_Papaveraceæ_); and although these are generally easily distinguished,
even by the tyro, from the flowers of other orders, we think it
advisable to call attention to the leading features of the group. These
plants have a milky sap, and leaves without stipules. Their flowers are
large, regular, on long stalks, and droop when in the bud. There are
only two sepals, and they generally drop very early. The petals, four in
number, are very thin and delicate, crumpled in the bud; and the stamens
are numerous. The ovary is peculiar, consisting of one cell that is
partially divided by a number of membranes (_placentas_) which pass from
the wall towards the centre. It is surmounted by a disc on which are
several radiating stigmas, corresponding in number with the membranes
within. The fruit opens when ripe by the formation of pores just under
the edge of the disc.
The most abundant species is undoubtedly the Common Red Poppy (_Papaver
Rhæas_), which is to be found in almost every corn-field, as well as in
other fields and waste places in cultivated districts, flowering from
May to July. It is from one to two feet high, covered with rather stiff
spreading hairs; and its leaves are pinnately divided into narrow,
pointed lobes which are themselves more or less cut. The beautiful, rich
scarlet flowers are about three inches in diameter, often with a black
patch at the base of each petal, and are solitary on long peduncles that
are covered with hairs. The fruit is almost globular, tapering towards
the bottom; and on its disc are from eight to twelve radiating stigmas.
The Long-headed Poppy (_P. dubium_) is a very similar plant, but is
generally rather more slender, with hairs that do not spread so much;
and its leaves are often more deeply cut into narrower lobes. Its
flowers are a little smaller, with two opposite petals larger than the
other two; and the hairs of the peduncles lie close against the surface.
The fruit is oblong, tapering towards the bottom, the length being
nearly three times the greatest width. This poppy also flowers from May
to July. It is represented in Fig. 1. of Plate VII.
A third species--the Long Prickly-headed Poppy (_P. Argemone_), also
known as the Pale Poppy, is a small, weak plant, seldom exceeding nine
inches in height, with leaves divided into a few narrow segments. The
flowers are of a pale red colour, usually less than two inches in
diameter; and, like those of the commonest species, have usually a dark
patch at the base of each petal. The fruit is narrow-oblong, tapering
below, in fact, almost club-shaped, and is clothed with a few stiff,
bristly hairs. The time of flowering is the same as that of the
preceding species.
[Illustration: THE COMMON RED POPPY.]
In the corn-fields of several parts of England we may meet with the
White or Opium Poppy (_P. somniferum_) which is largely grown in warmer
countries for the opium it produces, and which was probably introduced
into Britain from the Mediterranean region. It is generally about two
feet in height, and quite smooth with the exception of a few spreading,
stiff hairs on the flower stalks. The whole plant is of a glaucous green
colour. The flowers are large, generally of a bluish white colour, often
with a purple patch at the base of each petal; and the fruit is large,
globular and smooth. This species flowers from June to August.
[Illustration: THE WHITE OR OPIUM POPPY.]
The pretty little Fumitory (_Fumaria officinalis_--order _Fumariaceæ_)
is abundant in most of the cornfields and other cultivated places of
most parts of Britain, flowering from June to September. It is a very
variable plant, quite smooth, and of a delicate, pale green colour. Its
stem varies from six inches to over two feet in length, sometimes erect,
with spreading branches, but often climbing among the neighbouring
vegetation, supported by the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are
pinnately divided into stalked leaflets which are further cut into
three-lobed segments; and the flowers are in racemes that are either
terminal or opposite the leaves. At first the racemes are short, but
they lengthen out considerably as upper flowers open and the lower ones
fruit. Each flower has a short pedicel that arises from the axil of a
whitish or coloured bract; and the two small sepals are either white or
coloured like the bracts. The corolla is oblong, tubular, formed of four
petals in two pairs, with a short, blunt spur at the base; and its
colour is very variable--usually cream-coloured or pink, and often
tipped with crimson.
Some of the Mustards are very common weeds in corn-fields. They belong
to the genus _Brassica_, of the order _Cruciferæ_, and are distinguished
by their long siliquas, almost cylindrical in form, terminating in a
'beak' which is formed entirely of the persistent style, or of this
together with a modified portion of the fruit containing one or more
seeds.
One of the commonest of these is the Wild Mustard or Charlock (_Brassica
arvensis_ or _B. Sinapis_), a very abundant weed in most cultivated
fields, probably introduced originally from South Europe. It is a very
coarse plant, with scattered, bristly, spreading hairs, growing from one
to two feet high, and bearing racemes of yellow flowers that generally
exceed a diameter of half an inch. The leaves are ovate, with short,
stiff hairs; all are pinnately lobed, and the lower ones have generally
a large oval lobe, with coarsely-toothed segments, and a few narrower
segments along the stalk. The fruits are spreading, many-angled pods,
usually about an inch in length, constricted between the seeds when
ripe, with a beak about a third the length of the whole pod enclosing a
single seed at its base. The plant flowers from May to August.
The White Mustard (_Brassica alba_ or _Sinapis alba_) is not so common;
but it is somewhat largely cultivated for its seedlings, which are used,
with those of cress, as salad; and the plant is not unfrequently found
as a weed in corn-fields and on other cultivated ground. The whole plant
is clothed with rather stiff hairs that are directed downwards, and its
height varies from one to two feet. Its leaves are pinnately divided
into ovate, coarsely-toothed segments, the terminal one largest. The
flowers are bright yellow, about half an inch in diameter, in racemes.
The pods are usually near an inch long, on spreading stalks; with a
stout, flattened beak, longer than the pod itself, containing a single
seed. They are constricted between the seeds, and both valves and beak
are clothed with stiff, whitish hairs. The plant flowers during June and
July.
[Illustration: THE FUMITORY.]
A third member of the same genus--the Black Mustard (_Brassica nigra_ or
_Sinapis nigra_)--is also cultivated for its seeds, which are used in
the preparation of table mustard, and it is also a moderately common
weed of cultivation in many parts. It is a hairy plant, from one to
three feet high. Its lower leaves are rough, and deeply divided into a
large terminal and small lateral lobes; and the upper ones are small,
very narrow, smooth and undivided. The flowers are yellow, usually less
than half an inch across, in long, narrow racemes; and the
shortly-stalked pods are four-angled, smooth, and about half an inch
long. They do not spread much, and the short beak consists only of the
narrow style. This species flowers from June to August.
[Illustration: THE BLACK MUSTARD.]
The Wild Radish or White Charlock (_Raphanus Raphanistrum_) is a common
corn-field weed, somewhat resembling the mustards just described in
general appearance, but its pods are distinctly constricted between the
seeds, and often split when ripe into from three to seven one-seeded
joints. The plant is bristly, and grows from one to two feet high,
flowering from May to September. The petals are either white with
purplish veins, or pale yellow, or lilac; and the pods, over an inch
long, are tipped by the conical style, which is about twice as long as
the last joint.
Coming now to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note the pretty Corn
Cockle (_Lychnis Githago_), which is commonly seen in the midst of the
corn, often growing so tall that its pale purple flowers peep above the
ears. Its stem is clothed with long, soft, white hairs; and the leaves
are all long, narrow and entire. The flowers, which appear during July
and August, are usually over an inch in diameter, and are solitary on
long, leafless peduncles. This flower appears on Plate VII.
[Illustration: THE CORN SPURREY.]
The same order includes the Corn Spurrey (_Spergula arvensis_), a low,
procumbent plant, with small, white flowers that bloom from June to
August. Its slender stem varies from six to eighteen inches long, and
the narrow, whorled leaves from one to two inches. The flowers are only
a quarter of an inch in diameter, with sepals usually a little shorter
than the petals.
In the order _Linaceæ_ we have the Common Flax or Linseed (_Linum
usitatissimum_), which is cultivated in some districts, and often
appears as a weed in fields. It is an erect, smooth plant, with a
slender stem about a foot high, and very narrow, entire, acute leaves,
about an inch long. The flowers are in a loose, terminal corymb, and
have five acute sepals; five bright blue petals over half an inch long,
which fall early; five perfect and five imperfect stamens; and an ovary
with five styles. It flowers during July. (See Plate VII.)
The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb (_Scandix Pecten-Veneris_) of the
order _Umbelliferæ_ derives its name from the long, flat, needle-like
beaks of the fruits that are placed almost parallel like the teeth of a
coarse comb. The plant is erect, branched, from three to twelve inches
high; and the general character of its leaves and inflorescence may be
gathered from our illustration. The flowers are small, white, with
larger outer petals; and the carpels of the fruit are cylindrical, about
a third of an inch long, with beaks about an inch and a half. The plant
flowers from June to September.
[Illustration: THE SHEPHERD'S NEEDLE OR VENUS'S COMB.]
Of the order _Rubiaceæ_ we shall include the common Field Madder
(_Sherardia arvensis_), a little plant, varying from five to ten inches
high, the minute lilac flowers of which may be seen from April to
October. Its branched stems are often decumbent; and the little, narrow,
sharply-pointed leaves, rough on the edges, are placed in whorls of from
four to six. The umbels are very small, terminal, and surrounded by a
leafy involucre that is divided into several lobes longer than the
flowers. The corolla consists of an exceedingly slender tube, at the top
of which are four spreading lobes; and the fruit is crowned by the five
or six teeth of the calyx, which enlarges as the former ripens.
The Field Knautia or Field Scabious (_Knautia arvensis_ or _Scabiosa
arvensis_), shown on Plate VII, is very common on cultivated
ground, particularly in corn-growing districts. It is a
slightly-branched plant, from one to four feet high, clothed with stiff,
bristly hairs. Its lower leaves are stalked, simple, narrow, and usually
but little cut; and the upper ones sessile, broader at the base, and
either coarsely toothed or deeply cut. The flower-heads are large,
lilac, on long peduncles. The outer florets are much larger than the
inner, and all have four-lobed corollas. The fruit is angular, and is
surmounted by the eight or ten bristles of the calyx. This plant flowers
from June to August.
[Illustration: THE VENUS'S LOOKING-GLASS OR CORN BELLFLOWER.]
Two of the Sow Thistles (order _Compositæ_) have already been noticed
among the flowers of waste places (p. 179), and a third, known
as the Corn Sow-Thistle (_Sonchus arvensis_), falls within the range of
the present chapter, being a very common corn-field weed. It is an erect
plant, from one to four feet high, with a hollow, angular stem, branched
only towards the top. Its lower leaves are large, stalked, more or less
divided into triangular, sharply-toothed lobes that are curved
downwards; and the upper ones are sessile, less divided, with broad
lobes which clasp the stem. The flower-heads are bright yellow, large,
and arranged in a loose, terminal corymb. Their stalks and bracts are
rough with stiff brown or black hairs; and the pappus of the wrinkled
fruits consists of a dense mass of white, silky hairs. The plant blooms
during August and September.
The Bluebottle or Cornflower (_Centaurea Cyanus_) is a pretty cornfield
Composite, not uncommon in many parts, blooming from June to August. The
plant, represented on Plate IV, is covered with loose, cottony
hairs, and grows from one to two feet high. The heads of flowers are
about an inch in diameter, solitary on long, terminal stalks, surrounded
by an oval involucre of closely-overlapping bracts with sharp points and
toothed, membranous margins. The receptacle is flat, with silvery
bristles between the florets. All the florets are tubular; the central
ones of a bluish-purple colour, with purple anthers; and the outer ones
much larger, curved, irregular, and bright blue. The fruit is surmounted
by a pappus of short, simple hairs.
One of the most beautiful of the corn-field flowers is the Corn Marigold
or Yellow Ox-eye Daisy (_Chrysanthemum segetum_), easily distinguished
by its rather large flower-heads, solitary on terminal peduncles, with
bright golden-yellow ray and disc. It grows from twelve to eighteen
inches high, and flowers from May to July. It may be identified by the
aid of the coloured illustration on Plate VII.
[Illustration: THE SCARLET PIMPERNEL.]
The Corn Chamomile (_Anthemis arvensis_), of the same order, is not
unfrequently seen in corn fields, flowering from June to August. It is
much like the Scentless Mayweed (p. 188) and the Common Chamomile (p.
268) in general appearance, but may be easily distinguished with a
little care. It is a rather coarse plant, more or less clothed with a
silky down; and its freely-branched stem is usually erect, and from one
to two feet high. The leaves are pinnate, with leaflets divided into
very narrow, almost hairlike segments; and the flower-heads are rather
large, with white ray and yellow disc, solitary on the tops of leafy
stalks. The involucre bracts are acute; the receptacle conical; and ray
florets always possess a style.
[Illustration: THE CLIMBING BISTORT.]
The Stinking Chamomile or Stinking Mayweed (_Anthemis Cotula_) is
another similar corn-field plant, but it may be readily recognised by
the minute glands dotted over its surface, the acrid secretion of which
emits a f[oe]tid odour when rubbed, and often blisters the hand. The
plant is generally smooth, with an erect, branched stem, from nine to
fifteen inches high; and pinnate leaves with leaflets divided into
short, narrow, pointed lobes. The flowers are similar to those of the
previous species, on the tops of long, leafy stalks; but the receptacle,
at first convex, lengthens to a tall cone; and the white ray-florets
have no style. The involucre bracts are also very narrow, bristly at the
top; and the fruits are rendered rough by numerous little glandular
projections. This plant flowers from June to September.
The Corn Bellflower or Wild Venus's Looking-glass (_Campanula hybrida_),
of the order _Campanulaceæ_, is not uncommon in the cornfields of the
chalky districts of South and East England. It is an erect plant, from
six to ten inches high, bearing purple, blue, or (occasionally) white
flowers from July to September. In addition to the general features
shown in our illustration we may note that its long, inferior ovary is
three-angled; and that the fruit splits, when ripe, by the formation of
slits near the top.
In the order _Boraginaceæ_ we have the Small Bugloss (_Lycopsis
arvensis_), a branched plant, from six inches to two feet in height,
covered all over with stiff bristles that are swollen at the base. Its
leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, and sometimes toothed; the upper
ones sessile and often clasping the stem; and the lower frequently
shortly stalked. The flowers are small, pale blue, in simple or
branched, one-sided spikes. They have a deeply-cleft calyx of five
segments; and the species may be distinguished from other, somewhat
similar plants of the same order by the form of the tube of the corolla,
which is always bent in the middle. This plant is very common in the
corn fields of most parts; and flowers during June and July.
[Illustration: THE DWARF SPURGE.]
Our next flower is the pretty little Scarlet Pimpernel or Poor Man's
Weather Glass (_Anagallis arvensis_) of the Primrose order
(_Primulaceæ_), which is very common in cornfields and on other
cultivated ground, flowering from May to very late in the autumn. The
stem of this plant is procumbent and much branched, the branches
sometimes reaching a length of considerably more than a foot; and its
leaves are opposite, sessile, broadly ovate, undivided, and dotted
beneath. The little flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves, on
long, slender peduncles that are always curved backwards as the fruits
ripen. The calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments; and the
bright scarlet (occasionally pink or white) corolla, fringed with minute
hairs, spreads its five lobes only in sunny weather. The fruit is a
little globular capsule, enclosed in the persistent calyx, splitting
transversely into two hemispheres when ripe.
The Climbing Bistort (_Polygonum convolvulus_--order _Polygonaceæ_),
also known as the Climbing Buckwheat, Climbing Persicaria, and Black
Bindweed, is a very troublesome corn-field weed, with the climbing habit
of the Convolvulus, often strangling the plants round which it twines
its angular stem. It varies from one to four feet in height; and its
alternate leaves are heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, pointed, with short
membranous stipules at the base of the stalk. The flowers are small,
pale green, in little loose clusters of from four to twelve. The lower
clusters are stalked in the axils of the leaves, and the upper ones form
irregular, terminal racemes. The five segments of the calyx are bluntly
keeled, and occasionally winged; and the three outer ones closely
envelop the fruit--a triangular nut. The plant flowers from July to
September.
At least two or three of the Spurges (_Euphorbiaceæ_) are commonly seen
in cultivated fields, but one in particular--the Dwarf Spurge
(_Euphorbia exigua_)--is common in corn fields. It is a slender, smooth
plant, usually from two to ten inches high, with several ascending stems
diverging from near the base. The little yellow flowers are in terminal
umbels of from three to five rays, sometimes very much contracted; and
their glands (see p. 207) are crescent-shaped, with their fine
points turned outwards. The time of flowering is July to October.
Our last example of the corn-field plants is the Wild Oat Grass or
Havers (_Avena fatua_)--an erect grass, two or three feet high, with
rough leaves, and stem hairy at the joints. Its flowers form a loose,
spreading panicle, from six to nine inches long; with three-flowered
spikelets, about an inch long, on very slender stalks, erect at first
but afterwards drooping. The outer glumes are about three quarters of an
inch long, tapering to a bristly point, often tinged with purple; and
the inner ones, two or three in number, are a little shorter, cleft at
the top into pointed lobes, and covered outside with yellowish-brown
hairs. The awn is about twice as long as the spikelet, twisted at the
base, and usually bent near the middle. This grass flowers during June
and July.
XVIII
ON THE CHALK
While some flowers are so universally distributed that they may be
described as existing almost everywhere, others are restricted to
certain kinds of localities, outside which they seldom occur. This
restriction is sometimes merely one of light and shade, the same species
growing almost equally luxuriantly in open spaces, or, in shady places,
regardless of other conditions. Some plants, however, are particularly
partial to certain conditions of soil, situation, or climate, and are
consequently more strictly confined to limited districts.
We have already referred to several species which are essentially
flowers of the woods, but even these are not distributed evenly in
wooded districts; for while some seem to be more universally scattered
throughout our wooded parts, others show a decided partiality to
particular soils, being found exclusively, or almost so, either in sandy
woods, clayey woods, or woods in limestone districts, &c. In fact, the
nature of the soil is such an important factor in determining plant
distribution that we naturally associate many species with the
particular rock strata on which we almost invariably find them.
So intimately is the distribution of plants connected with that of the
geological strata that when, in the course of a day's ramble, we find a
more or less sudden change in the nature of the flora, we may be almost
sure that there is a corresponding change in the nature of the rocks or
soil over which we have strayed; and the young botanist will find much
to interest him in the study of this relation between vegetable life and
geological structure. Of course we do not mean that the botanist must
necessarily be also a geologist, but that he should, at least, be always
ready to observe the nature of the habitats of the flowers he finds,
noting particularly the kind of soil on which they grow.
[Illustration: _Plate VIII._
FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS.
1. Red Valerian. 2. Narrow-leaved Flax. 3. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch. 4.
Spiked Speedwell. 5. Pasque Flower. 6. Bee Orchis. 7. Yellow Oat
Grass.]
Chalky districts are notably attractive to the lover of flowers; for,
not only do they yield a number of species that are almost essentially
the offspring of calcareous soils, but also produce other blossoms,
often in rich profusion, that are less restricted in their habitats.
[Illustration: THE ROCK ROSE.]
In the present chapter we shall note the principal flowers that grow
principally or entirely in calcareous districts, the first being the
Pasque Flower (_Anemone Pulsatilla_--order _Ranunculaceæ_), rare, it is
true, but too beautiful to be omitted from our selection. This flower,
shown on Plate VIII, Fig. 5, may be seen on some chalky hills during May
and June. It is of a silky nature, and the lovely purple blossoms often
reach a diameter of an inch and a half. The leaves are doubly or trebly
pinnate, with very narrow segments which increase in length after the
flowers have faded. The bracts, which are some distance below the
flower, have also linear segments; and the flowers droop while still in
the bud, but the peduncle becomes erect as they expand. The stamens are
yellow, and the fruits are provided with feathered hairs.
On chalky, sandy, and other dry soils we may meet with the Round
Prickly-headed Poppy (_Papaver hybridum_--order _Papaveraceæ_), very
much like the Common Poppy in general appearance, but readily
distinguished by its general hairy character, and, more especially, by
the globular, furrowed fruit covered with spreading bristles. The
flowers vary from one to two inches in diameter, and the crimson or deep
scarlet petals are often black at the base.
The Bitter Candytuft (_Iberis amara_--order _Cruciferæ_), which is so
well known as a border-flower of our gardens, grows freely in some of
the chalk districts of the South and East of England. Unlike most of the
Crucifers, the flowers are not symmetrical, the two outer petals being
much larger than the others. The inflorescence is a raceme, which, like
that of the Wallflower, becomes longer as the flowering proceeds; and
the colour of the petals is white, lilac or red. The height of this
plant varies from six to nine inches, and the flowers bloom during July
and August.