HISTORY OF EDUCATION OF THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES
EARLY ATTEMPTS AT INSTRUCTION
The first instance of which we have record in America of an attempt to
teach the deaf was in 1679[164] when a man named Philip Nelson of
Rowley, Massachusetts, tried to instruct a deaf and dumb boy, Isaac
Kilbourn by name, in speech, though with what success we do not
know.[165] These, however, were the witchcraft days, and the work of
Nelson seemed such an extraordinary thing that the ministers of the
community are said to have made an investigation, fearing that witches
might be involved in the affair. The next instance of which we have
mention occurred in Virginia a century later, when John Harrower, a
school-master of Fredericksburg, had in his school from 1773 to 1776 a
deaf boy named John Edge, reference to whose instruction is made in his
diary.[166]
The earliest effort for the establishment of a school for the deaf in
America of which we know was made almost contemporaneously with the
opening of the nineteenth century, and at the time that such schools
were being created over Europe. There lived at this time in Boston a man
named Francis Green, who had a deaf son. This boy he sent to the school
in Scotland which Braidwood had started; while he himself became much
interested in the subject of the education of the deaf. In 1783 he
published in England a work entitled "_Vox Oculis Subjecta_." In 1803 he
had, with the help of some of the ministers, a census made of the deaf
in Massachusetts, when 75 were found, and it was estimated that there
were 500 in the United States. Green felt the need of a school, and in
several of the publications of the time appeared his writings, in which
he urged the creation of one.[167]
It was in 1810, however, and in the city of New York that the real
beginning of deaf-mute education in the United States was marked. This
was when John Stanford, a minister, found several deaf children in the
city almshouse and attempted to teach them. Though his efforts continued
but a short time, it was these from which resulted the establishment a
few years later of a school in the city, the New York Institution.[168]
In Virginia shortly afterwards a second school was started, which in
itself is to be set down as an important stage in the course of the
early attempts to create schools for the deaf in America. In 1812 there
came to the United States John Braidwood, a member of the family which
was in control of the institution at Edinburgh, Scotland, in the hope of
establishing a school. He began plans for one at Baltimore, but before
it had gotten under headway, he was called to Virginia to undertake the
instruction of the deaf children of William Bolling, of Goochland
County. This private school continued, with seemingly satisfactory
results in the progress of the pupils, for two and a half years. In
1815 it was moved to Cobbs, Chesterfield County,[169] to be open to the
public. The school now promised well, and there were already several
pupils. However, Braidwood was looking about for other opportunities,
and had been in touch with several parties in regard to the employment
of his services.[170] In 1816 he went to New York, where he proposed to
start a school, and collected a few pupils, only to return to Virginia
again after a few months. In 1817 he began operations anew, this time at
a private classical school at Manchester under John Kilpatrick, a
minister. In less than a year this too was abandoned by Braidwood, who
soon after met his death. Kilpatrick attempted to continue the school
only a year or two longer, possibly even taking a few pupils with him
when he moved to Cumberland County in 1819; and so was brought to an end
the checkered career of this early school for the deaf in Virginia.[171]
Such were the beginnings of the instruction of the deaf in America.
With the exception of these undertakings, barely touching the surface in
the number of children reached, the only means of education possible in
the land was in sending children to a school in Europe, which was done
in the case of a few wealthy parents. For the great mass of the deaf,
isolated and scattered though they were at the time, there was no
instruction to be had.
But this period was now nearly passed. Attention in more than one
quarter was being directed to the deaf and the possibilities of their
education; and in the breasts of not a few men a feeling was astir that
instruction was somehow to be brought to them.[172] The seed was already
sown, and by the time the school in Virginia was broken up, others were
beginning to arise elsewhere. When the work was finally to be taken up,
it was to be upon a solid foundation which should last with the
lastingness of education.
BEGINNING OF THE FIRST SCHOOLS
The seat of the first permanent school to be established in the United
States for the education of the deaf was Hartford, Connecticut; and the
name of the one man with which the beginning work will forever be
coupled is that of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. America, however, was not
to commence the work of itself: the spirit and the method had to be
brought from Europe.
Early in the nineteenth century there lived at Hartford a young deaf
girl, Alice Cogswell by name, the daughter of a physician, and in her a
group of men had become interested. An investigation of the number of
the deaf had been made in 1812 by a body of clergymen, when 84 were
found, and it was estimated that there were 400 in New England, and
2,000 in the United States; and the question of a school had been
considered.[173] In 1815 the friends of Alice Cogswell decided to
organize a society for the purpose of providing means to instruct some
of these, and to secure an instructor. To take up this work, attention
was directed to Gallaudet, then a young theological student. He was
fixed upon as the man to go to Europe and acquaint himself with the
methods there employed. Gallaudet responded at once to the appeal made
to him, and proceeded to prepare himself forthwith.
The same year, 1815, saw Gallaudet start upon his errand, his expenses
being defrayed by the society.[174] He first visited England, but
finding there a monopoly composed of the Braidwood and Watson families,
he betook himself to France. In this country he met with a warm
reception, and here he eagerly set upon his labors of study and
investigation at the school which de l'Epee had established. He observed
closely, and then the following year turned his face towards America,
equipped for the great work before him, and bringing with him one of the
deaf teachers from Paris named Laurent Clerc.
On Gallaudet's return the second part of the undertaking for the
creation of a school was to be accomplished, namely, the securing of
funds, which required half a year more. For this purpose Gallaudet and a
few others set about soliciting contributions. New York, Philadelphia,
Albany, New Haven, and other cities were visited, and the interest in
the new undertaking was shown by the response made.[175] By the time the
school was ready to open, over $12,000 had been obtained, which was soon
after more than doubled.[176] The contributions came from various
sources, including individuals, societies and churches, and were from
not a few states, and even foreign countries. A charter was granted the
society in 1816 by the legislature of Connecticut; and $5,000 was
appropriated for the school,[177] which was probably the first
appropriation of public money for education not in regular schools.[178]
On April 15, 1817, the new school threw open its doors, and thus was
established the first institution for the instruction of the deaf--in
fact, the first for any of the so-called "defective classes." Its
success was assured from the start, and there were many applicants,
coming from different parts of the country. The school had to depend
mainly upon private contributions, and for its maintenance efforts had
to be continued to collect funds, pupils being taken for this purpose to
several cities for exhibition, especially before church assemblies and
the legislative bodies of New England.[179] It was not long in
appearing, however, that, as the school was really to be national in
scope, the United States government might be appealed to for aid. Visits
were accordingly made to Washington in 1819, and the interest of certain
of the members of Congress was secured. Among these was Henry Clay, who
showed a particular regard for the new undertaking, and it was largely
through his influence that Congress was prevailed upon to bestow upon
the school 23,000 acres of the public land, from which in time $300,000
was realized.[180] It was the understanding, there being no census of
the deaf at this time, that any state or individual might participate in
the benefit of this grant, and that the school was to be open on equal
terms to all.[181]
Though the school was regarded as national in one sense, it was also
felt to be particularly New England's from the share that these states
took in its development. Very soon after it had commenced operations a
lively interest had been manifested; and in 1825 a meeting was held at
Hartford of official representatives of all these states except Rhode
Island, to discuss the possibilities of co-operation in its work.[182]
Hardly, indeed, had the school entered upon its labor when, without
solicitation, Massachusetts began sending its deaf children to it. It
was followed in turn by the others, all the states of New England thus
coming to provide for their children here as at a common school--a
policy continued with all for many years. By this arrangement a certain
amount from the state treasury was allowed for each pupil. The action of
Massachusetts was taken in 1819, of New Hampshire in 1821, of Vermont
and Maine in 1825, of Connecticut in 1828, and of Rhode Island in 1842.
Two other states, far removed from New England, also by special
legislative grants provided for pupils in this school for a time. These
were Georgia and South Carolina, both beginning in 1834.[183] In
addition, there were private pupils sent here from a number of
states.[184]
The school at Hartford was now in full operation, with a nation-wide
interest upon it.[185] But scarcely had it received its first pupil
when other schools began to be established, and indeed New York and
Pennsylvania are hardly to be considered behind Connecticut at all,
schools in these states being in the course of formation when the
Hartford school was opened. From the concern now apparent in many
sections, it was soon evident that the new work was to spread over the
land, and that the education of the deaf had achieved for itself an
established position.
In New York, as we have seen, the Rev. John Stanford had found several
deaf children in the almshouse of the city, and, moved by their
condition, had sought to teach them. Interest was felt by other men, and
the agitation for a school was furthered by letters from the American
consul at Bordeaux in 1816, one of which was written by a French teacher
and addressed to the "Philanthropists of the United States." A census
was made of the deaf in the city,[186] meetings were held in their
behalf, a notable one taking place at Tammany Hall, and private funds
collected. In 1817 a charter was secured from the legislature, and the
following year the school was opened. The city of New York displayed a
warm interest in it, making a special appropriation at its beginning,
and undertaking the support of a number of pupils for a time, besides
furnishing quarters free of cost. In 1819 the state legislature, after
an exhibit of pupils, decided to assist, making an appropriation for the
benefit of the school, and soon afterward allowing a certain amount for
each pupil. In 1821 New Jersey began sending children to the school,
action being taken in this state by a unanimous vote.
Pennsylvania followed close upon Connecticut and New York. A committee
had been organized in Philadelphia in 1816 to secure contributions for a
school, and meetings had been held, though without immediate result.
Late in the year 1819, or early in 1820, David Seixas, a Jew, finding
several poor deaf-mute children to whom he gave shelter, made attempts
to teach them. In the latter year a society was formed by certain
citizens, after a meeting in the rooms of the American Philosophical
Society; and being pleased with the work of Seixas, it decided to adopt
his school. The following year, after an exhibit of pupils, the school
was incorporated by the legislature, and granted a _per capita_
appropriation of $160, while contributions from friends were numerous.
In 1821, also, pupils were admitted from New Jersey, this state
providing for them both at the New York and Philadelphia schools. In
1827 Maryland, and in 1835 Delaware, authorized the sending of children
to the Pennsylvania Institution, exhibits of pupils having been made
before the legislatures of these states.[187]
Kentucky in 1823 was the fourth state in the Union to establish a
school. In this case, however, action was taken directly by the
legislature, and the school has always been the property of the state.
In 1826[188] Congress granted to it a township of land in Florida, on
the theory that this school would be the center for pupils from the
western and southern states; and it was for some years the place of
education for many of the children from the southern states,[189] and
also for a number from western states. With the establishment of this
school directly by the state begins a new policy in the provision for
the education of the deaf--the work no longer being entrusted to private
individuals and societies. All the states that followed Kentucky in the
creation of schools, with the exception of Maryland and some of the New
England states, adopted this policy.
Ohio came next in 1829, although an attempt had been made to establish a
school in Cincinnati as early as 1821.[190] Pupils were also received
into it from neighboring states.[191] In 1838 Virginia established a
joint school for the deaf and the blind, after exhibitions of pupils had
been given in the state. In Indiana a private school was started in
1841, and three years later the state institution, action being taken by
the legislature without a single dissenting vote. In this state another
stage is reached in the work of educating the deaf: education which had
hitherto been, by statute, free to the "indigent" only is in positive
terms made free to all. This was done in 1848, and the action has been
thus described:[192]
The doors of all asylums built at public expense for mutes, for the
blind, and for lunatics were thrown open to all, that their
blessings, like the rain and dew of heaven, might freely descend on
these children of misfortune throughout the state, without money and
without price.
Well might this paean break forth, for this is probably the broadest
benevolent legislation ever enacted up to this time.
In Georgia a private school was opened in 1842, and in 1846 the state
school was established, after a visit of pupils from the Hartford
school. In 1845 a school was started in Tennessee, after an exhibit of
pupils from Kentucky. The same year in North Carolina, after an exhibit
of pupils from Virginia, a school was opened for the deaf and the blind,
though one had been projected as early as 1828.[193] In 1846 a school
was established in Illinois, the bill passing the legislature by a
unanimous vote. To it came pupils from Missouri, Iowa and Wisconsin. In
1849 a school was established in South Carolina. Thus by the middle of
the nineteenth century, or thirty-two years after the founding of the
first school in America, there were schools in a dozen states. In the
next quarter century schools were created in nineteen other states, and
since in nearly all the remainder.
EARLY IDEAS CONCERNING THE SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF
It was but natural that for some years the providing of schools for the
education of the deaf should be looked upon with wonder. To many the
very thought of their instruction seemed strange. Curious notions had
been held as to the deaf-mute's mind, and it was not certain how far it
was capable of instruction.
By some the idea of the education of the deaf was received with scarcely
concealed skepticism, and despite the enthusiasm of the promoters and
despite the cordial interest manifested in many quarters, there were not
a few doubters. Efforts to educate the deaf were even declared quixotic
and absurd. When the state of Illinois was erecting a building to be
used as a school, it was by some called "the state's folly."[194] The
legislatures themselves occasionally had misgivings, and now and then an
appropriation was voted for a school more in hope than otherwise.[195]
The work was thus with many often misunderstood, and a few of the
schools did not have altogether easy sailing.
But when it was found that the deaf could be, and were being, educated,
not only were all doubts dispelled, but the astonishment almost goes
beyond bounds, and even passes into a rapture of thanksgiving. Visitors,
in some cases, flocked to the places where these wonderful things were
transpiring. They came to convince themselves, and stood hushed in
admiration at the spectacle before them.
The accounts of a number of the early schools attest the greeting given
to the new work. The New York Institution in its first report[196]
speaks of the "numerous visitors" and their "expressions of mingled
surprise and delight." In the new Pennsylvania Institution interest was
markedly aroused. By _Poulson's American Daily Advocate_ of Philadelphia
it was stated that 1,600 people crowded into a church to witness an
examination of pupils, and by the _Columbian Observer_ it was declared
that this scene "was impressive beyond description," and that "the
exercises excited wonder mingled with the acutest sensations of
compassion for these isolated beings."[197] An early report of the
Tennessee School[198] speaks of the interest "evinced by the great
numbers of persons" who visited the school, which was shown "by the
sympathy warmly expressed with the great affliction" of the pupils, and
the "surprise at the attainments made by them."
Indeed, the new work is more than once referred to in the accounts of
the period as a miracle. The age of miracles, we are told, was not
past.[199] When a private school was opened in Kansas, the advertisement
ran: "Behold the educational miracle of the nineteenth century. The deaf
hear, the dumb speak, the blind see."[200] The wonders of education had
become all the more marked and expectations were aroused to a high
pitch, when it was seen about this time that the blind and other classes
as well were being instructed. Great things were believed to be in store
for the human race.
With the schools for the deaf there was now general approbation and
support. Doubters were silenced, and the promoters took heart. Soon the
new institutions had won for themselves a place in the intelligent and
affectionate regard of all; and to those instrumental in their creation
the people universally "pledged their gratitude."
AIMS OF THE FOUNDERS
Though the first schools for the deaf in the United States were founded
to a considerable extent with the idea of charity or benevolence
present, yet this was not so much the uppermost purpose as to provide
instruction for them; or rather, it may be said that the benevolence
itself was prompted by the desire to see the deaf led from the darkness
of ignorance to the light of education. It is true that many of the
pupils were recognized as entitled to material assistance as well as
instruction. Some of the schools were chartered as benevolent
institutions, while several even avowed themselves as charitable
affairs.[201] It is also true that the promoters were in part concerned
with deaf children found in poverty, these being likely to engage not a
little attention. It was desired to furnish homes for a number without
charge; and early accounts and statutes speak of the "care," "aid,"
"maintenance" or "support"[202] of these children. But it is none the
less true that the great purpose in establishing institutions was
educational, and the instruction of the children was the primary and
chief thing guiding the hands of the men who created the schools. In the
prospectuses of some of the schools any object is disclaimed other than
that of education. In a circular describing the proposed school in
Kansas were the words: "This is not an asylum, but a school for the
education of the deaf."[203] Homes, or institutions, were provided
largely for the reason that this plan appeared the only practicable
means of reaching a considerable number of pupils.
With the early workers, then, the purpose was to give the children an
education. But this was not all. In their vision, a far greater opening
presented itself. Heretofore the deaf had been outcasts from society,
had no place among civilized beings, and were a dead weight in the
community. Now all was to be changed. Eyes saw a glorious
transformation: the deaf were to be restored to society, and education
was the magic by which it was to be done. In full measure were the
founders thrilled with this prospect; and to reclaim the deaf from their
condition was the great resolve.
Many of the early reports, charters and organic acts express such a
purpose, and speak of the "lonely and cheerless condition" of the deaf,
and the hope to "restore them to the ranks of their species." In the
preamble of an "Address to the Inhabitants of Pennsylvania," prepared by
the society to establish the school in this state,[204] the deaf are
said to be in "entire and invincible separation from the vast stores of
knowledge which human talent has accumulated--ignorant of the truths of
Revelation, her glorious assurances and unspeakable consolations," all
being "among the bitter ingredients which fill up the vast measure of
the affliction to the deaf and dumb;" and that "among the various
efforts of philanthropy and learning to enlarge the circle of human
happiness and knowledge, none should perhaps rank higher than those
which have been directed to the discovery and application of means for
the instruction of the deaf and dumb."
In language glowing and impassioned the condition of the deaf without
education is described. Almost universally they are thought of as
abiding in impenetrable silence and deep darkness. In an address
delivered before the New York Forum in behalf of the New York
Institution[205] in its early days, it is asserted that the deaf dwell
in "silence, solitude and darkness," and in the second report of this
school[206] they are declared to be "wrapt in impenetrable gloom of
silence, sorrow and despair." In an Ohio report[207] they are said to be
in "intellectual and moral midnight;" and in a Michigan report[208] to
be "groping in thick darkness." In a Louisiana report[209] they are
called "sorrow-stricken children of silence;" and in a Kentucky
report[210] their lives are described as "dark, dreary and comfortless."
The _Southern Literary Messenger_[211] of Richmond, Virginia,
characterizes their existence as "intellectual night." The New York
_Commercial Advertiser_[212] in the year the first school was opened
affirms that "their intellectual faculties ... are ... locked in the
darkness of night and shrouded in silence." In an address delivered
shortly after the opening of the Tennessee School[213] they are referred
to as "entombed in a prison." The _Albany Argus_ and _Daily City
Gazette_[214] points to the deaf man as "abandoned to his hard fate, to
wander in darkness, the pitiable object of dismal despair." In an
address delivered in the Capitol in Washington[215] the deaf are said to
be "doomed to wear out their lives in intellectual darkness."
The results of education were to be great beyond measurement, and the
passing of the deaf from ignorance to education is likened even to the
glories of the Resurrection. A Committee of Congress[216] in
recommending the granting of land to the Kentucky School speaks of
education as "the only means of redeeming this unfortunate portion of
our species from the ignorance and stupidity to which they would
otherwise be consigned by the partial hand of nature, and, indeed; of
transferring them from a state of almost mental blindness to that of
intellectual and accountable beings." The New York _Statesman_[217]
speaks of the effects in "improving the moral principle, which is torpid
and almost obliterated, and opening the way to moral and religious
instruction and knowledge of the Deity which is almost void." An early
report of the American School[218] tells of the transition of their
"imprisoned minds which have too long been enveloped in the profoundest
shade of intellectual and moral darkness to the cleansing and purifying
light of Divine Truth." An Ohio report[219] states that they "have come
forth into the light of truth, that truth that teaches them that they
possess a rational and immortal spirit." In the address in behalf of the
New York Institution before noted,[220] it is said of the deaf that the
"powers of torpid and dormant intellects are resurrected from an eternal
night of silence." The first report of the Minnesota School[221] refers
to the deaf as "liberated from the winding sheets of silence and
ignorance," and tells how "their souls vibrate with such joy as Lazarus
felt when he stepped forth from the gloom of the grave."
In the first report of the Indiana School[222] the state of the deaf
without education is thus contrasted with that of the deaf with
education:
Indeed, the difference between the uneducated and the educated mute
is almost incredible. The former "winds his weary way" through life
in ignorance and obscurity, often an object of charity, and almost a
burden to himself; but the latter, gladdened by the genial rays of
knowledge and fitted for the discharge of duty, becomes a blessing
to his friends and to society, acts well his part as a member of the
great human family, enjoys the present, and looks forward to the
future with cheerfulness and hope.
The charter of the Pennsylvania Institution refers to the desire of
certain citizens "to restore the deaf and dumb to the ranks of their
species;" and the preamble of the statutes creating schools in Kentucky
and other states contains similar language. The purpose of the Illinois
school is given in the organic act, the language of that of Nebraska and
other states being almost identical:
To promote by all proper and feasible means the mental, moral and
physical culture of that portion of the community, who by the
mysterious dispensations of Providence, have been born, or by
disease have become deaf, and of course dumb, by a judicious and
well adapted course of education, to reclaim them from their lonely
and cheerless condition, to restore them to the ranks of their
species, and to fit them to discharge the social and domestic duties
of life.
The object of the schools in Wisconsin, South Dakota, and other states
is declared to be:
To afford the deaf and dumb of the state, so far as possible, an
enlightened and practical education, that may aid them to obtain the
means of instruction, discharge the duties of citizenship, and
secure all the happiness they are capable of obtaining.
The early educators of the deaf felt themselves that they were indeed
carrying the light to shine in a dark place. In the language of one of
the foremost of them:[223]
Then the great triumph of science and benevolence over one of the
most terrible of human calamities will be complete, and the deaf and
dumb, objects of interest, but hardly of compassion, will stand
forth among their kindred who hear, heirs of all the hopes, the
privileges and the lofty aspirations of their race.
EXTENSION OF THE MEANS OF INSTRUCTION OVER THE COUNTRY
Interest in the education of the deaf had thus become general, public
concern was awakened, and movements were early on foot in not a few
states to start schools. The enthusiasm aroused by the success of the
first schools only increased the hopes that others would be provided to
reach the deaf children in all the states. A writer in the _North
American Review_ in 1834[224] declared that there were "no doubts that
the wants of the deaf and dumb will soon be supplied, and that the
public beneficence already extended to a portion will, before the lapse
of many years, be extended to all."
Nor were these hopes to be shattered, for the states followed each other
in rapid succession in providing means for the instruction of their deaf
youth. Indeed, when we consider how early some of the newly settled
states began to devote attention to the education of the deaf--a work
that was undertaken in Europe only after the middle of the eighteenth
century--we are persuaded that it speaks no less for the regard for and
devotion to education implanted in the breasts of the American people,
than for the bigness and benevolence of their hearts. The credit remains
just as deep, even though it has ever been the mission and spirit of
America to bring education to the door of every one of its children, and
though what it has done for the deaf is but a part of this great
principle.
The early workers, despite the preliminary journeys to Europe, were
largely pioneers, and this country owes an immeasurable debt to the
founders and directors of the first schools. Many of them were ministers
of the Gospel, and all of them were men of high ideals. Possibly there
has never been a movement undertaken for the good of humanity that has
drawn to it a more capable or earnest band of men. These early workers
were possessed of a determination, an ardor, a resourcefulness, combined
with scholarship and understanding of no common order, that would have
graced any human cause. They were truly of those in America that have
blazed trails, and to them belonged those elements of character that are
a pride to any people.[225]
The first schools were created by societies of private citizens, funds
being contributed from "membership fees" in the societies, from
subscriptions and from other private donations.[226] To the aid of these
schools the state later came with appropriations; but while an oversight
and general control were assumed by it, the schools were left as
private corporations. With the establishment, however, of the Kentucky
School in 1823, a second stage is reached in the extension of the new
work, the state now undertaking the task itself and providing the
schools at its own initiative and expense. At first admission into the
schools was restricted to a certain number of pupils, often based upon
some political division of the state, as a senatorial district in
Tennessee, or a judicial in Ohio. When such limitations were swept away,
we have the third stage in the provision for the education of the deaf.
The fourth and last stage--though not necessarily in this order in any
one particular state, and not in every case formally accomplished--is
attained when in Indiana all charges are removed, and education is made
free to all.[227] In the schools created in later times all these steps
were usually merged into one: limitations of any kind were mostly
omitted, and the schools were in general thrown open to all from the
beginning.
Thus is reached the culminative point in the course of the provision for
the education of the deaf in America. No longer was private benevolence
to inaugurate and carry on the work, but the state was coming to see its
responsibility in part, finally to realize its full duty in making
education free to all its deaf population, just as it was free to the
rest of its citizens.[228]
In many instances, before action by the state, instruction of a small
collection of deaf children was taken up by a group of citizens;[229]
but hardly had this been done when as a rule the state proved itself
ready and willing to move in and shoulder the responsibility. These
private schools were thus often the nuclei of the state institutions, at
first aided to an extent, and then taken over. In fact, the private
schools were not infrequently started more or less as experimental
affairs, but with the expectation that the state would speedily come to
their help. "The idea of the founders seemed to be to give barely enough
to keep the school going, and to depend upon getting support of a
substantial character in the course of time."[230]
In some cases there were exhibitions of pupils, either from the school
which was hoped to be aided, or from an already established school in
another state. These were designed to awaken interest in the public, and
especially among the legislators, and to quicken the desired action. In
more than one instance the school was established at or near the state
capital to show the legislatures what could be done and to influence
their proceedings. Not infrequently memorials or petitions, in some
cases containing a great number of names, were presented to the
legislatures, praying for the establishment of the schools. Sometimes if
doubt as to the wisdom of the proposed course seemed to delay matters, a
point was to be gained in the dispatch as a preliminary procedure of a
special committee or agent to some existing school in another state, to
examine and report upon its work, this report being, as was expected,
nearly always highly favorable.[231]
But appeals to these bodies, whatever their nature, were rarely turned
away, and usually secured prompt response. When action was finally to be
obtained, the measure relating to the deaf was passed with few
dissenting votes, sometimes with none at all. So eager had the
representatives of the people now become, that, if it was not deemed
practicable at once to create a state institution, haste was made to
provide for the children in a school in another state till one within
their own borders could be established. In some cases steps were taken
to this end by the legislative assemblies of territories before
statehood had been bestowed upon them.[232]
At the same time not to be forgotten, in the narration of the extension
of the means of education to the deaf of the country, is the real debt
to private action. It was private initiative that often brought the
schools into being, and it was private solicitude that often won their
final endorsement and adoption by the state. In not a few places there
were citizens found who were willing to give of their substance to
forward the new work.[233] For some of the schools money was not only
subscribed, but it came also from the proceeds of fairs and concerts,
and for a few also from lectures, debates, exhibits of pictures, and
similar affairs; while exhibitions of the pupils themselves from the
schools seldom failed to draw a generous offering.[234] Indeed, many
were glad of the opportunity to lend a hand, and contributions were
tendered not only by various individuals, but also by different
societies and organizations[235]--churches probably among the latter
proving the most ready givers, with aid, in addition, at time from
newspapers, and now and then from a school or college. In some cases
funds were collected by citizens with which to purchase a site, and
sometimes the land required was given by the cities themselves. Indirect
aid was extended as well of not a few kinds; and in the early schools
there was seldom great difficulty in securing reduced transportation on
railroads and steamboats.[236]
However, except in a few instances, private assistance in the aggregate
did not prove great: as a rule in most schools it was limited, usually
sufficing only to tide them over their nascent stage, and in large part
ceasing upon their full establishment. From then on the maintenance was
assumed practically entirely as a public charge, the legislatures of the
several states undertaking themselves to provide for the schools. In a
few cases, however, there was public aid of another sort. In several
schools there were allowances for a longer or shorter period from
municipal funds, as in Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York, and from
county, as in North Carolina and Utah.[237] But much the most important
assistance of this character came from the national government; and
while only a few schools were favored by its action, the benefactions to
those were hardly less than munificent. For the benefit of the
Connecticut and Kentucky schools early in their careers Congress granted
great areas of the public domain; and later, on the admission of half a
dozen or so states in the West into the Union, set apart extensive
tracts for the schools to be established in them.[238]
When the school for the deaf had been formally recognized by the state,
its first act of assistance as a rule was in the form of _per capita_
allowances for the pupils, with only occasionally a specific
appropriation. These allowances were in the beginning small, but in time
were gradually increased. It was usually some years before the policy
was adopted of making regular appropriations. In a few cases, as in
Indiana and Illinois, when it was decided to create a state institution,
the first proceedings were, in lieu of a direct appropriation, the
levying of a small mill tax upon the assessed property of the state. In
New York benefit was allowed from the fines or licenses on lotteries,
and in Ohio from the receipts of a tax on auctions in one of the
counties of the state. In a few cases the schools were even located
where there appeared the greatest financial inducement,[239] as with the
requirement that a certain number of acres of land should be donated for
the school.[240]
For the organization of the new schools a small body of citizens was
appointed, often the original promoters of the undertaking, to act as
trustees, and to them was confided its direction, with the support and
general oversight of the state back of them.[241] Now and then the
trustees of an existing educational or other institution were given
charge as a temporary arrangement.[242]
In the material projection of the schools, little was to be expected at
the beginning. With the meagre resources at their disposal, the
directors had small choice in what was to be provided. In not a few
cases the schools started out under conditions far from auspicious, and
in some the circumstances in connection with their origin were quite
discouraging.[243] The quarters secured for the schools were nearly
always of unpretentious, and sometimes of humble, type. Many began in a
single rented room, and a few in a church building lent for the purpose.
It was only in the course of the years, as the communities grew in
population and wealth, that the establishments for the deaf assumed
appearances in keeping with their character.
The schools for the deaf were now in being, and were ready for the
reception of their pupils. But what of these pupils, and where were
they? Were they found at the doors of the new institutions, clamoring
for admission? The situation was hardly this. In point of fact, in
nearly every case the schools were ahead of the pupils. Though in
practically every community where a school was created, there were a
greater or less number of children in need of an education, these
children, or rather their parents, were slow in availing themselves of
the privilege. It was thus that the schools when established had to
wait, as it were, for the coming of their pupils, and indeed, in not a
few instances, to go out after them.
On the opening of the schools, none was found to have a large number of
pupils, and in most there were only a handful, as three, four or
five.[244] It was discovered that it was a far from easy task to get the
children in.[245] The parents were in no small measure ignorant
themselves, and the real value of the school was not always readily
understood. Besides, in many sections the country was new, the roads
bad, and the facilities for travel scant.
Oftentimes in the course of the founding of the schools, before any
direct act was attempted, a census was taken of the deaf of the state.
It was also frequently made the duty of certain local officers as county
clerks, assessors, etc., to register and report prospective pupils. By
many of the schools circulars were distributed to postmasters,
tax-collectors, ministers, school-teachers and others to enlist their
help in reaching deaf children;[246] and by certain of the schools the
newspapers were even availed of to carry their advertisements. Sometimes
special agents were sent out to scour the state and gather in pupils.
In many of the schools at the same time the terms of admission were
carefully prescribed,[247] and in some, especially the older ones, these
terms were often published. Notices of vacancies were also in a few
cases put in the newspapers, while in one or two instances, as in
Massachusetts, it was provided that lots should be drawn when it was
found that the number of applicants exceeded the number allowed. In a
large portion of the schools at first the pupils were individually
committed, or were "appointed," as it was called.[248] It was usually
some years before the greater part of such formalities ceased. Charges
were also occasionally made at the beginning,[249] later to be reduced
and in time to be abolished.[250]
In most of the schools in their first days the period of attendance
allowed to the pupils was very short, often being three or four years,
and sometimes only two. Usually, however, after a time one or two years
were added to the number permitted, which procedure was repeated after
certain intervals, and the length of residence was thus gradually
increased. In few of the schools, moreover, was an early age held
essential; and, indeed, in a considerable number pupils were not
admitted at an early age, the limit not infrequently being ten or
twelve.[251] The upper limit was high as well, and in some cases pupils
might enter up to thirty. These age limitations were also in turn
lowered in the course of time. Thus eventually we find the ages of
attendance as well as the general rules and regulations of admission
conforming more and more to those of the regular schools.
The various schools that have been created for the deaf have been for
the most part boarding institutions, in which the pupils have lived
during the school year. But beginning in 1869, and increasing rapidly
since 1890, a system of day schools has been brought into being, more on
the order of the regular common schools, and more distinctly an integral
part of the state's educational economy. Such schools, now over three
score in number, have been established in fourteen states, and belong
especially to large cities. They may be regarded in many respects as
denoting a new departure in the educational treatment of the deaf, and
as marking the latest development in the course of the instruction of
the deaf in the country.
In addition, there have been created a class of schools, numbering some
score at present, which are of denominational or private character, and
are not affected by state control. Finally, there has been established
by the United States government a national college for the deaf of all
the country--which may be called the crowning feature in the provision
for the education of the deaf in America.
For the great number of the deaf--over five-sixths of the total--the
institutional schools remain the one means of instruction. They have
been created in all but a few of the states, and in those without them
the children are sent to a school in a neighboring state. In some of the
more populous states two or more schools have been established. These
schools are as a rule supported entirely from the public treasury, and
are controlled by the legislatures, the actual administration being
delegated to boards of trustees or other bodies. In half the states a
regard of an enduring kind has been manifested for the schools in that
provision for them has been included in the constitutions, and these
states are thus committed to their maintenance.
In the schools themselves not only is education presented in the usual
sense, but in practically all industrial training has also been provided
to no mean extent, and constitutes a prominent feature of the work.
We have now traced the origin and development of the schools for the
deaf in the United States. The present organization and arrangements are
to be considered in the following chapters. We have found that the duty
of the education of the deaf has been recognized in all the states of
the Union; that to-day everywhere in America provision has been made for
the instruction of the deaf; and that to all the deaf children of the
land the doors of education are open wide.[252]
FOOTNOTES:
[164] There is, however, a case reported before this of a deaf person
who had received instruction, though hardly in America. This was a woman
who was blind as well as deaf, and who lived at Ipswich, Massachusetts,
in 1637. She had come from England; but whether or not she had been
taught before the coming on of her affliction, we are left in ignorance.
All that we are sure of is that communication could be had with her. See
John Winthrop, "History of New England", ed. 1853, i., p. 281; _Annals_,
xlv., 1900, p. 91.
[165] _Association Review_, ii., 1900, p. 34 ("Historical Notes
concerning the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf"). No little debt is owed
to Dr. Alexander Graham Bell for his researches into the early attempts
at instruction in America.
[166] _American Historical Review_, vi., 1900, pp. 65, 81, 82, 95. See
also _Association Review_, ii., 1900, p. 527.
[167] See A. G. Bell, "A Philanthropist of the Last Century Identified
as a Boston Man", 1900; _North American Review_, civ., 1867, p. 512;
_Annals_, i., 1848, p. 189; ix., 1857, p. 169; xii., 1860, p. 258;
xiii., 1861, p. 1; _Association Review_, ii., 1900, pp. 42, 119. In some
of these are given letters of Green appearing in the _New England
Palladium_ and _Columbian Centinel_, of Boston, and the _Medical
Repository and Review of American Publications on Medicine, Surgery and
the Auxiliary Branches of Science_, of New York. Green also published a
translation of de l'Epee's main work and extracts from his other
writings. A review of "_Vox Oculis Subjecta_" appeared in the
_Gentleman's Magazine_, Sept., 1783, and in the _Boston Magazine_, Dec.,
1784, Jan., 1785.
[168] Report of New York Institution, 1843, p. 17; _Annals_, ix., 1857,
p. 168.
[169] At this time the United States and England were at war, and
Braidwood's adventure received official notice in a permit from the
Commissary General of Prisoners to the Marshal of Virginia.
[170] Braidwood was in communication with the promoters of the schools
now being organized in Hartford and New York.
[171] On these schools, see History of Virginia School, 1893, p. 3;
Report, 1853, p. 25; Report of New York Institution, 1856, p. 17;
_Annals_, ix., 1857, p. 170; xxi., 1876, p. 130; _Association Review_,
ii., 1900, pp. 257, 385, 489; v., 1903, p. 400. In the last are given
advertisements and notices concerning the school from the Richmond
_Enquirer_, the Petersburg _Republican_, and _Niles' Weekly Register_,
of Baltimore.
[172] Among those who had given the matter thought was Dr. William
Thornton of Philadelphia, who in 1793 published "Cadmus: a Treatise on
the Elements of Written Language", there being an appendix on "A Mode of
Teaching the Deaf, or Surd, and Consequently Dumb, to Speak".
Transactions of American Philosophical Society, iii., p. 262, as cited
in _Association Review_, ii., 1900, p. 113. See also _ibid._, v., 1903,
p. 406; _Annals_, i., 1848, p. 190. He was the first writer in America
upon the education of the deaf.
[173] By some at this time there were not believed to be a sufficient
number of the deaf to justify a school, and it was due to this mainly
that the investigation was made.
[174] Funds to the amount of $2,278 were subscribed before the departure
of Gallaudet. _Association Review_, iii., 1901, p. 329.
[175] It is said that Stephen Girard declined to contribute because
Philadelphia was not chosen as the site of the school. Tribute to
Gallaudet, p. 114.
[176] _Ibid._, p. 155.
[177] This grant seems to have been used later for the benefit of
Connecticut pupils.
[178] This, however, was not the first appropriation to a benevolent
institution. The colony of Pennsylvania in 1751 had voted an
appropriation for certain of its insane in a hospital to be opened the
following year, while New York in 1806 granted $15,000 for the care of
its insane in a hospital. Virginia established its insane asylum at
Williamsburg in 1773.
[179] See Laws of Maine, 1829, p. 24.
[180] _Annals_, iv., 1851, p. 63; _National Magazine_, ix., 1856, p.
489.
[181] Tribute to Gallaudet, p. 136. This was also expressed in the
_Missionary Herald_, Sept., 1826, quoted in _American Journal of
Education_, i., 1826, p. 631. At the same time caution was advised as to
the result, as the benefit was to depend upon the sale of the land.
[182] Report of American School, 1825, p. 5; 1836, p. 22.
[183] In 1821 steps were taken to establish a school in South Carolina.
A census of the deaf children in the state was made, 29 being found. The
school here, however, was not started till some years later. See Report
of South Carolina School, 1904, p. 7. In neither the case of this state
nor that of Georgia was the number of pupils annually sent to Hartford
large, ranging from 2 to 8 in each. See Report of American School, 1835,
p. 9; Georgia School, 1874, p. 11; _American Annals of Education_, v.,
1835, p. 93. A joint school for the south-eastern states was also
contemplated at this time.
[184] There were several pupils here supported by the United States
government, who were the children of deceased veterans, the first coming
from Maryland in 1819. History of Maryland School, 1893, p. 11.
[185] Gallaudet remained at the head of the American Asylum, as it was
then called, till 1828, when he resigned. He was engaged thereafter in
various philanthropic activities, and was invited to lead in the work
for the education of the blind, towards which attention was now being
directed. Notwithstanding the impairment of his health, his different
labors were continued, not the least of which was his office as chaplain
of the Connecticut Asylum for the Insane. To Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet
America owes a rare debt. Without him the work for the deaf would have
been taken up eventually by other hands, but he brought to his task a
disregard for obstacles, a splendid idealism, a fine conception of duty,
a complete forgetfulness of self, a singular beauty of character, and a
great human love that could have existed in but few other men.
[186] There were 66 found in a very short time.
[187] Volumes iii. and iv. of the _Association Review_ (1901 and 1902)
contain most interesting accounts of these first schools, with extracts
from early reports, letters of Dr. Cogswell, Gallaudet and others;
extracts from the Hartford _Courant_ and the _Connecticut Mirror_, both
urging the importance of the school established at Hartford and the need
of contributions, and the latter (in the issue of March 24, 1817) giving
the conditions and terms of admission; also extracts from other papers,
as the Albany _Daily Advertiser_, the New York _Commercial Advertiser_,
the _General Aurora Advertiser_, _Poulson's American Daily Advocate_,
the _Christian Observer_, the _Freeman's Journal and Columbian
Chronicle_, of Philadelphia, and _Niles' Weekly Register_, of Baltimore.
See also E. M. Gallaudet, "Life of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet."
[188] Pub. Stat., ch. 24.
[189] Pupils were in time received here from all the Southern states.
History, 1893, p. 5.
[190] This was to be called "The Western Asylum for the Education of the
Deaf and Dumb". An association was formed, and the legislature was asked
to incorporate the school. In 1822 a census was taken for all the state
except two counties, when 428 deaf persons were found. The school was
not established on the ground that it was too far removed from the
center of the state. See _Annals_, v., 1853, p. 221; xxv., 1880, p. 30;
Report of Ohio School, 1876, p. 30.
[191] A school under Roman Catholic auspices was established near St.
Louis in 1837.
[192] Report of Indiana School, 1851, p. 26. See also _Annals_, vi.,
1854, p. 150. This honor is also to be shared in by the state of Ohio.
In 1844, or four years before the action of Indiana, the laws
prohibiting the trustees from receiving more than a certain number of
indigent pupils in one year at the expense of the state were repealed,
and the trustees were authorized to admit suitable pupils, as they might
deem necessary and proper. This probably had the effect of allowing all
pupils free attendance, though it remained with the trustees to decide.
The formal removal of limitations respecting indigent pupils did not
take place till 1854.
[193] A society was formed for the purpose, a charter secured from the
legislature, and Congress petitioned for land. _Annals_, xiii., 1868, p.
233.
[194] History, 1893, p. 9.
[195] In Maryland, for instance, we find an early appropriation for
those "teachable". The _American Journal of Education_ tells of the
wonder on the part of the legislators of Massachusetts when a class of
deaf-mutes was exhibited in their presence, iv., 1829, p. 78.
[196] P. 5.
[197] See Sketch of Origin and Progress of the Institution for the Deaf
and Dumb in Pennsylvania, 1821.
[198] Report, 1867, p. 12.
[199] See _Annals_, iii., 1851, p. 123, quoting from the _Boston
Congregationalist_.
[200] History, 1893, p. 3.
[201] See Report of American School, 1823, p. 5; 1824, p. 10; 1840, pp.
5, 24; New York Institution, 1829, p. 17; Pennsylvania Institution,
1839, p. 6; Illinois School, 1856, p. 10; Report of Select Committee to
Visit Pennsylvania Institution, 1838, p. 3.
[202] It is interesting to note that of the first four institutions
incorporated in New York, the purposes are thus respectively given: "to
afford the necessary means of instruction to the deaf and dumb, and also
provide for the support and maintenance of those whose parents are
unable"; "to aid and instruct the deaf and dumb"; "to instruct and
support"; and "to receive, care for, support and educate".
[203] History, 1893, p. 4. See also _Annals_, vi., 1853, p. 234.
[204] Account of Origin and Progress of the Pennsylvania Institution,
1821, pp. 4, 7. See also "Sketch of Origin and Progress," etc., 1821, p.
4; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1875, p. 22.
[205] By Silvanus Miller, 1819, p. 15.
[206] 1819, p. 31 (reprint of 1894).
[207] 1839, p. 5.
[208] 1862, p. 5.
[209] 1853, p. 20.
[210] 1848, p. 3.
[211] i., 1835, p. 136.
[212] Jan., 18, 1817. Quoted in _Association Review_, iii., 1901, p.
434.
[213] Address at Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone, 1848, p. 13.
[214] March 1, 1827. Quoted in Report of New York Institution, 1827, p.
19.
[215] By Lewis Weld, 1828, p. 3.
[216] Report of Select Committee of 18th Congress, 1st sess., upon a
Memorial to Give Land, etc., 1824, p. 12.
[217] Quoted in _American Journal of Education_, i., 1826, p. 432.
[218] 1827, p. 10.
[219] 1834, p. 5.
[220] Address of Silvanus Miller, _loc. cit._
[221] 1863, p. 17.
[222] Quoted in History, 1893, p. 6. For other accounts of the condition
of the deaf without education and the blessings to be obtained from it,
see Report of Kentucky School, 1824, p. 10; Ohio School, 1842, p. 13;
Kansas School, 1870, p. 12; History of Mississippi School, 1893, p. 3;
_Southwestern School Journal_ (Tennessee), i., 1848, p. 49; J. H. Tyler,
"Duty and Advantages of the Education of the Deaf", etc., 1843; Sermon
by John Summerfield, in behalf of the New York Institution, 1822;
Discourse of Samuel L. Mitchell, Pronounced at Request of Society for
Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, New York, 1818; Addresses of Joseph H.
Lane and Ebenezer Demorest, before Legislature of Indiana, 1851.
[223] Harvey Prindle Peet, at first Convention of American Instructors,
1850, p. 141. See also _Annals_, iii., 1850, p. 160.
[224] xxxviii., p. 357.
[225] When the accounts of brave endeavor, and the rolls of those
inflamed for human service, are finally made up, high indeed will stand
the names of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, Lewis Weld, John A. Jacobs,
Abraham B. Hutton, Harvey P. Peet, Collins Stone, Horatio N. Hubbell,
Thomas McIntyre, Luzerne Rae, Barabas M. Fay, David E. Bartlett, William
W. Turner, Newton P. Walker, Jacob Van Nostrand, William D. Kerr, and
others both of those who worked with them and who followed in their
steps.
[226] Where the institutions were under regularly chartered societies,
these dues were usually fixed at $5, with life membership at $50, though
the size of the fees varied in the different schools. In the American
School the office of vice-president was created for those paying $200.
In some of these schools the fees proved of considerable assistance.
[227] The course of provision may be illustrated in the case of the Ohio
School. In 1829, at the beginning, an indigent pupil was to be admitted
from each of the nine judicial districts of the state, "to be selected
by the board of trustees from persons recommended by the associate
judges of the counties where they reside". In 1830 the number was
increased to eighteen, in 1832 to twenty-seven, in 1834 to forty-eight,
and in 1835 to sixty. In 1844 all suitable applicants were to be
received, and in 1854 all limitations as to financial ability were
removed.
[228] In many instances the school for the deaf was the first
"benevolent" or "humane" institution created by the state.
[229] In several instances a deaf man himself came to a community and
organized a school.
[230] Mr. E. S. Tillinghast, of the Oregon School, in a letter to the
writer. See also Report of Oregon School, 1880, p. 4.
[231] On efforts to secure schools, see _Southern Literary Messenger_,
i., 1835, pp. 134, 201.
[232] It is to be noted that some of the older schools did not look with
favor upon the rapid increase in the number of the schools. The creation
of many new ones was sometimes advised against, it being declared that
the existing ones could answer for all the country, and that pupils
would gain by attending them. See Report of Pennsylvania Institution,
1830, appendix, p. 14; American School, 1824, p. 6; 1826, p. 4.
[233] In some cases pathetic appeals were made for money. See Address
before New York Forum in behalf of New York Institution, 1819; Discourse
pronounced at Request of Society for the Instruction of the Deaf and
Dumb, appendix (address to the public), 1818; Circular of President and
Directors of New York Institution, 1818; Addresses to Contributors to
the Pennsylvania Asylum, 1821; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1826,
appendix, p. 19.
[234] In New York exhibits of pupils were given in a score of cities and
towns, in a third of which there were repetitions. _Annals_, xviii.,
1873, p. 80. In Illinois there were more than two score exhibits given,
witnessed by some 50,000 persons. Report of Illinois School, 1868, p.
36.
[235] In connection with the New York Institution there was a society
called the New York Female Association, "to aid in giving support and
instruction to the indigent deaf and dumb", which lasted from 1825 to
1835. It raised in one year $1200 for "unsuccessful applicants". See
Address and Constitution, 1830; Report of New York Institution, 1826, p.
6.
[236] See Report of Mississippi School, 1872, p. 17; _Annals_, ix.,
1857, p. 178.
[237] In a few instances, as in North Carolina, the counties were
authorized to raise funds by a special tax.
[238] Aid was besought of the national government by a number of
schools. In 1826 Congress was asked for the endowment of the
institutions then in being which had not already been assisted. See
Address of Lewis Weld in the Capitol in Washington, 1828, p. 8. In 1833
the Senate passed bills granting land to the schools in New York,
Pennsylvania and Ohio, but these failed to be acted upon in the House.
Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone of Ohio Institution, 1864; Report
of Ohio School, 1869, p. 52. Later there were applications from
individual schools, most seeking grants of land. Requests came from
Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Georgia,
Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Nebraska. A township was usually desired,
though Vermont asked for 10,000 acres for the benefit of a hospital for
the insane and for the education of the deaf and blind. See Laws of
Vermont, 1851, no. 81; New Jersey, 1823, p. 124; Report of New York
Institution, 1846, p. 14; Michigan School, 1858, p. 46; History of
Wisconsin School, 1893, p. 6; Proceedings of Convention of American
Instructors, i., 1850, p. 171.
[239] In Indiana several cities made efforts to secure the school. In
Bloomington $4,000 was raised, and an offer extended of a special local
tax levy of one cent on $100 of property for its benefit. _Annals_, vi.,
1854, p. 150.
[240] Thus in Kansas the school was established on condition that 20
acres be granted for a site, and 150 for its benefit; in Minnesota that
40 acres be provided; and in Colorado that 5 be provided. In Indiana the
school was first only provisionally located by the statute.
[241] In one or two instances "contract" schools were provided for, the
managers receiving a certain amount from the state and reserving the
balance left after the payment of expenses as their compensation. This
plan, however, did not continue long, and was generally condemned. See
_Annals_, iii., 1851, p. 34.
[242] In Kentucky the school was placed under the trustees of Centre
College at Danville, and so remained for fifty years.
[243] The schools in Indiana and Tennessee were compelled for financial
reasons to close for six months, and that in Oregon for eight months,
shortly after they had been opened. Report of Tennessee School, 1847, p.
9; History of Oregon School, 1893, p. 4; _Annals_, x., 1858, p. 106. To
add to the difficulties in some instances, was the belief that not
enough deaf children could be assembled for a school.
[244] The number in the beginning at the Kentucky and Texas schools was
3, at the New York and Illinois 4, at the Indiana and Tennessee 6, at
the Hartford 7, and at the Ohio and Missouri 1.
[245] On the difficulty in getting the pupils in, see Report of Iowa
School, 1865, p. 12; 1868, p. 8; Arkansas School, 1872, p. 15; Indiana
School, 1877, p. 15; Kentucky School, 1846, p. 1; West Virginia School,
1879, p. 10; Illinois School, 1854, p. 11; Wisconsin School, 1859, p.
15; _Annals_, iv., 1852, p. 241.
[246] See Report of Michigan School, 1874, p. 43.
[247] In many of the schools there was, and still is, a formal
requirement of good character.
[248] In some of the states the pupils were long known as
"beneficiaries". The power of appointment was not infrequently vested in
the governor of the state.
[249] In Tennessee a charge was at first made for board, with the result
that no pupil appeared; and after a month or two this was removed.
Report of Tennessee School, 1845, p. 14; _Annals_, ix., 1857, p. 118.
See also Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, iii., 1853,
p. 169. As to the desirability of free transportation, see Report of
Ohio School, 1843, p. 11.
[250] At the American School a charge of $200 was laid for each pupil at
first. This was reduced after a time to $150, then to $115, then to
$100, and finally removed altogether.
[251] In Massachusetts the law for a number of years allowed no
applications under fourteen, while in Georgia the age limits for pupils
sent to Connecticut were from ten to forty. At the first Convention of
American Instructors, it was agreed that it was not expedient to receive
pupils under ten, while twelve was considered more suitable.
Proceedings, i., 1850, p. 223. On the ages of admission and attendance,
see _Annals_, v., 1852, p. 141; xviii., 1873, p. 176; Report of American
School, 1833, p. 23; Iowa School, 1865, p. 11; Indiana School, 1871, p.
19; Missouri School, 1856, p. 14; Proceedings of Conference of
Principals, i., 1868, p. 43; Documents of Senate of New York, 1838, no.
25 (Report of Secretary of State on Relation to Deaf and Dumb).
[252] How well America has performed its duty towards the deaf has been
generally recognized in other countries. In the Encyclopedia Britannica
(eleventh edition) the deaf of America are referred to as the best
educated deaf in the world. A German opinion is that "America has given
special attention to the care and education of deaf-mutes". _American
Journal of Sociology_, vii., 1902, p. 532. See also G. Ferreri,
"American Institutions for the Education of the Deaf", 1908; Education
of Deaf Children, Evidence of E. M. Gallaudet and A. G. Bell, Presented
to Royal Commission of the United Kingdom on Condition of the Blind, the
Deaf and Dumb, etc., 1892; E. M. Gallaudet, Report on Deaf-Mute
Institutions in the American Commission at the Vienna International
Exhibit, 1873, Report of United States Commissioners, 1876, ii.; J. C.
Gordon, "Notes and Observations upon the Education of Deaf Children",
1892; E. E. Allen, "Education of Defectives" in "Education in the United
States", 1900; E. G. Dexter, "History of Education in the United
States", 1906, p. 470; G. G. Smith, "Social Pathology", 1911, p. 245;
Cyclopedia of Education, 1911, p. 257; _Education_, xviii., 1898, p.
417; W. H. Addison, Report of a Visit to Some of the American Schools
for the Deaf (the Mosely Commission), 1907; _Association Review_, ii.,
1900, pp. 70, 159, 273; xi., 1909, p. 495; _Annals_, xliv., 1899, pp.
177, 342, 439; xlv., 1900, pp. 16, 126, 205, 297.