subjects where opposition of will is not supposable; for example,
logical necessity, a is b, and c is a, therefore c is b: mathematical
necessity, 2 x 2 = 4. The centre of a circle is a point equally distant
from every point in the circumference: metaphysical necessity, the
existence of a first cause, of time, of space. Edwards comprehends this
second kind of necessity under the general designation of metaphysical
or philosophical. This second kind of necessity undoubtedly is absolute.
It is impossible to conceive of these subjects differently from what
they are. We cannot conceive of no space; no time; or that 2 x 2 = 5,
and so of the rest.
Necessity under both points of view he distinguishes into particular and
general.
Relative necessity, as particular, is a necessity relative to individual
will; as general, relative to all will.
Metaphysical necessity, as particular, is a necessity irrespective of
individual will; as general, irrespective of all will.
Relative necessity is relative to the will in the connexion between
volition and its sequents. When a volition of individual will takes
place, without the sequent aimed at, because a greater force is opposed
to it, then the sequent of this greater force is necessary with a
particular relative necessity. When the greater force is greater than
all supposable will, then its sequents take place by a general relative
necessity. It is plain however, that under all supposable will, the will
of God cannot be included, as there can be no greater force than a
divine volition.
Metaphysical necessity, when particular, excludes the opposition of
individual will. Under this Edwards brings the connexion of motive and
volition. The opposition of will, he contends, is excluded from this
connexion, because will can act only by volition, and motive is the
cause of volition. Volition is necessary by a particular metaphysical
necessity, because the will of the individual cannot be opposed to it;
but not with a general metaphysical necessity, because other wills may
be opposed to it.
Metaphysical necessity, when general, excludes the opposition of all
will--even of infinite will. That 2 x 2 = 4--that the centre of a circle
is a point equally distant from every point in the circumference--the
existence of time and space--are all true and real, independently of all
will. Will hath not constituted them, nor can will destroy them. It
would imply a contradiction to suppose them different from what they
are. According to Edwards, too, the divine volitions are necessary with
a general metaphysical necessity, because, as these volitions are caused
by motives, and infinite will, as well as finite will, must act by
volitions, the opposition of infinite will itself is excluded in the
production of infinite volitions.
Now what is the simple idea of necessity contained in these two points
of view, with their two-fold distinction? _Necessity is that which is
and which cannot possibly not be, or be otherwise than it is_.
1. An event necessary by a relative particular necessity, is an event
which is and cannot possibly not be or be otherwise by the opposition of
an individual will.
2. An event necessary by a relative general necessity, is an event which
cannot possibly not be, or be otherwise by the opposition of all finite
will. In these cases, opposition of will of course is supposable.
3. An event is necessary by a metaphysical particular necessity, when it
is, and admits of no possible opposition from the individual will.
4. An event is necessary by a metaphysical general necessity, when it
is, and cannot possibly admit of opposition even from infinite will.
All this, however, in the last analysis on Edwards's system, becomes
absolute necessity. The infinite will is necessarily determined by a
metaphysical general necessity. All events are necessarily determined by
the infinite will. Hence, all events are necessarily determined by a
metaphysical general necessity. Particular and relative necessity are
merely the absolute and general necessity viewed in the particular
individual and relation:--the terms characterize only the manner of our
view. The opposition of the particular will being predetermined by the
infinite will, which comprehends all, is to the precise limit of its
force absolutely necessary; and the opposite force which overcomes the
opposition of the particular will, produces its phenomena necessarily
not only in reference to the particular will, but also in reference to
the infinite will which necessarily pre-determines it.
Having thus settled the definition of necessity, and that too, on
Edwards's own grounds, we are next to inquire, what is the opposite idea
of contingency, and whether it has place as a rational idea?
Necessity is that which is, and which cannot possibly not be, or be
otherwise than it is. Contingency then, as the opposite idea, must be
_that which is, or may be, and which possibly might not be, or might be
otherwise than it is_. Now, contingency cannot have place with respect
to anything which is independent of will;--time and space;--mathematical
and metaphysical truths, for example, that all right angles are equal,
that every phenomenon supposes a cause, cannot be contingent, for they
are seen to be real and true in themselves. They do not arise from will,
nor is it conceivable that will can alter them, for it is not
conceivable that they admit of change from any source. If the idea of
contingency have place as a rational idea, it must be with respect to
causes, being, and phenomena, which depend upon will. The whole creation
is the effect of divine volition. "God said, let there be light, and
there was light:" thus did the whole creation come to be.
Now every one will grant, that the creation does not seem necessary as
time and space; and intuitive truths with their logical deductions, seem
necessary. We cannot conceive of these as having not been, or as ceasing
to be; but we can conceive of the creation as not having been, and as
ceasing to be. No space is an impossible conception; but no body, or
void space, is a possible conception; and as the existence of body may
be annihilated in thought, so, likewise, the particular forms and
relations of body may be modified in thought, indefinitely, different
from their actual form. Now, if we wish to express in one word this
difference between space and body, or in general this difference between
that which exists independently of will, and that which exists purely as
the effect of will, we call the first necessary; the second, contingent.
The first we cannot conceive to be different from what it is. The second
we can conceive to be different from what it is. What is true of the
creation considered as a collection of beings and things, is true
likewise of all the events taking place in this creation. All these
events are either directly or mediately the effects of will, divine or
human. Now we can conceive of these as not being at all, or as being
modified indefinitely, different from what they are;--and under this
conception we call them contingent.
No one I think will deny that we do as just represented, conceive of the
possibility of the events and creations of will, either as having no
being, or as being different from what they are. This conception is
common to all men. What is the meaning of this conception? Is it a
chimera? It must be a chimera, if the system of Edwards be true; for
according to this, there really is no possibility that any event of will
might have had no being at all, or might have been different from what
it is. Will is determined by motives antecedent to itself. And this
applies to the divine will, likewise, which is determined by an infinite
and necessary wisdom. The conception, therefore, of the possibility of
that which is, being different from what it is, must on this system be
chimerical. But although the system would force us to this conclusion,
the conception still reigns in our minds, and does not _seem_ to us
chimerical;--the deduction from the system strangely conflicts with our
natural and spontaneous judgements. There are few men who would not be
startled by the dogma that all things and all events, even the
constantly occuring volitions of their minds, are absolutely necessary,
as necessary as a metaphysical axiom or a mathematical truth,--necessary
with a necessity which leaves no possibility of their being otherwise
than they actually are. There are few perhaps of the theological
abettors of Edwards's system, who would not also be startled by it. I
suppose that these would generally attempt to evade the broad
conclusion, by contending that the universal necessity here represented,
being merely a metaphysical necessity, does not affect the sequents of
volition; that if a man can do as he pleases, he has a natural liberty
and ability which relieves him from the chain of metaphysical necessity.
I have already shown how utterly futile this attempted distinction
is--how completely the metaphysical necessity embraces the so called
natural liberty and ability. If nothing better than this can be resorted
to, then we have no alternative left but to exclaim with Shelley,
"Necessity, thou mother of the world!" But why the reluctance to escape
from this universal necessity? Do the abettors of this system admit that
there is something opposed to necessity? But what is this something
opposed to necessity? Do they affirm that choice is opposed to
necessity? But how opposed--is choice contingent? Do they admit the
possibility that any choice which is, might not have been at all, or
might have been different from what it is?
We surely do not distinguish choice from necessity by merely calling it
choice, or an act of the will. If will is not necessitated, we wish to
know under what condition it exists. Volition is plainly under necessity
on Edwards's system, just as every other event is under necessity. And
the connexion between volition and its sequents is just as necessary as
the connexion between volition and its motives. Explain,--why do you
endeavour to evade the conclusion of this system when you come to
volition? why do you claim liberty here? Do _you_ likewise have a
natural and spontaneous judgement against a necessitated will? It is
evident that while Edwards and his followers embrace the doctrine of
necessity in its cardinal principles, they shrink from its application
to will. They first establish the doctrine of necessity universally and
absolutely, and then claim for will an exception from the general
law,--not by logically and psychologically pointing out the grounds and
nature of the exception, but by simply appealing to the spontaneous and
natural judgements of men, that they are free when they do as they
please: but no definition of freedom is given which distinguishes it
from necessity;--nor is the natural and spontaneous judgement against
necessity of volition explained and shown not be a mere illusion.
There is an idea opposed to necessity, says this spontaneous
judgement--and the will comes under the idea opposed to necessity. But
what is this idea opposed to necessity, and how does the will come under
it? Edwards and his followers have not answered these questions--their
attempt at a solution is self-contradictory and void.
Is there any other idea opposed to necessity than that of contingency,
viz.--that which is or may be, and possibly might not be, or might be
otherwise than it is? That 2 x 2 = 4 is a truth which cannot possibly
not be, or be otherwise than it is. But this book which I hold in my
hand, I can conceive of as not being at all, or being different from
what it is, without implying any contradiction, according to this
spontaneous judgement.
The distinction between right and wrong, I cannot conceive of as not
existing, or as being altered so as to transpose the terms, making that
right which now is wrong, and that wrong which now is right. But the
volition which I now put forth to move this pen over the paper, I can
conceive of as not existing, or as existing under a different mode, as a
volition to write words different from those which I am writing. That
this idea of contingency is not chimerical, seems settled by this, that
all men naturally have it, and entertain it as a most rational idea.
Indeed even those who hold the doctrine of necessity, do either adopt
this idea in relation to will by a self-contradiction, and under a false
position, as the abettors of the scheme which I am opposing for example,
or in the ordinary conduct of life, they act upon it. All the
institutions of society, all government and law, all our feelings of
remorse and compunction, all praise and blame, and all language itself,
seem based upon it. The idea of contingency as above explained, is
somehow connected with will, and all the creations and changes arising
from _will_.
That the will actually does come under this idea of contingency, must be
shown psychologically if shown at all. An investigation to this effect
must be reserved therefore for another occasion. In this place, I shall
simply inquire, how the will may be conceived as coming under the idea
of contingency?
The contingency of any phenomenon or event must depend upon the nature
of its cause. A contingent phenomenon or event is one which may be
conceived of, as one that might not have been at all, or might have been
different from what it is; but wherein lies the possibility that it
might not have been at all, or might have been different from what it
is? This possibility cannot lie in itself, for an effect can determine
nothing in relation to its own existence. Neither can it lie in anything
which is not its cause, for this can determine nothing in relation to
its existence. The cause therefore which actually gives it existence,
and existence under its particular form, can alone contain the
possibility of its not having existed at all, or of its having existed
under a different form. But what is the nature of such a cause? It is a
cause which in determining a particular event, has at the very moment of
doing so, the power of determining an opposite event. It is a cause not
chained to any class of effects by its correlation to a certain class of
objects--as fire, for example, is chained to combustion by its
correlation to a certain class of objects which we thence call
combustibles. It is a cause which must have this peculiarity in
opposition to all other causes, that it forbears of itself to produce an
effect which it may produce, and of any given number of effects alike
within its power, it may take any one of them in opposition to all the
others; and at the very moment it takes one effect, it has the power of
taking any other. It is a cause contingent and not necessitated. The
contingency of the event, therefore, arises from the contingency of the
cause. Now every cause must be a necessary or not necessary cause. A
necessary cause is one which cannot be conceived of as having power to
act differently from its actual developements--fire must
burn--gravitation must draw bodies towards the earth's centre. If there
be any cause opposed to this, it can be only the contingent cause above
defined, for there is no third conception. We must choose therefore
between a universal and absolute necessity, and the existence of
contingent causes. If we take necessity to be universal and absolute,
then we must take all the consequences, likewise, as deduced in part II.
There is no possible escape from this. As then all causes must be either
necessary or contingent, we bring will under the idea of contingency, by
regarding it as a contingent cause--"a power to do, or not to
do,"[5]--or a faculty of determining "to do, or not to do something
which we conceive to be in our power."[6]
We may here inquire wherein lies the necessity of a cause opposed to a
contingent cause? Its necessity lies in its nature, also. What is this
nature? It is a nature in fixed correlation with certain objects, so
that it is inconceivable that its phenomena might be different from
those which long and established observation have assigned to it. It is
inconceivable that fire might not burn when thrown amid combustibles; it
is inconceivable that water might not freeze at the freezing
temperature. But is this necessity a necessity _per se_, or a determined
necessity? It is a determined necessity--determined by the creative
will. If the creative will be under the law of necessity, then of course
every cause determined by will becomes an absolute necessity.
The only necessity _per se_ is found in that infinite and necessary
wisdom in which Edwards places the determining motives of the divine
will. All intuitive truths and their logical deductions are necessary
_per se_. But the divine will is necessary with a determined necessity
on Edwards's system,--and so of all other wills and all other causes,
dependent upon will--the divine will being the first will determined. We
must recollect, however, that on Edwards's theory of causation, a cause
is always determined out of itself; and that consequently there can be
no cause necessary _per se_; and yet at the same time there is by this
theory, an absolute necessity throughout all causality.
Now let us consider the result of making will a contingent cause. In the
first place, we have the divine will as the first and supreme contingent
cause. Then consequently in the second place, all causes ordained by the
divine will, considered as effects, are contingent. They might not have
been. They might cease to be. They might be different from what they
are. But in the third place, these causes considered as causes, are not
all contingent. Only will is contingent. Physical causes are necessary
with a determined necessity. They are necessary as fixed by the divine
will. They are necessary with a relative necessity--relatively to the
divine will. They put forth their _nisus_, and produce phenomena by a
fixed and invariable law, established by the divine will. But will is of
the nature, being made after the image of the divine will. The divine
will is infinite power, and can do everything possible to cause. The
created will is finite power, and can do only what is within its given
capacity. Its volitions or its efforts, or its _nisus_ to do, are
limited only by the extent of its intelligence. It may make an effort,
or volition, or _nisus_, to do anything of which it can conceive--but
the actual production of phenomena out of itself, must depend upon the
instrumental and physical connexion which the divine will has
established between it and the world, external to itself. Of all the
volitions or _nisus_ within its capacity, it is not necessitated to any
one, but may make any one, at any time; and at the time it makes any one
_nisus_ or volition, it has the power of making any other.
It is plain, moreover, that will is efficient, essential, and first
cause. Whatever other causes exist, are determined and fixed by will,
and are therefore properly called secondary or instrumental causes. And
as we ourselves are will, we must first of all, and most naturally and
most truly gain our idea of cause from ourselves. We cannot penetrate
these second causes--we observe only their phenomena; but we know
ourselves in the very first _nisus_ of causation.
To reason therefore from these secondary causes to ourselves, is indeed
reversing the natural and true order on this subject. Now what is the
ground of all this clamour against contingency? Do you say it represents
phenomena as existing without cause? We deny it. We oppose contingency
not to cause, but to necessity. Do you say it is contrary to the
phenomena of physical causation,--we reply that you have no right to
reason from physical causes to that cause which is yourself. For in
general you have no right to reason from the laws and properties of
matter to those of mind. Do you affirm that contingency is an absurd and
pernicious doctrine--then turn and look at the doctrine of an absolute
necessity in all its bearings and consequences, and where lies the
balance of absurdity and pernicious consequences? But we deny that there
is anything absurd and pernicious in contingency as above explained.
That it is not pernicious, but that on the contrary, it is the basis of
moral and religious responsibility, will clearly appear in the course of
our inquiries.
After what has already been said in the preceding pages, it perhaps is
unnecessary to make any further reply to its alleged absurdity.
There is one form under which this allegation comes up, however, which
is at first sight so plausible, that I shall be pardoned for prolonging
this discussion in order to dispose of it. It is as follows: That in
assigning contingency to will, we do not account for a volition being in
one direction rather than in another. The will, it is urged, under the
idea of contingency, is indifferent to any particular volition. How then
can we explain the fact that it does pass out of this state of
indifferency to a choice or volition?
In answer to this, I remark:--It has already been made clear, that
selection and particular determination belong to every cause. In
physical causes, this selection and particular determination lies in the
correlation of the nature of the cause with certain objects; and this
selection and particular determination are necessary by a necessity
determined out of the cause itself--that is, they are determined by the
creative will, which gave origin to the physical and secondary causes.
Now Edwards affirms that the particular selection and determination of
will take place in the same way. The nature of the will is correlated to
certain objects, and this nature, being fixed by the creative will,
which gave origin to the secondary dependent will, the selection and
particular determination of will, is necessary with a necessity
determined out of itself. But to a necessitated will, we have nothing to
oppose except a will whose volitions are not determined by the
correlation of its nature with certain objects--a will, indeed, which
has not its nature correlated to any objects, but a will indifferent;
for if its nature were correlated to objects, its particular selection
and determination would be influenced by this, and consequently its
action would become necessary, and that too by a necessity out of
itself; and fixed by the infinite will. In order to escape an absolute
and universal necessity, therefore, we must conceive of a will forming
volitions particular and determinate, or in other words, making a
_nisus_ towards particular objects, without any correlation of its
nature with the objects. Is this conception a possible and rational
conception? It is not a possible conception if will and the sensitivity,
or the affections are identical--for the very definition of will then
becomes that of a power in correlation with objects, and necessarily
affected by them.
But now let us conceive of the will as simply and purely an activity or
cause, and distinct from the sensitivity or affections--a cause capable
of producing changes or phenomena in relation to a great variety of
objects, and conscious that it is thus capable, but conscious also that
it is not drawn by any necessary affinity to any one of them. Is this a
possible and rational conception? It is indeed the conception of a cause
different from all other causes; and on this conception there are but
two _kinds_ of causes. The physical, which are necessarily determined by
the correlation of their nature with certain objects, and will, which is
a pure activity not thus determined, and therefore not necessitated, but
contingent.
Now I may take this as a rational conception, unless its palpable
absurdity can be pointed out, or it can be proved to involve some
contradiction.