WATER SUPPLY
The use of water enters into each detail of the affairs of everyday
life and forms a part of every article of food; its quality has much to
do with the health of the family, and its convenience of distribution
lends greatly to the contentment of its members. The family water
supply should be as carefully guarded as means will permit, and
judicious care should be exercised to prevent the possibility of its
pollution. Where the source of the water is known, it should be the
subject of unremitting attention.
Water comes originally from rain or snow and as it falls, it is pure.
Water, however, in falling through the air absorbs the contained vapors
and washes the air free from suspended organic matter in the form
of dust, so that when it reaches the earth rain water contains some
impurities.
As the water is absorbed by the earth, it comes into contact with the
mineral matter and organic materials of animal and vegetable origin
contained in the soil; and as water is a most wonderful solvent, it
soon contains mineral salts and possibly the leachings from the organic
substances through which it passes. The impurities usually found in
well water are in the form of mineral salts that have been taken up
from the earth, but other contaminating materials may come from the
surface and be carried into the well by accidental drainage.
Water that is colorless and odorless is usually considered good for
drinking and in the absence of more accurate means of determination
may be used as a test of excellence; but it often happens that water
possessing these qualities is so heavily freighted with mineral salts
as to be the direct cause of impaired health. Again, water that appears
pure may be polluted with disease-producing bacteria to such an extent
as to endanger the lives of all who use it. The fact that a source of
drinking water bears a local reputation for purity, because of long
usage, cannot be taken as a test of its actual purity until it has been
subjected to chemical and bacterial examination.
It must not be inferred that all water is likely to be unsuitable for
drinking; there is, however, a possibility of the water being polluted
from natural sources and from accidental causes, that are sometimes
preventable; and the only means of determining the purity of water is
by chemical and bacterial examining.
=Water Analysis.=--In order to be assured as to the quality of drinking
water, it should be subjected to analysis and the result of the
analysis inspected by a physician of good standing. Such analysis may
usually be obtained free of charge from the State Board of Health and
if asked, the Chief Chemist will usually give his opinion regarding the
quality as drinking water.
In chemical water analysis, the total amount of solids, regardless of
their nature is taken as indicative of its excellence for drinking
purposes. These solids may be either in suspension and give the water a
color or produce a turbidity, or they may be entirely in solution and
the water appear colorless. English authorities on the subject place
the allowable proportion of solids at 500 parts to the million. Any
water that contains more than 500 parts to the million is condemned for
drinking purposes. Water containing 500 parts or less to the million is
considered good. The Standard of the American Board of Health permits
the use of water for city supply that contains 1000 parts of solid
matter to the million.
The amount of solids contained in water is not at all a definite
indication of its quality for drinking purposes, as may be inferred
from the widely varying amounts permitted by the different authorities,
but it gives an indication of its character because of the known
physiological action of the contained solids.
Chemical analysis alone cannot be taken as a complete indication of the
character of water, because such analysis shows nothing of the bacteria
that may be present. The organic matter may indicate the possible
presence of bacteria, but microscopic examination will be required to
determine its harmful properties.
As examples of the chemical constituents of potable waters, the
following furnish illustrations of different types of water in general
use.
=Pokegama Water.=--The water from Pokegama Spring at Detroit, Minn. is
used widely through the Northwest as a table water. It is considered to
be a very excellent drinking water because of the low amount of solids
and the absence of any deleterious constituents. The complete chemical
analysis as reported by the North Dakota Pure Food Laboratory is as
follows:
Grains per gallon
Sodium chloride 0.0200
Sodium sulphate 0.0357
Sodium carbonate 3.9288
Calcium carbonate 11.3997
Lime carbonate 0.0016
Magnesium carbonate 3.8896
Sodium phosphate trace
Potassium sulphate 0.4435
Silica 0.4416
Organic matter 0.1006
--------
Total 20.2611
The total solids, 20.2611 grains per gallon, equivalent to 346.85 parts
per million, is very low and composed of carbonates of sodium, calcium
and magnesium, none of which are in any way harmful even in much larger
quantities. The amount of organic matter is practically nothing.
=River Water.=--The water supply of the city of Fargo, N. D., is taken
from the Red River of the North, which after being filtered through
a mechanical filtration plant is supplied to the water system of the
city. The river water in its raw state is considered unfit for drinking
because of the amount of organic matter present at different times of
the year.
Analysis of raw water from intake pipe, April 14, 1913:
Parts per million
Chlorine 10
Equivalent as sodium chloride, salt 16
Volatile and organic matter 80
Mineral solids 180
----
Total solids 260
In this water neither the solids nor the organic matter are at all
high but during a part of each year there are many pathogenic germs
present, the contained typhoid bacillus being the most feared. The
following is an analysis after the water has been filtered, April 14,
1913:
Parts per million
Chlorine 12
Equivalent as sodium chloride, salt 18
Volatile and organic matter 45
Mineral solids 140
----
Total solids 185
It will be noticed that in the process of filtration there has been
removed from the water 35 parts to the million of organic matter and
with probably 99 per cent. of the pathogenic bacteria. In addition
there has been removed 40 parts to the million of mineral solids, the
removal of which has changed a _very hard_ water to that which is
reasonably soft. The process of filtration has changed water that is
generally condemned for drinking to one that is considered remarkably
good.
=Artesian Water.=--The analysis of the sample of artesian water given
below is an example of the water analysis made by the North Dakota Pure
Food Laboratory. It furnishes an illustration of the type of reports
that are returned from samples of water submitted for examination. This
report was in the form of a letter which was taken at random from the
files of the laboratory.
Sample of artesian water No. 1936 from Moorhead, Minn.:
Parts per million
Chlorine 70
Equivalent as sodium chloride, salt 116
Volatile and organic matter 90
Mineral solids 455
----
Total solids 545
“The solids in this water are made up of sodium chloride, salt,
116 parts; volatile and organic matter, 90 parts; lime sulphate,
a trace; lime carbonate, a slight amount; magnesium carbonate, a
slight amount; and the balance of the solids are all wholly made
up of sodium bicarbonate. This water is low in solids and of good
quality.”
=Medical Water.=--The solids that occur most commonly in spring and
well water appear in the form of mineral salts. It frequently happens
that salts giving a cathartic action are present in sufficient quantity
to render the water objectionable when used for drinking. Sodium
chloride or common salt frequently occurs in quantity sufficient to
be distinctly noticeable. Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) and sodium
sulphate (Glauber salts), both of which are well-known laxative
salts, very commonly occur in well water. The carbonates of calcium
and sulphur also frequently found in well water are inert in physical
action when taken in drinking water. The presence of laxative salts in
spring water has given great celebrity to many springs both in Europe
and America that are famous as cures for all manner of human ills. Such
curative value as these springs possess is derived from the cathartic
salts contained by the water.
The table of contents of the Saratoga Congress Water as given by Dr.
Woods Hutchinson shows the solids of one of the most celebrated of
America’s medicinal waters.
Grains per gallon
Sodium chloride 385
Magnesium carbonate 56
Calcium carbonate and sulphate 116
Sodium bicarbonate 9
Sodium iodide 4
Bromide, iron, silica trace
-----
Total solids 570
When reduced to ordinary measure and given their common names the
mineral solids in a gallon of this water will be approximately:
Common salt 8 teaspoonfuls
Magnesium 1 teaspoonful
Lime and plaster of Paris 2 teaspoonfuls
Baking soda 1/6 teaspoonful
Bromides and iodides 1/12 teaspoonful
The total solids, 570 grains per gallon, contained in Saratoga water,
gives the remarkably high content in total solids, of 9758 parts per
million; this is almost ten times the limit of the American standard.
While such water would not do for constant consumption, it is taken for
considerable periods of time with beneficial results and is recommended
by many authorities as a water of great medicinal potency.
While most medical authorities condemn the use of water high in
solids, the ideal drinking water is neither soft water nor distilled
water--that is, water that is perfectly free from any saltiness--but
one that contains a moderate amount of the ordinary constituents of
the earth. It is reasonably safe to assume that any unpolluted water
containing as high percentage of solids as 1000 parts of total solids
to the million, and that is agreeable to the taste, would be safe for
drinking.
“Chemical analysis in general indicates the possible pollution
of water. A relatively high content of organic substances,
nitrate, chlorides and sulphates, might indicate contamination,
particularly when ammonia is also present. On the other hand, a
high content of just one of the above-mentioned substances, be it
organic, chloride, nitrate or sulphate, may originate from the
natural soil strata.”
=Organic Matter.=--Organic matter may come from peat swamps, decaying
leaves and grasses; or it may come from decayed animal matter which
finds its way into the soil; or worst of all it may come from cesspools
or other sewage. While the presence of organic matter does not
necessarily indicate the presence of disease-producing bacteria, it is
a medium in which such germs live and multiply; for that reason it is
an indicator of possible harm.
“Waters containing a high percentage of organic substances and
among them products of putrefaction are frequently used without
damage but they are capable of producing gastro-intestinal
catarrh, phenomena of excitement and paralysis as well as death.
Of the many pathogenic bacteria that sooner or later may get into
the water, those of cholera and typhoid are of special importance.
“Pathogenic bacteria occur but rarely and when once they find
their way into a water, they generally do not multiply but remain
for a greater or lesser period viable.
“Bacteria enter wells by three different modes: first, from
surface water that is washed from the soil by rain; second, from
faulty construction of the curbing; and third, from bacteria
entering the soil from vaults, etc.” (Van Es).
=Ammonia.=--In the analysis of water the presence of ammonia is an
indicator of organic matter. Ammonia is not of itself injurious but it
indicates the presence of matter in which bacteria find conditions
suited to their growth. Free ammonia is usually considered an indicator
of recent pollution, while albuminoid ammonia indicates the presence of
nitrogenous matter that has not undergone sufficient decomposition to
form ammonia compounds.
=Hardness in Water.=--Water that holds no mineral matter in solution
is “soft water” and when soap is added will readily form a lather. The
presence of lime or magnesia is commonly the cause of “hardness” in
water. Either of these minerals, when present form an insoluble curd
when the soap is added to the water and the soap will not form a lather
until enough soap has been added to unite with the mineral matter
present. The hardening agents are usually in the form of bicarbonates
and sulphates. All soap used in neutralizing the hardening agents is
wasted, because a lather will not form until all of the hardening
materials are neutralized. It is evident that the softening of water
for domestic purposes is beneficial, both because of the less amount of
soap required and because of the absence of the curd.
Hardness in water may occur in two forms--as temporary hardness or as
permanent hardness. When bicarbonate predominates as the hardening
agent, the water is said to be temporarily hard because, when heated
to boiling, the bicarbonate is precipitated and the water is thus
softened. When softening of such water is to be done on a large scale,
chemical treatment is more satisfactory. Water containing bicarbonate
of lime may be softened by adding a pound of lime to 1000 gallons or 1
pound of lime to 165 cubic feet of the water. This quantity of lime is
sufficient to remove 10 grains of the bicarbonate to the gallon.
When the mineral matter is in the form of sulphates, mainly sulphate
of lime or magnesia, the water is said to be permanently hard, because
boiling will not soften it. Such water may be softened by adding soda
ash or impure carbonate of soda. One pound to 1-1/4 pounds of “washing
soda” to each 1000 gallons of water will render such water soft; by
its action the sulphate of lime is precipitated and settles to the
bottom of the container; the water may then be siphoned off leaving the
precipitate in the bottom.
=Iron in Water.=--Water containing iron is found in many wells and
springs. While iron is not harmful, it is objectionable to taste
and stains most things with which it is long in contact. It may
be precipitated with lime and removed as the sulphate of magnesia
described in the preceding paragraph.
=Water Softening with Hydrated Silicates.=--By W. L. Stockham,
assistant chemist, North Dakota Experiment Station.
“The use of chemicals in softening water requires the mechanical
removal of the separated materials by skimming, settling or
filtering and it is difficult to determine just how much chemical
to add. A new process for softening water, and one that has
awakened great interest because of its efficiency, employs
hydrated silicates of aluminum or iron combined with soluble
bases. This process softens water from practically any condition
or hardness.
“The form of apparatus in use varies from a portable jar, with an
inlet at the top and an outlet at the bottom, to the more complex
tanks for industrial and domestic purposes. A plant for domestic
use might consist of a 20-gallon tank for containing the softening
material and a second tank in which is prepared the salt solution
for reactivating the softener. The two tanks with their valves
and connections constitute the apparatus. The softener, supported
by a porous plate, sieve, or layer of gravel, completely fills
the first tank and the water to be treated passes through the
interspaces between the granules. In some plants the water passes
through a layer of marble chips before coming into contact with
the softener. The apparatus may be attached temporarily to the
faucet or connected permanently with the water system. A gravity
system may be employed where the water pressure is lacking.
“The softener is put on the market in granular form and may be
purchased and used with apparatus other than that furnished by
manufacturers. The granules are about 1/4 inch in diameter and
permit a ready passage of the water through the interspaces. The
material lasts indefinitely.
“As the water passes through the apparatus, the large exposed
surface of the granules entirely absorbs the calcium and
magnesium, which produce hardness, making it soft and ready for
immediate use. The water does not require being in contact with
the softener any longer than the time taken to pass through and
it emerges almost as fast as from the faucet. The softener must
be reactivated after it has softened a certain amount of water.
This is accomplished by filling the tank with a common salt
solution which is contained in the second tank. The water supply
is temporarily shut off and the salt solution allowed to fill the
softening tank. After remaining in contact with the granules
for a time the chemical action of the salt releases the calcium
and magnesium, which are flushed out with the excess of salt
solution, into the sewer. The softener thus renewed is ready for
softening another supply of water. Since this renewal is a simple
application of the law of mass action, an excess of the salt must
be used. The renewal may be repeated indefinitely.
“The amount of any particular sample of water which can be
softened before renewal depends on the amount of material in the
apparatus and the hardness of the water. Five gallons of the water
per pound of softener would not be far from the average capacity.
Where a large amount of soft water is required at one time, it may
be prepared in advance and accumulated in a tank or cistern.
“The cost of softening, aside from the original cost of the plant,
is nominal, as the value of the salt solution is the only expense.
“The water produced by this process is absolutely soft and
suitable for drinking, domestic and industrial purposes. In the
case of very hard water the saving in soap for washing is more
than equal to the cost of operation. There are at least three
firms manufacturing softening plants of the kind at the present
time: The Permutite Co. of New York; the Cartright Co. of Chicago,
whose product is called Borromite; and the Des Moines Refining
Co., manufacturers of Refinite.
“A comparative test of various forms of water-softening materials
may be obtained from the Regulatory Department, North Dakota
Agricultural College.”
=Chlorine.=--The presence of chlorine in water may indicate the
presence of polluting matter in the form of sewage but only when the
amount is considerably above the normal amount of chlorine that is
contained in the soil in the community from which the water is taken.
An increase of the chlorine in the water would indicate a probable
pollution from sewage.
=Polluted Water.=--Well water that is roily or that possesses
objectionable taste or odor may be suspected of containing polluting
matter and should be boiled before being used for drinking purposes
until such time as may be required to have it examined. Sickness due
to the use of polluted water does not necessarily develop as specific
diseases, unless the water contains disease-producing bacteria. Typhoid
fever, one of the commonest and most dreaded of diseases, is usually
transmitted by water. Typhoid is a disease of human origin, the germ
of which develops in the alimentary tract of the human kind alone. The
germs may be spread by the waste from the typhoid patient by being
thrown on the ground where it is taken up by the water and passes into
streams or it may enter wells from privies or cesspools. A single case
of typhoid has been known to so pollute the water of a stream, as to
produce an epidemic of the disease throughout the entire length of
the stream, among the people who drank its water; while water from a
polluted well often transmits disease to a neighborhood.
[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Some of the common causes of pollution of
wells, and the means of transmitting disease, such as typhoid, etc.]
=Pollution of Wells.=--The water from wells is often polluted by
seepage through the earth from sources that might be prevented. Fig.
123 illustrates some of the commonest sources of contamination that
through carelessness or ignorance are located in the neighborhood of
the family water supply. The drainage from such sources of pollution is
often directed toward the well and many cases of ill-health, disease
or death are the direct consequences of drinking its water. It may be
readily observed, in the case of the well illustrated, that the more
water that is pumped from the well, the greater will be the tendency of
the water from each of the sources of pollution to reach the well.
Another common cause of contamination of well water is that of
imperfect well curbs that allow the waste water or surface water to
flow into the well. The area about the well should be graded to allow
no standing water, and the waste should be conducted away without
permitting it to collect in standing pools.
Drainage from manured fields or other places where disintegrating
animal or vegetable matter may be absorbed by water is often the cause
of temporary pollution, where the water is carried to low-lying wells.
Wells located in low areas that receive the drainage from such places
may be suspected of pollution during the spring or early summer, when
during the remainder of the year the water is pure.
In connection with any water suspected of pollution, it is well to
remember that by boiling the water used for drinking, its harmful
properties are entirely destroyed.
=Safe Distance in the Location of Wells.=--In the location of a well,
the distance of safety from sources of pollution will depend, in a
considerable measure, on the character of the soil and the quantity
and concentration of the pollution material entering the ground water.
When coming from the surface, the danger is usually neither great nor
difficult to avoid; but when cesspools and privies in the neighborhood
are sunk to a considerable depth in porous earth, from which the supply
of water is drawn, the polluting material may reach the well undiluted.
No absolute radius of safety can be given, but certain generalizations
as to conditions may be made as to character of soil and the different
topographical conditions which surround a safe location.
In ordinary clay, or in clay mixed with pebbles and in soils of the
same general nature, through which the water circulates by seepage, the
pollution is not likely to be carried to a distance of 100 feet. Clay
offers marked resistance to the passage of water, which in beds of 3 to
5 feet thick will act as protection from pollution from above. In sandy
soils the movement of water is faster than in clayey soils, but 150
feet may be taken as a safe distance, unless the downward slope of the
land carries the polluting material directly to the well.
=Surface Pollution of Wells.=--In dug wells, pollution from the surface
is due most commonly to careless construction and lack of care. In Fig.
124 is indicated the most common cause of surface pollution. The figure
represents a well that has been curbed with planks. Through lack of
care the earth has sunken at the top, permitting the surface water to
flow into the well. The top of the well is on a level with the surface
and covered with loosely laid boards which allow the waste water to
drip through the joints. Such a well, even though the source of supply
is good, will likely yield water of inferior quality.
In bored wells, polluting water may enter through the uncemented joints
of the tiling or through the joints in the staves of wooden tubing; in
drilled or driven wells, through leaky joints or holes eaten in the
iron casing by corrosive waters. By cementing the interior surface of
stone-or brick-curbed wells, by replacing wood with cement or other
impervious curbs and by substituting new pipes for leaky iron casings,
the entrance of polluting water may be prevented.
In the average home the water supply is most commonly taken from
a well, the water from which comes through the earth from unknown
sources, and the character of chemical salts or organic matter the
water contains will depend on the kind of soil through which it passes
before reaching the well.
The water from wells, whether deep or shallow, is generally of
relatively local origin, it being absorbed by the soil and carried to
the water stratum by percolation. If the soil contains soluble mineral
salts the water will contain these materials in quantities depending
on the amount of the salts present in the earth. If the earth contains
organic matter as pathogenic bacteria the water is likely to contain
these bacteria in like numbers as they are present in the soil through
which the water filters.
[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Undesirable form of well curbing.]
As usually encountered, the water-bearing earth occurs in sheets rather
than in veins or streams. The movement of the water in such areas
follows the contour of the earth and is influenced by the varying
amount of rain or snowfall and the atmospheric pressure. The lateral
movement is often only a few inches a day and in some places no lateral
movement occurs at all. Underground streams of any kind are not usually
found except in limestone regions.
As a rule, a well is formed by digging or boring into the earth until
a stratum of water-bearing soil is encountered, the type of the well
being determined by the character of the earth and the location of
the water-bearing soil. The water from the surrounding area fills the
opening to the height of the saturated soil. As the water is pumped
from the well it is replenished by the flow from the surrounding earth.
If the soil is porous, as in the case of gravel, the water will refill
the well almost as fast as it is taken away by the pump. If the soil is
dense and the inward flow is slow, the well when once exhausted may be
a long time in refilling.
=Water Table.=--The upper level of the saturated portion of the soil
is known as the water table. It has a definite surface that conforms
to the broader surface irregularities. While a definite, determinable
water table appears only in porous soil, it exists even in dense rocks.
It rises and falls in wet seasons and in drought. In exceptionally
wet seasons the water table may be at or above the surface. Under
such conditions the opportunities for the pollution of wells is much
increased. In particularly dry seasons the water table may sink below
the bottom of the well, when it is said to “go dry.” The water table
follows the surface contour in a manner depending on the character of
the soil. It is flattest in sand or gravel areas but in clay it follows
the contour of deep slopes with but slight variation.
=The Devining Rod.=--The use of the devining rod, for the purpose of
locating suitable sites for wells, has been supposed by many to be a
gift possessed by a chosen few. The devining rod is a forked branch
of witch hazel, peach or other wood, which when held in the hands and
carried over the ground, is supposed to indicate the presence of water
by bending toward it.
In most cases the operators are entirely honest in their belief and
in a large proportion of trial their efforts have been successful
in locating desirable wells; but it has many times been proven that
the movement of the rod is due to an unconscious muscular movement
of the arms and hands, in places where the operator has previously
suspected the presence of water. The operator of the devining rods is
most successful in regions where water occurs in sheets, such as often
occur in gravel or pebbly clay. The successful use of the devining rod
cannot be explained by any scientific reasons. There have been invented
a number of devining rods, claimed by their inventors to be based on
scientific laws; but the government has not yet granted patents to
appliances of the kind.
=Selection of a Type of Well.=--The chief factor which controls the
selection of a type of well is the nature of the water-bearing earth,
the amount of water required, the cost of construction and the care of
the resulting supply.
If a large amount of water is to be demanded of a well, to be dug in
soil through which the water percolates slowly, the well must be large
in diameter, in order that the necessary supply may be accumulated. If
the earth is porous and yields its water readily, a small iron pipe
driven into the ground may supply the desired amount.
The character of the water-bearing material is of the greatest
importance in determining the yield of the well. In quicksand, water
is usually present in ample quantities, yet owing to the extremely
fine particles of which the quicksand is composed, its presence as a
water-bearing soil is highly undesirable.
=Flowing Wells.=--Flowing wells are obtained in places where water is
confined in the earth, under sufficient pressure to lift it to the
surface, through an opening made to the water-bearing stratum. These
are known as artesian wells, from the fact that they were first used
in Artois (anciently called Artesium) in France. In order that water
may have sufficient head to lift it to the surface, it must be confined
under impervious clay or other bed of earth, and with its source at a
level considerably higher than its point of exit. The source of supply
for flowing wells is often at a great distance. Because of the fact
that flowing wells are shut off from the surface by an impervious layer
of earth, the possibility of pollution from the surface is effectively
prevented. Any contamination of the water must come from a distance
and enter the water at its source. As pollution rarely extends through
the ground to any great lateral distance, artesian waters are seldom
polluted. The water from artesian wells often is heavy with mineral
matter and in many cases is unfit for drinking on that account.
CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS
Wells are constructed by different methods, depending on the character
of the soil in which they are sunk. Their excavation is usually
accomplished by one of three general methods: by digging; by driving a
pipe into the earth until it penetrates the water-bearing stratum; or
by boring a hole with an enlarged earth auger, into the water-bearing
soil. Artesian wells are made by drilling with a device suitable for
making a small and very deep hole.
=Dug Wells.=--In shallow wells the water seeps through the soil from
local precipitation. Deep wells are those from which the water is
brought to the surface through an impervious geologic formation, as
a bed of clay or rock, and from a depth greater than that from which
water may be lifted by atmospheric pressure. The fact that a deep
well originates from a source that entirely differs from that of the
shallow well accounts for the difference in chemical composition which
frequently exists in the water from the two types of wells in the same
neighborhood.
The form of the dug well is generally that of a cylindrical shaft 4
feet or more in diameter and of depth depending on the location of
the water-bearing stratum. Where the character of the soil is such
that the seepage is slow and the water does not flow into the well as
fast as the pump will remove it, the well must contain a considerable
volume to supply the period of greatest demand. Wells of this kind are
commonly walled with brick or stone to keep the sides in place and to
prevent the entrance of surface waters. The top of this curb should be
brought above the surface of the ground and should be made water-tight
to prevent the entrance of surface waters. The space around the curb,
at the surface, should be graded to drain the water away from the well.
There should be no chance for the water to collect in pools about the
well; it should be conducted away in a gutter to the place of final
disposal. The well should be covered with a platform of concrete or
planking which will allow no water to enter from the surface.
Wells of this order are sometimes dug to great depth before the
water-bearing stratum is encountered; this may sometimes be reached
only after a great amount of expense and labor. The historic Joseph
Well, near Cairo, Egypt, is an open shaft, 18 by 24 feet in area, sunk
through solid rock 160 feet.
=Open Wells.=--Open wells have long been condemned as insanitary. The
familiar open well of the “Old Oaken Bucket” type is an inviting
receptacle for the deposit of all manner of refuse, which once inside
remains until it is disintegrated. These wells become the final resting
place of many small animals and all manner of creeping things, in
search of water. The open top receives wind-blown matter in the form of
leaves and dust, much of which is in the nature of polluting material.
[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Ideal form of well curbing with cover and
drain made of concrete.]
=The Ideal Well.=--In the case of a well which yields pure water, every
precaution should be taken to prevent its pollution. The ideal form
of construction is that shown in Fig. 125. In this well, the curbing
_C_ is of heavy concrete that extends above the natural surface of
the ground, to prevent the entrance of surface water, and that from
seepage through the upper stratum of the soil. The reinforced-concrete
top forms a close joint with the curb to prevent the entrance of
waste water and all animal life. The pump is of iron, secured to the
well cover by bolts, set in the concrete. The trough of concrete _G_
conducts the waste water from the well to a safe distance. The earth
about the well is so graded as to permit no water to stand in pools.
=Coverings of Concrete.=--The use of concrete for the coverings of
wells, cisterns and springs has become a recognized form of the best
construction. It is not more expensive than other good materials and
when properly executed it forms an imperishable protection and gives a
neat appearance. The spring cover in Fig. 126, and the cistern top in
Fig. 127 are illustrations of its application.
=Artesian Wells.=--Artesian wells are made by boring into the earth
until the drill reaches the artesian stratum, the internal pressure
forces the water through the opening to the surface. They are usually
small in diameter and often of great depth. In some areas the artesian
flow is found a few feet below the surface, but generally it is much
deeper and 3000 feet is not an unusual depth.
The pressure and amount of flow from these wells is sometimes
sufficient to permit the water being used for the generation of power.
Small waterwheels are not uncommonly driven in this way and the power
used for the generation of electricity for lighting and running small
household appliances.
=Driven Wells.=--In localities where the nature of the soil gives
opportunity, wells are made by driving a pipe to the required
depth. Wells of this character are usually made in places where the
water-bearing soil is of sand or gravel. The pipe terminates in a
sand-point such as that of Fig. 128. This sand-point is a perforated
pipe with a pointed end, that facilitates driving. The perforations, as
shown in the point _P_, form a strainer which allows the water to enter
the pipe but prevents the sand from filling the opening.
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Concrete cover for a spring.]
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Concrete cistern top.]
In the use of driven wells, the water-bearing soil must be sufficiently
open to allow the water to flow into the pipe as fast as the pump takes
it away.
=Bored Wells.=--In many localities the water-bearing stratum is of
such nature as to give a ready flow of water but yet not sufficient
to permit of the use of a sand-strainer; if, however, the opening is
somewhat enlarged, the water will enter with sufficient rapidity to
supply a pump. In such cases bored wells are quite generally used. They
are made by boring a hole of the required size with an earth auger.
These wells are made of any size up to 2 feet in diameter. They are
often called tubular wells because they are lined with iron tubing or
tile, to prevent the earth from refilling the hole.
[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Driven well with a sand-point strainer.]
=Cleaning of Wells.=--Very few dug wells are so constructed as to
exclude dust and washings from the ground. It is, therefore, necessary
that they be occasionally cleaned. Accumulations from these causes may
be sufficient to hinder the entrance of the water to the well and thus
lessen its capacity.
=Gases in Wells.=--One of the commonest gases found in wells is carbon
dioxide (carbonic acid gas). It may be detected by lowering a lighted
candle or lantern to the bottom. If the gas is present in dangerous
quantity, the flame will be extinguished. Death from asphyxiation
due to this gas is not an uncommon occurrence, to persons descending
into wells. Before entering a well, the test described above should
be applied, as a precaution against accident. Carbon dioxide is a
colorless, odorless gas in which a person will drown as readily as in
water.
=Peculiarities of Wells.=--Owing to the formation of the water-bearing
earths, from which they receive their water, many wells possess marked
peculiarities of behavior that often give rise to local reputation
because of their vagaries. These characteristics have been classified
into breathing wells, blowing wells, sucking wells, etc. These effects
are in almost every case due to variation of barometric pressure. The
ordinary level of the water in a well is governed by the variation of
rainfall, melting of snow or the release of water by the thawing of
frozen ground. It often occurs, however, that the head of water is
markedly influenced by storms, when a rise of the level of the water
occurs at the time of low barometric pressure during the storm period.
This effect is often noticed in flowing wells. Many wells, at the
approach of storms, yield roily water to such an extent that where the
water is normally clear it may become for a period entirely unfit to
drink, because of the matter held in suspension. All of these effects
are accounted for by the varying atmospheric pressure. At the time of
high barometer, a well that ordinarily flows freely will have to be
pumped, the additional pressure of the air holding back the water to an
extent representing several feet of head. The change of an inch in the
barometric pressure will produce slightly more than a foot in head of
water. At the time of storms, the barometer is sometimes abnormally low
which will produce a corresponding rise of water in the well. At such
time the free flow of water into a dug well, from the usual source of
supply, will cause such a rapid flow of water through the passages in
the earth as to carry with the water the sediment that produces roily
water in the well. This sediment will settle after a while and the
water will again be clear.
=Breathing Well.=--Wells of this kind are most common in areas where
the water-bearing earth is of rock formation; particularly in limestone
areas, where caves and cavities are common. It sometimes happens that
in the neighborhood of a well there is a cavity in the earth of
considerable volume, the only entrance to which is through the well and
that being under usual conditions covered by water, a foot or more in
depth. With such a formation the conditions are right for a breathing
well. At times of high barometer the water is depressed and the air
will flow into the cavity through the well, when the well is said to
inhale. This inward flow of air will continue until the air pressure
in the cavity is equal to that of the outer air; and if the cavity is
large and the opening small, the inward flow of air may continue for
hours, even for days. With a fall of barometric pressure, the air in
the cavity, being at a higher pressure than the external air, the air
will flow outward and the well is said to exhale.
=Freezing Wells.=--In cold climates, particularly in territory
possessing cavernous limestone deposits, breathing wells often freeze
in winter. When large volumes of frigid air are drawn into a well, the
amount of heat taken from the water is sufficient to freeze it, and
stop the supply of water. This effect is sometimes remedied by plugging
the well at the top, so that the influx of cold air is prevented and
the water does not freeze.
PUMPS
Pumps for lifting and elevating water are made of both wood and iron
in almost endless variety; but for domestic purposes they are of
two general types--the lift pump and the force pump--which include
features that are common to all. The lift pump is intended for use in
lifting water from low-head cisterns and wells, the depth of which
is not beyond the head furnished by atmospheric pressure. The force
pump performs the work of a lift pump and in addition forces the water
from the outlet at a pressure to suit any domestic application. These
pumps are made by manufacturers in a great variety of forms, but
the essential parts are the same in all pumps intended for a single
purpose. The principle of operation is the same in all pumps of any
type. The difference in mechanism of pumps intended for the same
purpose is only in the form and arrangement of the parts.
=The Lift Pump.=--The kitchen pump is an example of the lift pump. It
is universally used for household purposes where water is to be raised
from cisterns, etc., and is most commonly made throughout of cast
iron. Fig. 129 illustrates one form, sometimes called the pitcher pump,
because of the slight resemblance to the article. It frequently carries
the name cistern pump from the fact that it very generally is used to
lift water from cisterns.
Although water may be raised 34 feet with a theoretically perfect pump
and with a barometric pressure of 30 inches the actual limit is much
lower. In use, 20 feet is probably about the limit and 10 feet or
less is that of common practice. A pump that requires “priming” would
raise water 15 feet with considerable difficulty for reasons that will
appear later. In Fig. 129 is shown a sectional view of the working
parts of the kitchen pump, the action and general form of which apply
to any lift pump. The body of the pump contains a cylinder, in which
closely fits a piston _P_, containing a valve _A_. At the bottom of
the cylinder is an additional valve _B_. The piston and two valves
constitute the working parts of the pump. The water is lifted through
the pipe _S_, and is discharged at _D_.
[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Sectional drawing of the kitchen pump showing
its working parts.]
The action of the pump is as follows: With the piston at the bottom
of the cylinders and with no water in the pump, the handle is forced
down, which action raised the piston. In so doing the air below it is
rarefied. The reduction of pressure due to the rarefication of the
air allows the water to rise in the pipe _S_ correspondingly. After
repeated strokes of the piston, the water reaches the valve _B_, which
raises to let it pass, but immediately closes at the end of the upward
stroke. When the space between the piston and the valve _B_ is filled
with water, each descent of the piston forces the water through the
valve _A_; and when the piston is raised, the water is lifted out
through the spout.
The valve _A_ is a loose piece of cast iron, surfaced on the lower side
to make good contact with the piston. The valve _B_ is of cast iron
fastened to a piece of leather by a screw. The leather makes a joint
with the valve-seat and furnishes an excellent valve for its use. In
order to keep the plunger _P_ tight in the cylinder, it is surrounded
with a leather gasket. Should this gasket become worn, as it will in
time, the plunger fits loosely in the cylinder and the pump will lift
the water with difficulty, because of the leakage around the gasket.
Should the valve _B_ leak, the water will gradually run back into the
pipe _S_, and the pump when left idle will lose its “priming.” The
plunger and the valve _B_ are the parts most likely to get out of
order. If the gasket around the piston _P_ is very much worn, and there
is no water in cylinder, the pump will require priming before the water
can be raised. If the pump contains no water and is left standing for a
considerable time, the leather parts of the valve dry out and shrink;
when the pump is again put into use, the valves will fail to work
properly, until the leathers are again water-soaked. Water is poured
into the top of the pump until the cylinder is filled, and as soon as
the leather becomes water-soaked and fills the cylinder, the piston
will again perform its function.
[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Method of attaching the house pump to kitchen
sink.]
[Illustration: FIG. 131.--Sectional drawing of the force pump showing
its working parts.]
=The Force Pump.=--The house force pump is often used in place of the
ordinary lift pump, when no other means is at hand for providing water
under pressure. It furnishes a limited means for lawn sprinkling and
gives some degree of fire protection in isolated places. It may be
made a part of the kitchen sink as shown in Fig. 130, by use of the
attachment that appears in detail under the sink. This type of pump may
be used in small water-supply plants, such as that of Fig. 143; or in
connection with small pressure tanks for the same purpose. It differs
somewhat in construction from the lift pump, in that it has no valve in
the piston and is provided with a check valve and an air chamber for
generating pressure to the discharged water.
Fig. 131 shows the essential parts of the force pump and furnishes a
means of describing its operation. All force pumps possess the same
parts and the operation described applies with equal force to all. A
valve _A_ is located in the bottom of the cylinder and the check valve
_B_ prevents the return of the water to the cylinder after it has been
forced out of the pump. The action of the pump in raising the water
is the same as in the lift pump but when the water fills the cylinder
and the piston descends, the water is forced through the valve _B_ and
out at _D_. If the outlet pipe is slightly smaller than the opening in
the valve _B_, some of the water will enter the air chamber _C_ and
compress the air. The pressure thus generated will immediately tend to
force the water out and in course of ordinary pumping will send out
a steady stream instead of the intermittent flow of the lift pump.
Without the air chamber, the flow from this pump will be a series of
pulsations that attain maximum force with each descent of the piston.
[Illustration: FIG. 132.--Tank pump, commonly used in small domestic
water supply plants.]
=Tank Pump.=--The type of pump used with a water-supply plant will
depend entirely on the amount of water that is used. If the supply of
water to be provided is for only one or two people the house force pump
such as that of Fig. 130 will suffice; but when a greater number of
people are to be supplied, a force pump of the type shown in Fig. 132
is quite generally used. These pumps are made in a variety of patterns
and are commonly termed tank pumps. The one shown in the Fig. 132 is a
double-acting force pump in that the cylinder receives and discharges
water at each stroke of the piston. The air chamber is located at
_A_. Directly beneath the air chamber is the valve chest in which are
located the valves which regulate the entrance and discharge of the
water. As used in the average domestic plant the cylinders are 3 or 4
inches in diameter.
WELL PUMPS
The pumps intended for raising water from wells are practically the
same in construction as the house pump, except that they are intended
to deliver a greater volume of water and sometimes to work under a
different condition, as that of the deep well pump. Well pumps have,
therefore, assumed certain standard forms that differ only in the
styles of mechanism employed by different manufacturers.
The one shown in Fig. 133 furnishes a good example of a general-purpose
iron pump which may be used either as a force pump or a lift pump. It
represents also the general construction of a deep-well pump, where the
water must be lifted from a level, below that at which a lift pump will
work.
The piston and valves are enclosed in the cylinder _C_, placed below
the surface of the water in the well. This cylinder also appears in
section in the small drawing, showing the details of the valve. The
operation of this pump is identical to that of the lift pump already
described, but the addition of an air chamber gives it the necessary
facility to produce a continuous flow of water. In order to prevent
the air in the air chamber from escaping, the pump rod is surrounded
with the necessary stuffing-box which is usually packed with candle
wicking to assure a good joint. In deep wells the tube is elongated
sufficiently to place the cylinder _C_ below the surface of the water
in the well. Such pumps are operated either by hand or by power.
=Wooden Pump.=--The wooden pump of Fig. 134 furnishes a good
illustration of a type that was formerly used in great numbers. It is
an inexpensive and efficient pump made almost entirely of wood except
the cylinder which is quite generally made of iron, lined with enamel.
The valve and the piston with its valves are made of wood, but faced
with leather to insure tight joints. The piston is also provided with
leather packing to make it tight in the cylinder. The action of the
pump is the same as that already described. The wooden tube is made in
sections joined together by taper joints that are driven into place.
[Illustration: FIG. 133.--Sectional view of a well with an iron
cylinder pump, placed for deep-well pumping.]
[Illustration: FIG. 134.--Sectional view of a well and wooden pump for
shallow pumping.]
The piece at the side of the pump is provided to drain the water from
above the piston, as a precaution against freezing during extremely
cold weather. The rod, when raised, opens an orifice that leads to the
inside of the pump and permits the water to drain into the well.
=Pumps for Driven Wells.=--The method of constructing driven
wells--that of driving a pipe into the earth to the water-bearing
stratum of sand or gravel--requires a special end to prevent the pump
tube from becoming stopped. In order that the fine material may not
enter and fill the lower end of the tube, a sand-point is used, such
as that shown in Fig. 128. It is made of perforated brass tubing and
provided with a sharpened end to facilitate driving. The perforations
act as a strainer that keeps out all but the fine particles which will
pass the pump valves. Sand-points are made with strainers of various
degrees of fineness to suit the different conditions of soils. These
strainers may in the course of time become filled with particles of the
soil that lodge in the perforations and the outside become so encrusted
as to prevent the entrance of the water. In such case, the pipe must be
pulled out of the ground and the point replaced by a new one. In Fig.
128 is shown a driven well with the sand-point in the water-bearing
stratum. If the small particles of earth clog the strainer the pump
will “work hard” and yield only a portion of the water the soil is
capable of giving when the strainer is clear.
=Deep-well Pumps.=--The principle of operation as described in the
lift pump takes advantage of the atmospheric pressure to lift the
water above the first valve. The limiting distance to which water can
be lifted by the atmospheric pressure will depend on the altitude and
the atmospheric pressure. With the normal atmospheric pressure at sea
level, water can be lifted, theoretically, 34 feet, but in practice
the limiting value is never even approximated. The pump is usually
placed within 10 of 12 feet of the water and 20 feet is about the limit
of distance. The reason for this is because of the impossibility of
keeping the joints tight in the valve and tubing.
Where water is to be raised from a deep well, the cylinder with its
piston is placed near the water and the tube and rod, as that of Fig.
133, connects the cylinder with the pump stock. After the water has
passed the valve in the piston, it may be readily lifted to the pump
stock. In this way water is raised from wells of great depth.
=Tubular-well Cylinders.=--Tubular wells that are cased with iron
pipe are provided with a special type of pump cylinder that admits
of deep-well operation. The casing of the well being in place, the
cylinder shown in Fig. 135 is forced down the casing to its proper
place, the spring _S_ holding it in place until it is firmly secured. A
special seating tool is now lowered into the casing and attaches at _T_
to the coupling; as the tool is turned, rubber packing _R_ is expanded,
locking the cylinder firmly to the casing. This makes a complete pump
cylinder, which with the piston _P_ in place is operated as any other
pump.
[Illustration: FIG. 135.]
=Chain Pumps.=--In shallow wells and other sources of supply, where
water is to be lifted only a short distance, chain pumps have been used
to a great extent, because of their quick action. This pump, as shown
in Fig. 136, elevates the water by an endless chain being drawn through
the tube, the lower end of which is below the surface of the water.
The chain is provided at intervals with discs or rubber or iron, that
fit the bore of the tube and form pistons which elevate the water as
they ascend. The chain passes around a wheel in the upper part of the
box and is worked by the crank. Chain pumps are not usually employed
to elevate water a greater height than 20 feet. They are not efficient
pumps and are not sanitary because of the opportunity they give for
admitting polluting material to the well. Their one advantage is that
of quick action in elevating water short distances.
[Illustration: FIG. 136.--Chain pump often used in shallow wells.]
RAIN-WATER CISTERNS
Cisterns for the storage of rain water have been used from the time
immemorial and are constructed in a great variety of forms. For
household use they are often made in the form of wooden or metal tanks,
either elevated or placed in the basement; the greater number, however,
are of the underground variety made of brick or concrete.
Wooden cisterns are made by manufacturers in different sizes and
shipped to the user “knocked down;” that is, they are taken apart and
the staves, bottom and hoops are shipped, packed in small space to save
space in transportation. Under some conditions they give good service
but are apt to leak at times and require attention on that account. In
damp basements they give out the disagreeable odor of damp wood.
Tanks made of galvanized iron are much used as cisterns for temporary
use. They are inexpensive and give good service but are short-lived.
Possibility of leakage is their greatest disadvantage. Underground
cisterns are built either in the basement or outside the house. They
are quite generally made jug-shaped, but are often constructed of
concrete in square and rectangular form. When built of brick the walls
are often made of a single course, but walls made of two courses of
brick are considered better practice. The walls and floor are made
water-tight by plastering with an inch or more of cement mortar.
When cisterns are made of concrete, the floor should be put in 6 inches
in depth and as soon after as possible the walls are put up. In good
construction the walls are 8 inches in thickness of concrete, made of
1 part good Portland cement, 2 parts clean sand and 4 parts crushed
stone. If the cistern is square or rectangular in form the walls should
be reinforced with woven wire or steel rods, to prevent cracking.
The curb of the cistern should extend above the surface of the ground
sufficiently to prevent surface water from entering, and the top should
be covered with a wood-lined sheet-metal cover to prevent freezing.
=Filters.=--Unfiltered cistern water is not, as a rule, fit for
drinking purposes because of pollution from dust and impurities washed
from the roof, but for bathing and laundry work filtered rain water is
greatly to be desired.
As rain water comes from the roofs of buildings, there is washed into
the cistern a considerable quantity of dust, leaves, bird droppings and
other polluting materials which contaminate and discolor the water.
This foreign matter is not injurious for the purposes intended, but to
render the water clear it should be filtered before using.
Filters for cisterns are quite generally made of soft brick laid in
cement mortar, the face of the brick being left uncovered. Fig. 137
illustrates a simple and efficient form of filter made of a single
course of brick. A space one-fourth to one-third of the volume of the
cistern is left for the filtered water. The opening at the top of
the wall must be large enough to admit a man, for some sediment will
collect even in the filtered water and the filter must be occasionally
cleaned.
[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Cross-section of a brick curbed cistern with
a brick filter wall.]
[Illustration: FIG. 138.--Cross-section of a concrete cistern with a
brick dome filter.]
The filter shown in Fig. 138 is dome-shaped and built of brick. The
water is pumped from inside the filter and the suction of pumping
filters the water as it is used. In this case the filtering action is
accelerated by reason of the reduced pressure inside the filter as the
water is pumped. The chief disadvantage in this form of filter is the
small area exposed for the filtering action and the relatively greater
amount of work required for pumping the water, due to the partial
vacuum formed as the water is pumped.
The cistern in Fig. 139 is provided with a catch basin which acts as
a strainer for removing leaves, etc., that would stain the water. It
is made in the form of a concrete basin and partly filled with gravel.
The filter in this case is formed by a depression in the cistern floor.
A section of tile is placed on the floor, and around it is filled
the filtering material of gravel and sand. Filters of this kind are
often filled with charcoal or other materials that are expected to
purify the water. They are usually inefficient because their value as
absorbers of polluting agents is short-lived and unless the materials
are frequently renewed they are valueless and sometimes a detriment to
rapid filtration.
[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Cross-section of a concrete cistern,
containing a sand filter.]
THE HYDRAULIC RAM
In places where its use is possible, the hydraulic ram is a most
convenient and inexpensive means of mechanical water supply. It is
simple in construction, requires very little attention and its cost of
operation is only the labor necessary to keep it in repair. Whenever
a sufficient supply of water will admit of a fall of a few feet, the
hydraulic ram may be used as a pump for forcing the water to a distant
elevated point, where it may be utilized for all domestic purposes.
The water may be used directly from the ram or stored in an elevated
tank as a reserve supply; or accumulated in a pressure tank, where
additional pressure is required.
The hydraulic ram has been used since 1796, when it was invented by
Joseph de Montgolfier. The principle of its operation is that of the
utilization of the energy of flowing water. The running water is made
to give up a portion of its momentum to elevate a part of the water,
and transport it to a considerable distance. If the source of supply
and the fall is sufficient, almost any amount may be elevated and
carried to a great distance. Large rams are sometimes used as a means
of water supply for small towns. In the use of the double-acting ram,
one source of water may be used to operate the ram and water from an
entirely different source may be delivered. It sometimes happens that a
muddy stream and a clear spring are so located, that the water of the
stream can be utilized to furnish the energy for conveying the spring
water to a point where it is desired for use. This is accomplished by
the double-acting ram in a most efficient manner.
=Single-acting Hydraulic Ram.=--Fig. 140 represents the installation of
a single-acting hydraulic ram, placed to take water from a spring _E_,
and deliver it to an elevated tank at the house on the hill.
[Illustration: FIG. 140.--Hydraulic ram driven by the water from a
spring.]
In case the ram must be located at a considerable distance from the
spring in order to attain the required fall, a standpipe _D_--slightly
larger than the supply pipe--is used to take advantage of the full
force of the water. In long pipes, the friction of the flowing water
absorbs a considerable amount of the energy of flow and a standpipe,
located as indicated at _D_, in the picture, will assure the full force
of the flowing water in the ram.
The ram is commonly placed in an underground pit as protection from
freezing during cold weather, and a drain from the bottom of the pit
conducts the waste water away. The supply pipe or drive pipe _B_ and
delivery pipe _C_ are buried underground below the frost line as a
protection from freezing.
In Fig. 141 a sectional view of the ram shows all of the working parts.
The air chamber _G_ is shown partly filled with water; the impetus
valve _D_ is that part of the ram which checks the flow of the running
water and forces a part of it through the valve _E_, at the bottom of
the air chamber.
[Illustration: FIG. 141.--Cross-section of a single-acting hydraulic
ram.]
When inactive the valve _D_ stands open and as the water enters from
the pipe _A_, it flows through the valve to the waste pipe but as soon
as the full force of the water bears on the valve it will suddenly
close. This sudden stop of the flowing water will lift the valve
_E_, and the energy of flow, due to its sudden stopping, will force
some of the water into the chamber _G_. As this action occurs the
upward pressure against the valve _D_ is released and it reopens but
immediately closes again as the water begins to flow. This process is
kept up, each closure of the valve sending a little water into the air
chamber. As the water gradually fills the air chamber, it is subjected
to the same action as was described in the pressure tank, the air above
the surface being compressed and the pressure developed in the space
_G_ forces the water out through the delivery pipe where it attains a
force that is a factor of the height of the original fall.
The air in the chamber _G_, is subject to the same conditions of loss
as that of the pressure tank, and to be assured of a supply to give
pressure to the water, some air must be carried into the chamber with
the water. For this purpose the valve _F_ provided. After the chamber
is partially filled, there occurs a reaction in the flow of water at
each closure of the valve, which causes a little air to be drawn in
through the valve _F_ with each impulse. This air bubbles up through
the water and enters the chamber where it assures an elastic cushion
for closing the valve _E_.
The flow of water from the supply pipe is regulated at _H_ by a nut on
the stem of the impetus valve which permits its regulation. Closing the
valve slightly causes a less supply of water to be delivered; opening
the valve wider gives a greater supply.
[Illustration: FIG. 142.--Sectional view of a double-acting hydraulic
ram.]
=The Double-acting Hydraulic Ram.=--The diagram of Fig. 142 illustrates
the working principle of the double-acting hydraulic ram mentioned
above; where the water from a muddy stream is used to drive the ram and
that from a separate source, as a spring is delivered.
The construction of the double-acting ram is similar to the
single-acting ram, but a separate pipe _S_ discharges spring water
directly below the valve which acts just as though it had entered at
the drive pipe. The ram in this case is receiving water from the drive
pipe _D_, which operates the valve and furnishes power for elevating
the spring water. The spring water enters the ram through the pipe _S_,
to keep the space _T_ filled, directly under the valve. The water which
enters the air chamber is, therefore, only that from the spring.
A standpipe is arranged as shown in the figure, with a check valve to
prevent the water in the ram from being forced back into the spring
water pipe after entering the ram.
DOMESTIC WATER-SUPPLY PLANTS
Until recent years, no thought was given to private water-supply
plants, in any except the more pretentious residences. It was formerly
supposed that the cost of machinery and installation of such plants
prohibited the use of a water system in the average home. As an item
of expense in building, a satisfactory water-supply system may be
installed at a lower cost than is paid for plumbing and bathroom
fixtures.
In recent years much attention has been given to the design of small
water-supply plants for isolated homes, such as are required for
suburban and rural dwellings, with the result that the necessary
apparatus to suit any conditions may be obtained of any enterprising
dealer.
The degree of completeness with which the plant is to be arranged will
depend on the funds to be expended, but in the most modest dwelling
some form of water-supply plant is possible. Where opportunity is given
to make the plant complete, its appointments of construction may be
elaborated to almost any extent. A suburban or country residence may be
made as perfect in point of toilet, kitchen and laundry conveniences,
as where city water and sewer service are available. The water-supply
plant may be operated by hand or by power, and if so desired may be
made completely automatic in action.
=Gravity Water-supply Plant.=--In point of simplicity, the plant shown
in Fig. 143 represents a water system that answers every purpose of a
cottage and yet is only an elevated tank for storage of water, combined
with a house force pump. The tank in this case may be made of wood or
metal and is open at the top. The water is sent into the tank by the
pump, and gravity furnishes the force for carrying it to the fixtures
in the kitchen and bathroom.
In using a tank of the kind shown in the drawing, provision should be
made for the possibility of leakage. This is arranged for by having the
tank set in a shallow pan, so constructed that in case of accident the
water may be carried away without doing damage. This type of plant is
not usually employed in cold climates, unless some provision is made
to prevent the water in the tank from freezing. Tanks of this kind are
sometimes used in cold climates but a much more desirable plant for the
purpose is described below. In Fig. 143 the water from the cistern _W_
is raised by the pump _P_, which also forces it into the tank above
the kitchen. The gravitational force given the water, because of its
elevated position is all that is necessary to carry the water to the
fixtures in the bathroom and kitchen sink. As shown in the drawing,
it furnishes a complete water system that will perform all of the
requirements of water distribution for a small family.
[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Sectional view of a cottage containing a
simple gravity water-supply plant.]
The pipes from the range boiler are attached to the water heater, which
forms a part of the kitchen range as explained on pages 116 to 120. It
receives the supply of cold water directly from the tank through the
pipe marked _C_, and the hot water from the range boiler is supplied
through the pipe _H_. Cold water is also taken from the tank directly
to each of the cold-water taps.
The pump _P_ is a house pump, such as is shown in Fig. 130. It is a
small force pump, designed to suit the conditions of domestic use and
is made to send water into the sink or into the supply tank as desired.
=Pressure-tank System of Water Supply.=--The water-supply plant shown
in Fig. 144 is another simple construction, somewhat more elaborate
than the last, so arranged that the danger of freezing is practically
eliminated. This is a simple pressure-tank system in which a tightly
built metal water tank takes the place of the elevated tank of the
previous figure, and a tank pump is used for lifting and giving
pressure to the water. It is a more complete plant than the first and
intended to accommodate a larger dwelling. The drawing shows all of the
fixtures and connecting pipes that are required in the average home. It
shows all of the appliances for connecting the pressure tank and range
boiler with the wash trays in the basement, with all of the fixtures
in the bathroom and with the fixtures in the kitchen sink. The range
boiler is the same as those previously described and connected to the
heater in an identical manner.
The original source of supply in this case is a cistern, sunk below the
basement floor. The water is lifted from the cistern by the pump and
forced into the pressure tank through a pipe near the bottom where it
furnishes the supply for the house.
The pressure tank may be of any size to suit the requirements of the
house and may be placed in either a vertical or horizontal position.
It is sometimes galvanized, as a precaution against rust, but this is
not a necessary requirement. The pipe which conveys the water from the
pump connects with the tank near the bottom. As the water enters, the
contained air above its surface is compressed into smaller and smaller
space. The pressure that is developed by the compressed air furnishes
the force by which the water is driven out of the tank and through the
distributing pipes to the various parts of the system.
If the air in the tank when empty is compressed to one-half its
original volume, then the gage pressure will be about 15 pounds to the
square inch; if the air is compressed to one-third its original volume,
that is, when the tank is two-thirds full of water, the gage pressure
will be about 30 pounds to the square inch, which is enough to supply
water at any point of a two-story building with ample force. By pumping
more water into the tank, a pressure of 50 or 60 pounds may be obtained
without difficulty; but 40 pounds is generally sufficient for all the
demands of a house plant. This is an application of the Boyle’s law
which as stated in text books of physics is: “The temperature remaining
the same, the pressure on confined gas varies inversely as its volume.”
As the volume of such a confined body of gas is made smaller, the
pressure increases in like ratio. The desired pressures are easily
attained with a hand force pump such as is shown in the drawing.
[Illustration: FIG. 144.--The pressure-tank system of water supply as
it appears in a dwelling.]
The gage-glass _G_ on the side of the tank is intended to show the
height of the water in the tank at any time, and the pressure gage
attached to the supply pipe shows the amount of pressure sustained by
the water.
=The Pressure Tank.=--The water leaves the tank by a pipe attached near
the bottom and branches to supply each fixture, to which the water is
to be conducted. In the drawing, the pipe may be traced from the point
where it leaves the tank to the various fixtures. The cold-water pipe
terminates at the range boiler, for at that point the hot-water system
begins. The range boiler is connected by two pipes to the water heater
in the kitchen range. The water heater is a part of the fire-box of the
kitchen range and so long as the fire is kept burning, water is heated
and stored in the range boiler. Where the house is furnace-heated,
the furnace fire is sometimes utilized for heating the water by use
of a coil of pipe above the fire and which may take the place of the
range heater. Various other means are also employed for heating the
water as described under range boilers. In Fig. 145 is shown a nearer
view of a pressure tank with the pump attached. The pump is in this
case identical in its action to the one shown in Fig. 132, but differs
slightly in mechanical design. The drawing shows the gage-glass _G_,
for indicating the height of water; the pressure gage _P_, which
indicates the pressure to which the water is subjected; the attachment
of the supply pipe _S_, and the delivery pipe _D_. The water tap _T_ is
provided to draw off the water when the tank is to be emptied.
[Illustration: FIG. 145.--The pressure tank complete, with the pump and
gages as used for domestic water supply.]
In operation, the air in the pressure tank furnishes the force which
sends the water through the pipes to the various points, and forces
it through the taps at the desired rate. If for any reason the air in
the tank escapes, the propelling force is destroyed. This may occur by
reason of absorption of the air by the water, due to the pressure to
which it is subjected; or to small air leaks that may develop in the
joints, which allow the air to escape. To overcome the possibility of
these occurrences, arrangement is made whereby air may be pumped into
the tank by the same pump as that which supplies the water. In this
way, the air is introduced with the water, which bubbles up through it
to the surface. If at any time the pressure in the tank is lost, it may
be replaced by pumping air alone into the tank.
=Power Water-supply Plants.=--Where the pump is expected to furnish
water to any considerable amount beyond that for household use, it
is desirable that the plant be power-driven. If the work of watering
stock, lawn sprinkling, etc., is intended, the tank and pump must be
enlarged to suit the desired amount of water, and a gasoline engine,
windmill or electric motor will be used for power. Where local
conditions will permit, a hydraulic ram may be substituted for the pump
and the pressure tank used for additional pressure and storage.
[Illustration: FIG. 146.--Tank pump operated by a small gasoline
engine.]
Fig. 146 shows a plant in which the pump is driven by a gasoline
engine. In the figure, the engine _E_ is shown connected by a belt to a
speed-reducing device or “jack,” marked _J_. The object of this machine
is to reduce the speed of rotation and charge it to the required motion
for operating the pump. The jack is connected to the pump by a rod
attached to a large gear, so as to produce the desired crank motion;
and the opposite end of the rod is attached to the pump handle. The rod
may be detached at any time and the pump worked by hand.
=Electric Power Water Supply.=--Fig. 147 shows another type of power
plant in which an electric motor operates the pump. In this style of
plant, the pulley on the electric motor _M_ is connected by a belt to
the large wheel _W_, from which the crank motion is secured for driving
the pump _P_. This machine is provided with an automatic starting and
stopping device, which automatically controls the supply of water in
the system. Whenever the pressure in the tank falls to a certain point,
the change of pressure produced on the diaphram valve _A_ starts the
motor, and the pump sends water into the tank until the pressure in the
tank again reaches the amount for which the valve is set, at which time
the valve disconnects the electric contact to the motor and the pump
stops working.
[Illustration: FIG. 147.--Pressure tank supplied by an electrically
driven pump.]
=Wind-power Water Supply.=--In Fig. 148 is shown a larger and more
complete plant than the former, in which a windmill furnishes the power
for pumping and a large underground tank is utilized for the main
supply of water. The tank marked, Well Water Pressure Tank, in this
case is so placed that the end is exposed in the well curb, where the
height of the water may be observed at any time. The pump is operated
as any other of its kind, but is provided with an automatic pressure
cylinder, which controls the operation of the mill through the rise
and fall of the water in the tank. At any time the water in the tank
falls to a certain point, the pump is thrown into gear by the pressure
cylinder, and the water is pumped into the tank until a definite height
is reached; at this point the pump is automatically thrown out of gear
and remains inactive until an additional supply of water is required.
The plant is therefore automatic in its action and requires only that
the mill be kept oiled and in running order.
As shown in the drawing, the large tank receives its supply of water
from the well and aside from providing a reserve supply furnishes power
for pumping cistern water. The water from the large tank is piped
into the house for use as required, and from the same pipe is taken a
hydrant for lawn sprinkling; in addition, this water is piped to the
barn where it is used for watering stock. A branch of the same pipe is
intended to operate a water lift, which in turn furnishes the house
with soft water from the rain-water cistern for bathing, laundry, and
kitchen purposes.
[Illustration: FIG. 148.--This diagram shows the arrangement of
domestic water-supply apparatus, in which a windmill furnishes the
pressure necessary for operating the entire plant.]
=The Water Lift.=--The water lift is a combined water engine and pump,
the motive power for which is the pressure from the well-water tank.
The soft water, pumped by the water lift, is stored in the smaller
pressure tank marked Soft Water Pressure Tank in the drawing, and
furnishes a supply for the purposes mentioned. The water lift is so
constructed that when the pressure in the soft-water tank equals the
pressure in the well-water tank, the lift will stop working and will
not start again until water has been drawn from the taps. Whenever
water is drawn from any part of the system, the pressure will be
reduced and the lift will immediately begin pumping more water and will
continue until the pressure of the two tanks are the same. The system
is entirely automatic, each part depending on the power originally
supplied by the windmill. The plant could be just as successfully
operated by substituting a gasoline engine or other source of power for
the windmill. The machinery for such a plant is not at all complicated
neither is it difficult to manage, yet it is complete in every
particular and furnishes an almost ideal arrangement for a country or
suburban home.
[Illustration: FIG. 149.--The water lift.]
In order to be assured of a supply of water over periods of atmospheric
quiet, the well-water tank must be sufficiently large to supply water
for 3 or 4 days; but in case of emergency water may be pumped by hand.
A nearer view of the water lift is shown in Fig. 149. In the figure,
the right-hand cylinder with its valve _V_ is the water engine which
furnishes the power for operating the pump, enclosed in the left-hand
cylinder. The water pressure of the main supply furnishes the energy
which drives the engine, the piston rod of which is attached to the
pump piston. The engine receives its supply of water through the pipe
marked Inlet and the waste water is discharged to the sewer by the
waste pipe on the opposite side of the cylinder. The operation of the
lift is governed by an automatic regulator which so controls the engine
that it starts pumping whenever the pressure in the system falls to a
certain point. The regulator marked Adjustable Regulator in the drawing
may be adjusted to suit the water pressure desired in the distributing
system.
[Illustration:
1 Air Chamber Nut
2 Brass Tube for Air Chamber
3 Air Chamber
4 Brass Cock
5 Cap Screw
6 Leather Washer
7 Handle Pin
8 Pitman
9 Handle
10 Brass Covered Piston Rod
11 Fulcrum
12 Fulcrum Pin
13 Brass Stuffing Nut
14 Cap
15 Fulcrum Ring
16 Fulcrum Ring Pin
17 Plunger
18 Cylinder
19 Cap Screw
20 Lower Valve
21 Brass Valve Seat
22 Base
23 Bottom Brass Ferrule
24 Bottom Nut
FIG. 150.--The terms by which the parts of a force pump are
designated.]