IN LOWER EGYPT.
Whilst wars and rumours of wars prevailed on her frontiers, Egypt,
internally, was enjoying peace and prosperity.
So completely tranquil was the condition of the country in January,
1887, that a considerable reduction in the strength of the Army of
Occupation was decided on. This was effected gradually until the whole
force numbered only 3,500 men. This had a double advantage. It not only
set free the troops for service elsewhere, but it relieved Egypt from
the burden of contributing to their support.[149]
The financial tension having been relieved by the London Convention of
1885, various reforms were taken in hand, and made steady, if not rapid,
progress.
Amongst them the use of the "courbache" was abolished, and in criminal
cases the punishment of imprisonment substituted--a humane and
beneficent change, which nevertheless added to the difficulty of
collecting the revenue, and led to a considerable increase of crime.
The Khedive, Tewfik Pasha, was himself a moderate but sincere reformer.
He quite realized that the state of things which under Ismail's rule had
brought the country to the verge of ruin could not be continued, and
gave a loyal support to his European advisers. His Prime Minister, Nubar
Pasha, who had replaced Cherif in January, 1884, when the latter could
not be brought to accept British advice with regard to the abandonment
of the Soudan, was not unfavourable to the English, and for some time
found himself able to work in harmony with the various British officials
who were now introduced into the Government service.
Unfortunately certain elements existed which were certain to produce
friction sooner or later. Nubar Pasha was a statesman of too much
ability and with too important a history to be able for any great
length of time to quietly sit down and play a secondary part. Hence he
gradually grew restive under the advice which England from time to time
felt bound to tender to him. He fell out first with Sir Colin Scott
Moncrieff, the head of the Irrigation Department, then with Sir Edgar
Vincent, the financial adviser, and finally with Sir Evelyn Baring
himself.
In June, 1888, Nubar was dismissed on a personal question which arose
between him and the Khedive, and replaced by Riaz Pasha, who had been
sulking in retirement ever since he was denied the pleasure of hanging
Arabi in 1882.
Under Riaz's administration the work of reform continued. More
particularly was this the case in the departments relating to finance
and irrigation. Sir Edgar Vincent conferred a great benefit on the
population by substituting a simple and convenient currency for the
chaos of coins of all metals and all currencies which had for many years
been in circulation.[150]
Extensive changes were introduced in the matter of irrigation. The work
upon the "Barrage," which regulates the water supply of the Delta, was
completed in 1890. A proper system of inspection was established, and
the native cultivator was no longer compelled to rely upon the goodwill
of a corrupt Egyptian engineer for the water for his lands.
The result was that increased areas of land were brought into
cultivation, and the cotton crop in 1890-91 was nearly double that of
the average for previous years.
The abolition of the ruinous system of forced labour for the execution
of public works, begun in the days of Nubar, was completed during Riaz's
term of office, notwithstanding the persistent obstacles put in the way
by France. In 1890 the Egyptian finances had made such a recovery, and
Egyptian stock stood so high, that it was found possible to convert the
Privileged Debt and to reduce the interest from 5 to 3-1/2 per cent. The
net result of this and of the conversion of the Daira Loan was to
relieve the Budget by £E.314,000 a year.
The English, whilst all these improvements were being made, had not
become more popular in Egypt, but their presence began to be tolerated
by the natives, who could not but see, though they would not
acknowledge, the benefits which it secured to them.[151]
In the civil service the Egyptian functionaries commenced to know their
British teachers, and to learn that as long as the former did their duty
they would be supported against the tyranny or caprice of their official
chiefs, and a feeling of security such as had never been known before
was the result.
In 1889 the question of reforming the native courts of justice had been
considered. Sir Evelyn Baring's proposal was to strengthen them by
increasing the number of European judges. Riaz, on the contrary, was not
too favourable to the appointment of foreigners, but he had to give way,
and in November, 1889, two additional Englishmen had been nominated to
the Court of Appeal, making in all three English and three Belgian
judges. This, however, did not effect all that was required, and in the
spring of 1890 Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Scott, a judge of the High
Court of Bombay, with extensive Indian as well as Egyptian experience,
was appointed temporary "judicial adviser" to the Government. Scott drew
up a report, pointing out the defects of the existing system, and, above
all, the necessity for a further improvement in the _personnel_ of the
courts. Riaz Pasha strenuously opposed this, and his nominee Fakri
Pasha, Minister of Justice, wrote a counter-report, condemning all the
changes which Scott had recommended. Sir Evelyn Baring promptly
recognized which side was in the right, and that the question was
whether there was to be a reform or not. Scott's proposals were
accepted, and his appointment was made permanent, so as to enable him to
superintend the carrying of them into execution. Riaz Pasha had to
accept the inevitable, which he did with a bad grace, and in May, 1891,
he resigned.
Riaz was succeeded by Mustapha Pasha Fehmi, the present Prime Minister,
the first Egyptian Premier really in sympathy with the English, with
whom he from the first has cordially co-operated. So effectual had been
the changes made in the administration of the finances, that,
notwithstanding a considerable remission of the land tax, the revenue
of the country had risen from £E.9,574,000 in 1886, the first year in
which the benefit of "The London Convention" had been felt, to
£E.10,539,460[152] in 1891, with a large surplus over expenditure, and
besides this reserve funds amounting to £E.2,811,000 had been created.
Progress was also made in the work of putting down the slave trade, and
in 1891 Sir Evelyn Baring was able to write that the traffic was
practically extinguished. As a commentary upon this it may be mentioned
that a few months later no less a personage than Ali Pasha Cherif, a
large landed proprietor and the President of the National Assembly, was
convicted in the native courts of law of, and sentenced to imprisonment
for, being personally concerned in the purchase of slaves for his
household.
Whilst events in Egypt were thus progressing the country sustained a
severe loss in the death of the Khedive, Tewfik Pasha, which took place
after a short illness at Helouan, on the 7th January, 1892. His
Highness' eldest son, Prince Abbas Pasha Hilmy, the present Khedive,
then seventeen years of age, succeeded to the throne of Egypt in virtue
of the Imperial Firman of the 8th June, 1873.
Upon the new Khedive's arrival from Vienna, where he was completing his
studies, he received a warm welcome, and by his subsequent acts created
an excellent impression on all classes of society.
He at once confirmed the former Ministers in power and lent his aid to
the work of reform.
Although on the death of Tewfik the new Khedive was _de jure_ as well as
_de facto_ the ruler of Egypt, his recognition by an Imperial Firman
from the Porte was a formality which nevertheless had to be observed.
The preparation of this important document was known to have been
completed at Constantinople, and an envoy was told off to bring it to
Egypt. Still for some time it did not come. To do honour to the occasion
a division of the British Mediterranean fleet was despatched to
Alexandria. It did not, however, please the Sultan that his envoy should
be thus received, and the official's departure from time to time was
postponed. Then began a little game of "hide and seek." It was given out
that the Firman would not be sent until after the approaching fast of
"Ramadan," and the British Admiral, as if tired of waiting, withdrew his
ships and put to sea. No sooner was this known to the Sultan than the
Imperial yacht conveying the envoy was despatched in hot haste to Egypt.
The Admiral, however, was not to be baffled. He had only steamed a
hundred miles or so from land, and, with his ships in extended order,
awaited the return of a fast vessel which he sent to Suda Bay for news.
On her return with intelligence that the envoy had started, the fleet
steamed slowly back to the coast of Egypt, where, on the arrival of the
Turkish yacht, the stately ironclads, after saluting, formed in two
lines dressed in colours, and escorted her into the harbour of
Alexandria.
When the Firman reached Cairo it somehow leaked out that it differed in
important particulars from what it ought to have been, and before the
precious document, for which £E.6,000 was paid, was read on 14th April,
the mistake had to be put right by telegraphic communication with the
Porte.
In June, 1892, the great services rendered by Sir Evelyn Baring
in connection with Egypt received their recognition in the shape
of a peerage which was conferred on the distinguished Minister
Plenipotentiary and diplomatic agent for Great Britain in Cairo. Honours
were never better deserved. Writing of Lord Cromer, as the new peer must
henceforth be called, an eminent author (Sir Alfred Milner), more than
once quoted in this book, says:--
"It would be difficult to overestimate what the work of England
in Egypt owes to the sagacity, fortitude, and patience of the
British Minister. His mental and moral equipment, very
remarkable in any case, was peculiarly suited to the very
peculiar circumstances in which he found himself placed. Perhaps
the most striking feature about him has been a singular
combination of strength and forbearance. And he needed both
these qualities in an exceptional degree. On one side of him
were the English officials, zealous about their work, fretting
at the obstruction which met them at every turn; on the other
side were the native authorities, new to our methods, hating to
be driven, and keen to resent the appearance of English
diplomatic pressure. The former were often inclined to grumble
with him for interfering too little; the latter were no less
prone to complain of his interfering too much. What a task was
his to steer an even keel between meddlesomeness and inactivity!
Yet how seldom has he failed to hit the right mean. Slowly but
surely he has carried his main points, and he has carried them
without needlessly overriding native authority or pushing his
own personality into the foreground. He has realized that the
essence of our policy is to help the Egyptians to work out as
far as possible their own salvation.... The contrast between
Egypt of to-day and Egypt as he found it, the enhanced
reputation of England in matters Egyptian, are the measure of
the signal services he has rendered alike to his own country and
to the country where he has laid the foundations of a lasting
fame."
In January, 1893, an incident occurred in Cairo which attracted an
amount of attention somewhat out of proportion to its real importance.
The Prime Minister, Mustapha Pasha Fehmi, became so ill that his life
was despaired of. The Khedive thereupon informed Lord Cromer of his
desire to appoint another Egyptian statesman, Tigrane Pasha, in
Mustapha's place. This was discouraged by the British representative on
the ground that Tigrane was a Christian. The next thing was that the
Khedive summarily dismissed Mustapha and three of his colleagues, and
nominated Fakri Pasha, the late Minister of Justice, as Premier. Fakri
had been dismissed shortly before, on Lord Cromer's suggestion, on
account of his opposition to judicial reform. At the same time Lord
Cromer was informed that what was taking place was to be followed by a
wholesale dismissal of English officials, a report, however, which the
Khedive has always denied. On the matter being telegraphed to Lord
Rosebery, then British Foreign Secretary, his Lordship took the matter
seriously and directed Lord Cromer to protest, and to inform the Khedive
that Her Majesty's Government expected to be consulted in such matters
as a change of ministry, and that the appointment of Fakri could not be
sanctioned. The Khedive, on this being pointed out to him, consented to
cancel the appointment objected to, and to nominate Riaz Pasha as the
substitute to Mustapha, which was accepted. The Khedive's nominations to
the other vacant posts were not found fault with, and there the matter
would have ended had not symptoms of an apparent anti-English feeling
shown themselves in the capital, and in the tone of the native press
generally. In consequence of this, it was determined to strengthen the
Army of Occupation, then numbering only 3,000 men, by two additional
battalions, which were promptly despatched to Egypt.
The amusing part of the incident was the interview which took place
between Lord Rosebery and the French Ambassador on the 18th January,
when the latter stated that he had called to protest against what he
termed a high-handed proceeding which had occurred in Egypt. Lord
Rosebery replied that he quite recognized that there was some
high-handedness. It then turned out that they were not talking about the
same thing, one referring to the action of Lord Cromer, and the other to
that of the Khedive. On matters being explained, Lord Rosebery scored
off the Ambassador by saying that he was at a loss to understand the
latter's meaning, as he could hardly call Lord Cromer's making a protest
a "high-handed proceeding," seeing that that was the express object for
which the Ambassador had sought the present interview.
The serious part of the incident was the view which the British
Government took of it. Lord Rosebery, in a despatch dated the 16th
February, declared that 'if the Prime Minister and the heads of other
important departments were to be summarily dismissed in disregard of
British advice, there was nothing to prevent the dismissal of any other
functionaries, European or native, who might not have the good fortune
to fall in with the tendencies of the moment, or whose prominence might
afford a favourable opportunity for the display of autocratic power. It
was not too much to say that, under these circumstances, the whole
fabric so laboriously built up during the last ten years would have been
at the mercy of caprice or intrigue, and would rapidly and necessarily
have crumbled away.'
Riaz Pasha on his return to power showed himself anything but disposed
to work well with the Khedive's English advisers. His policy took the
form of stubborn opposition rather than active resistance, and it
required all the firmness and tact of Lord Cromer to keep things in the
right path. With the promotion of Maher Pasha to the post of
Under-Secretary at War, attempts were made to interfere with the
authority of the Sirdar in matters relating to the army, and hardly were
these defeated than the further difficulty known as the "frontier
incident" occurred.
The Khedive on his visit to Wady Halfa in January, 1894, made some
observations on the army which were taken by the British officers as a
slight upon them, and the Sirdar, General Kitchener, in consequence,
resigned. He, however, withdrew his resignation almost immediately
after, at the request of the Khedive. The matter was regarded by the
British Government as an attempt to discredit the English officers, and
to undermine their authority with the troops, and Lord Cromer was
instructed to ask that a general order should be issued expressing the
Khedive's satisfaction with the army, and the officers generally, and
also that Maher Pasha should be removed. Both these requirements were
complied with and the incident was closed.
Riaz Pasha shortly after resigned, and Nubar again returned to power.
Under his advice the relations of the Khedive with the British
Government became more cordial, and no further "incidents" such as those
above recorded took place.