THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF PRIOR TO ITS INTRODUCTION INTO THE UNITED
STATES
Among the ancient peoples generally the deaf and dumb, especially those
so by birth, were deemed as of deficient mentality, and were accounted,
intellectually, as little better than children, or, indeed, as idiots.
Though treated, it seems, for the most part humanely, they were regarded
not without some aversion; and their affliction was not infrequently
looked upon as a visitation of the gods, some of the hardy races even
destroying their deaf offspring. For a long period there were scarcely
any serious attempts to give instruction to the deaf.
Allusions to the deaf and their state with respect to education are
found in certain of the Greek and Latin writers, and occasionally in
those of other languages. Herodotus speaks of the deaf son of Cr[oe]sus,
and Hippocrates has reference to the deaf as a class. Plato and
Aristotle also make mention of the deaf, the latter considering them
incapable of education because of the absence of the sense of hearing.
Among Latin authors we find an account by Pliny the Elder of a deaf man
who had learned painting.
It is only after the fifteenth century that we have more or less
authenticated accounts of the instruction of the deaf, and many of these
are hardly more than a passing reference here and there. It was,
moreover, well after Europe had taken its present political appearance
that the modern attitude towards the deaf and their instruction began.
Before this their education as a class was not thought of, and while no
doubt there have always been sporadic instances of the instruction of
the deaf, it is only since the middle of the eighteenth century that the
deaf have come generally into the birthright of their education.
Yet it is not so great a matter of wonder that the movements for the
instruction of the deaf took organized shape so late in the world's
civilization. Learning or schooling was in no sense popular till some
time after the passing away of the so-called dark ages. For long it was
rather the privilege of the rich and powerful. The great mass of the
people were not deemed worthy of learning, and education itself in any
general application did not have a recognized standing in society. After
the Renaissance, however, had ushered in a new age, and when the desire
for learning was the master passion among many men in Southern and
Western Europe, it is natural to suppose that efforts should have more
frequently been made to instruct the deaf child; and after this time we
are prepared to find an increasing number of instances of the
instruction of the deaf. This was all the more true when an air of
mystery was felt to surround these silent ones, and to bring the light
of the new learning to these afflicted creatures was considered well
worth the attempt.
The earliest instance recorded of instruction given to the deaf in the
English language is that of the Venerable Bede about the year 691, who
tells of a deaf person taught to speak by Bishop John of York, related
as though it were a miracle. After many years we meet accounts of other
cases. Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485) of Groeningen, Holland, and later a
professor at Heidelberg, cites in his "_De Inventione Dialecta_" a deaf
man who could write. In Italy a little later we find certain deaf
children whose instruction is mentioned by Pietro de Castro; while in
the sixteenth century Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), the distinguished
physician of Pavia, attempted to state the principles of the education
of the deaf, demonstrating the use of a written language for them, and
advocating the teaching of speech. He further invented a manual
alphabet, which was one of the first of its kind. In 1616 Giovanni
Bonifaccio also wrote regarding the "art of signing" and speech for the
deaf.
But it is to Spain that credit is to be given as being the first country
of Europe where there are recorded accounts of successful instruction of
the deaf. In 1550, or perhaps earlier, Pedro Ponce de Leon of the Order
of St. Benedict taught, chiefly by oral methods, several deaf children
in the convent of San Salvador de Ona. Great success must have attended
his efforts, for in addition to the Spanish language and arithmetic, his
pupils are reported to have mastered Latin, Greek and astrology. About
this time there lived a deaf artist, known as _El Mudo_, and he had very
likely received instruction in some way. In 1620 Juan Pablo Bonet, who
had had several deaf pupils, instructing them largely in articulation
methods, published a treatise on the art of instructing the deaf, called
"_Reduccion de las Letras y Arta para Ensener a Hablar los Mudos_;" and
he was the inventor of a manual alphabet, in considerable part like that
used in America to-day. Sir Kinelm Digby of England, visiting Spain
about this time, saw Bonet's work and wrote an account of his pupils.
In 1644 appeared in England "_Chirologia_, or the Natural Language of
the Hand" by a physician, Dr. John Bulwer, who had perhaps also observed
the results in Spain. This was followed in 1648 by his more important
work, "_Philocophus_, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Friend," mostly
describing a kind of process in articulation and lip-reading. Bulwer's
friend, John Wallis, a professor at Oxford, seems to have been the first
practical teacher here, instructing two deaf persons by writing and in
speech, and showing them to the King. In 1653 his "_Tractatus de
Loquela_" was published. Along the same line was the writing of Dr.
William Holder on the "Elements of Speech," published in 1669, in which
he advocated articulation teaching. In 1670 there appeared a treatise by
George Sibscota on "The Deaf and Dumb Man's Discourse," but this was
really a translation from the writings of a German named Deusing. In
1680 Dr. George Dalgarno of Scotland published his "_Didascalocophus_,
the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor," in which preference was given to the use
of a written language and a manual alphabet, of one of which he was
himself the inventor. In 1698 appeared "_Digiti Lingua_," written "by a
person who had conversed no otherwise in above nine years." Some half a
century later we find the name of Henry Baker, son-in-law of Daniel
Defoe, who gave instruction in speech.
Other countries of Europe were hardly behind England in their interest
in the deaf and their instruction. Spain, besides the names we have
mentioned, had notably Ramirez de Carion, himself a deaf man, who lived
not long after Bonet. Italy had in particular Padre Lana Terzi, who in
1670 published a work on articulation; and also Fabrizio d'Acquapendente
and Affinite, who in their writings threw out references to speech for
the deaf. In Holland there were Peter Montans, who about 1635 issued
several tracts on speech; Jan Baptista Van Helmont, who in 1667 wrote on
speech and an alphabet; and John Conrad Amman, formerly a Swiss
physician, who in 1692 gave out his "_Surdus Loquens_," which was
enlarged and republished in 1700 as "_Dissertatio de Loquela_." The name
of Amman is especially notable, not only for his instruction in speech
of several deaf children, but for his influence on later oral methods.
In Switzerland we find at Basel in 1531, or perhaps a few years sooner,
an account of a deaf person who was instructed in speech by
[OE]colampadius, the Reformer and friend of Luther; at Geneva in 1604 of
a deaf child instructed by St. Francis de Sales; and also in Geneva in
1685 of a deaf person who had probably received instruction.
In Germany we have a regular succession of names of those who either
attempted to instruct the deaf or who wrote of this instruction, some of
these names being among the earliest of those in Europe who showed an
interest in the matter. In the year 1578 we meet the name of Pasch, a
clergyman of Brandenburgh, who taught his daughter by means of pictures.
In 1621 Rudolph Camerarius wrote a book on speech, and in 1642 Gaspard
Schott mentions a case of successful instruction. In 1701 or 1704 Kerger
at Liegnitz in Silesia taught some pupils orally, having what seemed a
temporary school. In 1718 Georges Raphel, who had taught his three deaf
daughters, wrote a book explaining his process of instruction. Among
other names appearing earlier or later were those of Morhoff,
Mallenkrot, Wild, Niederoff, Lichwitz, Shulze, Ettmuller, Arnoldi,
Lasius, Heinicke, and Nicolai. Of all these much the most renowned is
that of Samuel Heinicke. In 1754 at Dresden he became interested in the
deaf, and a few years later started a school near Hamburg. In 1778, at
the instance of the state, he moved to Leipsic, his school thus being
the first public school for the deaf to be established. He was also the
author of several books on the education of the deaf. Heinicke was
instrumental in bringing the oral method into favor, and in many
respects, so far as its present use is concerned, may be said to be its
father. He was in fact one of the greatest teachers of the deaf, and the
influence of his work has been felt in no small measure in America.
In France, too, there were great names, though they were late in
appearing; Pere Vanin, Rousset, Ernaud, de Fay, Pereire, Abbe de l'Epee,
Abbe Deschamps, and others.[162] Of these Vanin, Pereire, Deschamps, and
de l'Epee are the most notable. Vanin about 1743 instructed some
children by means of pictures and a manual alphabet. Rodriguez Pereire,
a Portuguese Jew, had several pupils at Bordeaux before the middle of
the eighteenth century, and though his methods were kept secret for the
most part, he appeared to have met considerable success, in 1749 giving
an exhibition before the Academy of Sciences. Abbe Deschamps in 1779
published at Orleans a work on the instruction of the deaf, largely
favoring the oral method. It is to Charles Michel abbe de l'Epee,
however, that is given the highest reverence of all the initial workers
for the deaf, being the founder of the first regular school, and
receiving nearly equal distinction for his impression on early methods
of instruction--this being especially true in respect to America, where
his influence in the introduction of the sign language has been greater
than any other man's. The abbe had become interested in two deaf orphans
in Paris, whom he attempted to teach, and in 1755 established a school
near the city, conducting it at his own expense. This proved a success,
and he decided to give his whole life to the instruction of the deaf. He
wrote several works on their education, the chief one being "_La
Veritable Maniere d'Instruire les Sourds et Muets_," published in 1784.
The achievements of de l'Epee were soon far-famed, and the people were
taken with their novelty. Many honors were offered him, and his work was
brought to the notice of the French Academy and approved. In 1791 his
school was adopted by the state. The successor of abbe de l'Epee was
abbe Sicard, and the work continued to flourish in France.
Not long after de l'Epee and Heinicke had started their schools in
France and Germany respectively, Thomas Braidwood, in 1760, opened a
school in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1784 a school was established in Rome,
in 1788 in Madrid, and in 1801 in Genoa. In the early years of the
nineteenth century other schools were started over Western Europe. Thus
by the time that the work for the education of the deaf was to enter
America, in the establishment of the first school in the second decade
of the century, there were already in Europe a number of schools in
existence.[163]
FOOTNOTES:
[162] In 1751 Diderot published his "_Lettre sur les Sourds et Muets_,"
in which there is reference to the education of the deaf.
[163] For accounts of the early work for the education of the deaf, both
before and after it was taken up in the United states, the following may
be referred to: Thomas Arnold, "A Method of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb
Speech, Lip-Reading and Language", 1881; "The Education of Deaf-Mutes",
1888; E. M. Gallaudet, "Life of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet", 1888; H. N.
Dixon, "A Method of Teaching Deaf-Mutes to Speak, with a Historical
Introduction" (including a translation of Bonet's work), 1890; J. K.
Love, "Deaf-Mutism", 1896; Henry Barnard, "A Tribute to Gallaudet", with
other papers, 1852; Heman Humphrey, "Life and Labors of T. H.
Gallaudet", 1857; H. W. Syle, "Retrospect of the Education of the Deaf",
1886; J. A. Seiss, "The Children of Silence", 1887; J. R. Burnet, "Tales
of the Deaf and Dumb", 1835; E. J. Mann, "Deaf and Dumb", 1836; J. N.
Williams, "A Silent People", 1883; W. R. Scott, "The Deaf and Dumb,
their Education and Social Position", 1870; History of First School for
Deaf-Mutes in America, 1883; Addresses delivered at the New York
Institution, 1847; H. P. Peet, Address at Laying of Corner Stone of
North Carolina Institution, 1848; Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone
of Michigan Institution, 1856; Collins Stone, "Address on History and
Methods of Deaf-Mute Instruction", 1869; Addresses Commemorative of the
Virtues and Services of Abraham B. Hutton, 1870; _American Annals of the
Deaf_ (especially early numbers, often giving accounts of individual
schools as well as of the general work); _North American Review_, vii.,
1818, p. 127; xxxviii., 1834, p. 307; lxxxvii., 1858, p. 517; civ.,
1867, p. 512; _American Journal of Education_, (n. s.) i., 1830, p. 409;
_American Annals of Education_, iv., 1834, p. 53; _Literary and
Theological Review_, ii., 1835, p. 365; _American Biblical Repository_,
viii., 1842, p. 269; _De Bow's Review_, xvii., 1854, p. 435; _National
Magazine_, ix., 1856, pp. 385, 487 (Sketches of Humane Institutions);
_Scribner's Magazine_, xii., 1892, p. 463; _Association Review_, ii.-v.,
1900-1904 ("Historical Notes concerning the Teaching of Speech to the
Deaf"); Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf,
i., 1850, p. 99; v., 1858, p. 275 (H. P. Peet, "Memoirs on the Origin
and Early History of the Art of the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb");
iii., 1853, p. 277; iv., 1856, p. 17; ix., 1878, p. 195; American
Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, v., 1896, p.
27 (P. G. Gillet, "Some Notable Benefactors of the Deaf"); National
Association of the Deaf, iii., 1889, p. 21; National Conference of
Charities and Corrections, 1907, p. 512; _Californian_, iv., 1881, p.
376; Iowa Bulletin of State Institutions, viii., 1906, p. 175; xii.,
1910, p. 24; Transactions of Royal Historical Society, viii., 1880;
Encyclopedia Americana, 1883 (History of the Education of the Deaf in
the United States, given in _Annals_, xxxi., 1886, p. 130); various
reports of the several schools for the deaf in America (as that of New
York Institution, 1839, p. 8; 1843, p. 11; 1876, p. 48; American School,
1844, p. 25; 1867, p. 13; Pennsylvania Institution, 1843, p. 9; 1892, p.
64; Kentucky School, 1857, p. 8; 1867, p. 13; Michigan School, 1858, p.
40; Illinois School, 1868, p. 42; New York Institution for Improved
Instruction, 1869, p. 26; Mississippi School, appendices, 1907, 1909,
1911); "Histories of American Schools for the Deaf", edited and with an
introduction by Dr. E. A. Fay, 1893 (containing accounts of individual
schools, and a most valuable work).