The low-down flush tank for water closets has
met with so much favor that it has to a great extent displaced the high
tank. The reason for this is because of its advantages over the other
style. The low tank is more accessible, more easily kept clean, and
better adapted to low ceilings. It is used successfully as a siphon
tank, but other forms are in use with satisfactory results.
Fig. 108 gives a perspective view of one style of this type of tank
attached to a siphon-jet closet. Figs. 109 and 110 give the details of
the construction of two forms of this type of tank, both of which have
given efficient service. The drawing shows the tanks with the front
broken away to give a view of the working parts. The water enters the
tank and is discharged at the points indicated. The float and supply
valve works exactly as described in the high tank. The drawing in Fig.
109 shows the tank in the act of discharging. The discharge valve is
raised as shown at _E_. When the water is completely discharged, the
float occupies the position shown dotted. When the float reaches this
dotted position, its weight pulls down the piece _A_. This releases
the lever _B_, and the attached stopper _E_, which falls and closes
the discharge orifice. While the tank is filling with water, a stream
flows through the small pipe _D_, to replenish the water in the closet
that has been discharged in siphoning. When the tank is full of water,
the pieces _A_ and _B_ occupy the positions shown dotted. To discharge
the tank the _trip_ is pushed down. This action raises the lever to
the position _B_, and with it the attached stopper _E_. The piece _C_
falls and the opposite end _A_ holds _B_ suspended until the tank is
completely discharged.
[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Siphon-jet closet with low-down tank.]
[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Details of construction of low-down flush
tank.]
The action of the tank shown in Fig. 110 is the same as the others
except that of the discharge mechanism. In the drawing, the tank is
full of water ready to be discharged when required. A hollow rubber
ball _E_ serves as a stopper for the discharge pipe. The ball is kept
in place, when the tank is filling, by the pressure of the water above
it. The discharge is started by pressing down the trip on the front of
the tank. This raises the ball from its seat, and being lighter than
water, it floats, thus leaving the discharge pipe open until the tank
is empty, when the ball is again back on its seat. As the tank fills
the pressure of the water above prevents the ball from again floating,
until lifted from its seat. The supply valve and refilling pipe _D_ is
the same in action as in the other tank.
[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Details of construction of the float-valve,
low-down flush tank.]
[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Method of using the plumber’s friend, in
removing obstructions.]
=Opening Stopped Pipes.=--It occasionally happens that pipes
leading from the various toilet fixtures become stopped because of
accumulations or by articles that accidentally pass the entrance.
In case the pipe has a trap connection the stoppage is most likely
to occur at that point. Usually the obstruction may be removed by
detaching the screw-plug of the trap and removing the accumulation with
a wire.
Closet seats furnish an inviting receptacle for waste material of
almost every kind. Stoppages are not uncommon and are generally found
in the trap. One method of removing obstruction is by use of the
plumbers’ friend. This device is shown at _P-R_, in Fig. 111. It
consists of a wooden handle _P_ attached to a cup-shaped rubber piece
_R_.
The plumbers’ friend is shown in the figure, placed to remove an
obstruction _S_ that is lodged in the trap. A sudden downward thrust
causes the rubber cap _R_ to entirely fill the closet outlet and the
resulting pressure to the water is generally sufficient to force the
obstruction through the trap to the soil pipe.
[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Method of removing obstructions from a
stopped drain-pipe.]
The kitchen sink is another place that affords opportunity for
accumulation that stops the waste pipe. Accumulation of grease in the
trap is a common cause of trouble. This may be remedied to some extent
by the use of potash or caustic soda. When the pipe is stopped and the
trouble cannot be reached from the trap, a common method of removing
the stoppage is that suggested in Fig. 112. A piece of heavy rubber
tubing is forced over the water tap and the other end tightly wedged
into the drain pipe; the water is then turned on and generally the
pressure is sufficient to force the accumulation down the pipe.
=Sewer Gas.=--The prevalent fear of the deleterious effect of escaping
sewer gas is one that has been magnified to an unwarrantable degree.
Among bacteriologists it is very generally recognized that none of the
dreaded diseases to which the human kind is susceptible are transmitted
by gases. The one possible harmful effect recognized in sewer gas
by scientists is that produced by carbon monoxide. Sewer gas often
contains, from escaping illuminating gas, sufficient carbon monoxide
to produce the poisoning effect characteristic of that gas but the
possibility of danger is quite remote. The leakage of sewer gas is
detected by the sense of smell sooner than in almost any other way.
While leaks in sewer pipes are unhygienic in that they are conducive to
undesirable atmospheric conditions, they should not be looked upon as
the agents through which transmissible diseases are carried.
To the average person the term sewer gas conveys the impression of
a particularly loathsome form of vaporous contagion, capable of
distributing every form of communicable disease. To the scientific
mind it means no more than a bad odor. Sewer gas is really nothing but
ill-smelling air.
RANGE BOILERS
The hot-water supply to the household is of so much importance, that
the installation of the range boiler should be made with great care,
and an understanding of the principle on which it works should be fully
appreciated by all who have to do with its management. The ability of
the boiler to supply the demands put upon it depends in a great measure
on its size and the arrangement of its parts, but proper management is
necessary to assure a supply of hot water when required.
Range boilers are used for storing hot water heated by the _water-back_
of the kitchen range or other water heater, during a period when water
is not drawn. It serves as a reserve supply where the heater is not of
sufficient size to heat water as fast as is demanded.
As commonly used, range boilers are galvanized-steel tanks made
expressly for household use. They are standard in form and may be
bought of any dealer in plumbing or household supplies. In capacity
they range from 20 to 200 gallons and are made for either high-or
low-pressure service. They are said to be tested at the factory to a
pressure of 200 pounds to the square inch and are rated to stand a
working pressure of 150 pounds. Range boilers are galvanized after they
are made and coated both inside and out. The coating of zinc received
in the galvanizing process helps to make their seams tight and at the
same time renders the surface free from rust.
There is no definite means of determining the size of tank to be used
in any given case, because of the varying demands of a household but a
common practice is to allow 5 gallons in capacity to each person the
house is able to accommodate.
=The Water-back.=--The most common method of heating water for the
range boiler is by use of the _water-back_ or _water-front_ of the
kitchen range. The _water-back_ is a hollow cast-iron piece that is
made to take the place of the back fire-box lining of the range. In
some ranges the heater occupies the front of the fire-box instead of
the back, in which case the heater becomes the _water-front_.
The arrangement of pipes connecting the source of water supply with
the boiler is such that cold water is constantly supplied to the tank
as the hot water is drawn. If no water is drawn from the tank, it will
continue to circulate through the tank and heater, the water becoming
constantly hotter.
The connecting pipes are usually of iron but sometimes pipes of copper
or brass are used. The joints should be reamed to remove the burr that
is formed in cutting. The angles should be 45-degree bends or better
still 90-degree bends in connecting the heater with the tank so as to
cut down the amount of friction as much as possible.
[Illustration: FIG. 113.--A common method of connecting the range
boiler to the water-back.]
In Fig. 113 is shown a standard range boiler connected to the range.
The water is brought into the top of the tank through the pipe _a-a_,
and passing through it enters the water-back by means of the pipe
_b_. After passing through the water-back the water again enters the
tank through the pipes _c_ and _d_, as indicated by the arrow. The
_flow pipe_ (carrying the out-going water) from the water-back may
be connected with the tank at _e_, as shown dotted or in some cases
the connections are made at both places. The velocity of circulation
depends on the vertical height of the column of hot water and the
greater height will, therefore, improve the circulation and thus
increase the efficiency of the heater. The circulation of the water
through the tank and heater is produced by its change in weight as the
water is heated. As the hot water comes from the water-back it rises
in the pipe because it is lighter in weight than the cooler water of
the tank. In the case of the pipe shown dotted in Fig. 113 the longer
vertical rise will give a greater upward velocity of the hot water and
consequently a better circulation through the entire circuit.
The construction of the water-back is shown in the small drawing. The
connections are made at _b_ and _c_ as before. A division plate in the
water-back causes the water flowing in at _b_ to follow the length of
the heater at the bottom and return at the top as indicated by the
arrow, when it is discharged at _C_.
The hottest water is always at the top of the tank and the temperature
grades uniformly from the hottest at the top to the coolest at the
bottom. The reason for extending the pipe _a_ so far down into the tank
is that the cold water may not mingle with the hot water and reduce
its temperature on entering the tank. Near the top of the pipe _a_
is a small hole _f_ that is intended to prevent the water from being
siphoned from the tank in case a vacuum is formed in the cold-water
pipe. In this arrangement the water enters and leaves at the top of
the tank. In case the supply is shut off at any time the tank is left
almost full of water, because the siphoning effect cannot extend below
the small hole _f_.
=Excessive Pressure.=--Accidents due to the explosion of hot-water
backs are not at all rare and it should be borne in mind that there
is danger of excessive pressure being formed should the pipes _b_ and
_c_ become stopped. Under normal conditions the pressure generated by
the heated water is relieved by the water in the tank being forced
back into the supply pipe. The pressure in the tank, therefore, cannot
become greater than that of the source of supply, but if _b_ and _c_
should become stopped with the water-back full of water a dangerous
pressure might result. The greatest danger from this cause is that
of freezing. It frequently happens that houses are closed during
cold weather and the water-back is left undrained. The water freezes
and when a fire is started in the range, the ice in the water-back
is the first to melt. In a short time steam will be generated that
will soon produce a sufficient pressure to burst the water-back.
This has happened many times with disastrous results. Such dangers
may be avoided by the exercise of a reasonable amount of care in the
management of the range. To drain the water-back, the water is first
shut off at the point where the supply pipe enters the house. The
water in the range boiler is then drawn off by means of the cock _h_.
[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Blow-off for removing sediment.]
=Blow-off Cock.=--When a considerable amount of sediment is carried
in the water the range boiler acts as a settling tank and the deposit
accumulated at the bottom will in time amount to a source of trouble.
The accumulation is shown in Fig. 114. The part _W_, which connects
with _B_, is sometimes provided with a blow-off cock that will admit
of a discharge of the sediment. More commonly the piping is arranged
as shown in Fig. 113, when sediment is removed by occasionally drawing
water from the cock _h_.
[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Method of connecting the range boiler when
placed on the floor below the heater.]
=Location of Range Boiler.=--It is sometimes desired to place the
range boiler on a different floor, either above or below the range.
While such arrangements are entirely possible the circulation of the
water is not so good as that described above. The weight of the two
columns of water in the connecting pipes are so nearly balanced that
good circulation is not always possible. In Fig. 115 the connections
are shown, where the tank is located in the basement. In connecting the
water-back to the tank under such conditions the piping is relatively
the same as is shown in the dotted connections of Fig. 113, but the
connections are longer. The circulating pipe comes from the bottom of
the tank and leads to the bottom of the water-back. The flow pipe from
the top of the water-back is extended up to a distance equal or greater
than the distance from the water-back to the bottom of the tank. The
hot water is taken from the top of the flow pipe at any place above the
tank.
=Double Heater Connections.=--Two heaters are sometimes connected to
one range boiler, each circuit being independent of the other. Under
such conditions one or both heaters may be used. When the tank is
connected as shown in Fig. 116 the pipe _a_, from the bottom of the
tank, branches and leads to _b_ and _b´_, at the bottom of each of the
heaters. The flow pipes from the top of the heaters enter the tank at
separate places, the lower heater sending its water into the side of
the tank at _c_, and the upper heater flowing into the pipe _d_, at
the top of the tank. It would be perfectly possible to reverse the
connections for the flow pipes in the arrangement of Fig. 116 and
attain the same results. In such combinations the heaters are sometimes
piped tandem, the water flowing through each of the heaters in turn.
This, however, is not the best method to employ, for if only one of the
heaters is used the second acts to cool the water.
[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Double connections for the range boiler where
a heater is placed in the basement for occasional use.]
=Horizontal Range Boilers.=--It occasionally happens that in a small
kitchen there is no convenient floor space for the range boiler and
it becomes necessary to suspend it from the ceiling. It is perfectly
possible to station the ordinary range boiler in such a position and
have it work fairly well but from the location of the cold-water
inlet, only that part of the range boiler above the cold water pipe is
actually used for storage. The water in the lower half constantly mixes
with the entering cold water before it is heated by passing through the
water-back. When hot water is drawn from the top of the range boiler,
cold water enters by the cold-water pipe and reduces the temperature
of most of the lower half. Fig. 117 illustrates such an arrangement.
In this case the pipes connected with the water-back are those that
correspond to the circulating pipes _a_ and _e_ in Fig. 113.
Suppose the range boiler is full of water, and that it is being heated.
The lower pipe at the left-hand end is conducting the water to the
water-back and it is being returned to the range boiler by the upper
pipe at the same end. When the hot water is drawn from the top of the
range boiler by the _hot-water_ pipe, the entering cold water mixes
with hot water in most of the lower half of the range boiler before it
has been heated by passing through the water-back and so reduces the
temperature of most of the lower half of the tank.
[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Method of connecting the vertical
range-boiler in a horizontal position.]
[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Horizontal range-boiler suspended from the
ceiling.]
A much better tank for the purpose is that indicated in Fig. 118. This
is a tank made particularly for such a location. The cold water enters
at the bottom of the tank and also leaves the bottom on its way to the
water-back. Circulation takes place through the water-back as before
but when hot water is drawn from the top of the tank, the entering cold
water at the bottom mixes with only that at the lower part of the tank
and so cools but a small amount of the hot water in storage. Hot-water
tanks of this kind are tapped for pipe connections in two places on
both the top and bottom sides and also at the ends as shown in the
drawing.
=Tank Heaters.=--When the demand for hot water is sufficient to warrant
a separate hot-water heater the apparatus similar to Fig. 119 is used.
With such a heater, the conditions of overheated water--to be described
later--may be almost entirely avoided. In this case the connections are
arranged similarly to those of the range boiler but a separate furnace
takes the place of the water-back. The heater is simply a small furnace
made expressly for heating water. Connected with the discharge pipe _p_
is a draft-regulating valve which controls the drafts of the heater.
The draft-regulator is set to so control the furnace that water at the
desired temperature will always be in the tank. The mechanism of this
regulator is the same as the draft-regulator described under hot-water
heating plants.
=Overheated Water.=--Under ordinary conditions the water contained in
the range boiler is below the atmospheric boiling point (212°F.) but
at times when a hot fire is kept up in the range for a considerable
period, the temperature will rise to a degree much above that amount.
The temperature to which the water will rise will depend on the
pressure of the water supply. As an example--suppose the gage pressure
of the water supply is 25 pounds. The temperature corresponding to that
pressure is 258°F. The temperature of the water in the tank will rise
to that amount but not further because any additional temperature will
produce a higher pressure, but a higher pressure would be greater than
the pressure of the water supply and hence will back the water into the
supply pipe. This condition of things, then, acts as a safety valve to
the tank to prevent excessive pressures.
[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Independent hot-water heater with temperature
regulator.]
When the water at a high temperature is drawn from the tap a
considerable part of it will instantly vaporize, because of the
reduced pressure. If water at a pressure of 25 pounds is drawn from
the faucet, the temperature, 258°F., is sufficient to send all of the
water instantly into steam. This high temperature will scald at the
slightest touch. The water drawn from the faucet will continue to
vaporize as it comes into the air until the water in the tank is cooled
by the incoming cold water. The only means of relieving the overheated
condition is to open the faucet a slight amount and allow a portion of
the heated water to be drawn off.
It is evident from what has been said of the range boiler that it
operates under a variety of conditions. It is first a storage tank in
which is accumulated the water, heated from a greater or less period of
use of the range. Should the range fire be maintained through the day
or night the supply of hot water will be excessive and superheating is
the result. If the heater is to be used during short periods of time,
the piping should be arranged to produce the best circulation; on the
contrary, should the heater be used continuously--as in the case of a
furnace coil--a slow circulation through the tank is most to be desired
and the piping should be arranged for that purpose.
In the use of furnace heaters, superheating is likely to occur during
cold weather when a hot fire must be used over a long period of time.
In order to conserve the heat accumulated under such conditions a
hot-water radiator is frequently connected with the range boiler
through which to dispose of the excess heat. This radiator may be
placed in any desired position and so connected by a valve as to
discontinue its use at any time.
[Illustration: FIG. 120.--The range boiler connections when a furnace
coil is used for hot-water heating.]
=Furnace Hot-water Heaters.=--It is sometimes more convenient to use
the furnace as a means of heating water than the kitchen range. Such an
arrangement is shown in Fig. 120, where a loop of pipe in the fire-box
of the furnace takes the place of the water-back. The arrangement of
the pipes in the range boiler are as before, the water entering the
tank through the pipe _A_, circulates through the pipes _B_ and _C_,
receiving its heat while passing through the loop in the furnace, in
exactly the same way as in the water-back. It would be quite possible
to also connect the kitchen range with the tank as shown by the dotted
lines indicating the water-back. Such an arrangement would virtually be
that shown in Fig. 116, where the two heaters on different floors are
connected with the boiler.
=Instantaneous Heaters.=--In isolated bathrooms where no constant
supply of hot water is available, instantaneous hot-water heaters are
much used. In many houses where a range fire is used intermittently,
particularly during the summer months, a like method is used for the
hot-water supply. These heaters are made in many forms to suit any
condition. Some are very simple, being made of a gas heater, the heat
from which is held against a long coil of pipe or a large amount of
heating surface in other form, through which the water circulates on
its way to the tap. Others are quite elaborate, being made entirely
automatic in their action. The Ruud heater, for example, is so
constructed that when the hot-water faucet is opened the reduced water
pressure starts a gas heater in contact with a series of pipe coils
through which the water circulates. As soon as the water faucet is
closed the water pressure automatically closes the gas valve, cutting
off the supply of gas. A little gas jet used for igniting the burner is
left constantly burning, ready to light the gas whenever hot water is
required.
Fig. 121 illustrates a simple form of instantaneous heater that is
relatively inexpensive and has met with a great deal of favor. A
sheet-iron casing encloses a sinuous, multiple coil of pipes through
which the water passes. The heat furnished by a Bunsen burner of a
large number of small jets is evenly distributed over the bottom of the
heater. The heating coils are arranged to interrupt the heat passing
through the casing and absorb as much as possible. To do good work such
a heater must be connected by a pipe to a chimney flue which furnishes
a good draught.
Instantaneous water heaters should not be used in bathrooms unless the
products of combustion from the heater are carried away by a chimney.
The combustion of the required amount of gas produces a large volume of
carbonic acid gas which if allowed to remain in the room is not only
deleterious but may be a positive danger to life. Cases of asphyxiation
from this cause are not at all rare.
[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Gas heater for hot-water supply.]
[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Hot-water supply with gas heater, connected
to the range boiler.]
Fig. 122 shows the heater connected with a range boiler. In this case
the heater may be considered as taking the place of the water-back. It
may, however, be used as an auxiliary heater. In the picture of the
kitchen shown in Fig. 80, an instantaneous heater is shown attached to
the range boiler. It is located in this case between the kitchen range
and the boiler.