Bell-flower or Harebell (_Campanula rotundifolia_), which displays its
gracefully drooping bells from July to September. It has a slender,
smooth, erect or ascending stem, from six to twenty inches high, which
is usually branched. Its popular and scientific names both appear to be
inappropriate if we examine the plant during its flowering season, for
the only leaves then usually observable are the very narrow ones,
generally quite entire, attached to the stem; earlier in the year,
however, it has a few round or heart-shaped leaves, with long stalks,
close to the base of the stem; but these commonly die about the time
that the flowers commence to appear. The flowers are sometimes solitary,
but often form a loose raceme of several bells.
[Illustration: THE HAREBELL.]
The Clustered Bell-flower (_Campanula glomerata_) is common on the downs
of most parts of England, and often very abundant in the South. It has a
stiff, hairy, erect, angular, unbranched stem, from three to eighteen
inches high. On some of the dry, chalky downs of the South the plant is
often very dwarfed, being scarcely noticeable among the rather
closely-cropped grass. The leaves are oblong or lanceolate, with crenate
margins, rough and hairy, the lower ones stalked, but the upper sessile
and clasping the stem. The flowers are about three-quarters of an inch
in diameter, and form a dense cluster among the upper leaves. The
corolla is blue, bell-shaped, with five spreading lobes; and the fruit
is a short, broad capsule, surmounted by the teeth of the calyx, and
opens, when ripe, by slits near the base. This species flowers during
July and August. It may be identified by reference to Fig. 2 of Plate
VI.
The same order includes the Sheep's-bit (_Jasione montana_), also known
as the Sheep's Scabious. It certainly resembles a Scabious in general
appearance (see Fig. 5 of Plate VI), with its dense clusters of blue or
deep lilac flowers, but may be readily distinguished from it by the
united anthers of its five stamens, and by the absence of the involucel
that surrounds the individual flowers of the Scabious flower-head. The
dense cluster of flowers, surrounded by a whorl of many ovate bracts,
might also be mistaken for that of a Composite at first sight; but here
again we find exclusive distinguishing features, for the flowers of the
cluster are not sessile on a common receptacle; and the fruits, instead
of being one-seeded achenes, are two-chambered capsules. The plant is
from six to twelve inches high; and its leaves are oblong or very
narrow, wavy, blunt, and hairy. The flower-heads are hemispherical,
about half an inch in diameter. Both calyx and corolla have five narrow,
spreading lobes. The plant is common on heaths, and flowers from June to
September.
[Illustration: THE CROSS-LEAVED HEATH.]
We now come to those interesting plants known collectively as Heaths,
and which add so much beauty to our heaths and moors. They belong to the
order _Ericaceæ_, and are all readily distinguished by their bushy
appearance, hard woody stems, and small, simple leaves arranged in pairs
or whorls. The flowers, too, are very characteristic, each one having an
inferior calyx of four sepals; a bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped,
persistent corolla, with five lobes; eight stamens free from the
corolla; and a four-chambered ovary that ripens to a capsule.
The Cross-leaved Heath (_Erica Tetralix_) is common all over Britain,
especially so in the West. It is a wiry little shrub, from a foot to
eighteen inches high, much branched at the base. Its leaves are short,
narrow, downy above, fringed with stiff hairs, and arranged in whorls
of four, each whorl forming a cross. The drooping flowers, which appear
during July and August, are usually rose-coloured, occasionally white,
and are arranged in close, terminal, one-sided clusters.
The Ciliated Heath (_Erica ciliaris_), perhaps the most beautiful of the
British species, is found only in the West of England, but is really
abundant on some of the Devon and Cornwall moorlands. It is of a
somewhat straggling nature, and its ovate leaves, which are downy above,
and fringed with stiff hairs, are in whorls of three or four. The
flowers are sometimes nearly half an inch long, of a bright rose or
crimson colour, and are arranged in broken, one-sided racemes. The
corolla is pitcher-shaped, with four lobes round the narrow mouth. The
plant reaches a length of from twelve to eighteen inches, and flowers
from June to September.
[Illustration: THE BELL HEATHER OR FINE-LEAVED HEATH.]
Our last example of this genus--the Bell Heather or Fine-leaved Heath
(_E. cinerea_)--is, perhaps, the commonest of all, for it abounds on the
moors and heaths of nearly all parts of Britain. It is a very tough and
wiry shrub, from one to two feet high, with narrow leaves in whorls of
three or four, and smaller leaves in their axils. The flowers vary in
colour, being either purple, crimson, rose, or occasionally white. They
are in dense, leafy racemes, not one-sided, but rather regularly
whorled. The time of flowering is from July to September.
In the same order is the Common Ling (_Calluna vulgaris_)--a straggling
shrub, from one to three feet high, bearing rose-coloured, lilac or
white flowers from July to September. This shrub may be identified at
once by its leaves, which are very small, and closely overlapping in
four rows. Its flowers are small, drooping, shortly stalked, each with
two pairs of small bracts at its base; and are arranged in irregular,
leafy racemes on the topmost branches.
Still in the same order (_Ericaceæ_), but quite distinct from the
Heaths, are a few moorland shrubs the berries of which are largely eaten
by the country-folk. They belong to the genus _Vaccinium_, and have
scattered, deciduous or evergreen leaves. We have noticed that in the
heaths the ovary is superior, but in the present genus it is inferior;
that is, it is situated below the calyx and corolla, which parts are
attached to its upper border. The calyx has four or five lobes; and the
corolla, which is bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped, has the same number of
lobes or teeth. The stamens, eight or ten in number, are usually
rendered peculiar by the tubular bristles that extend upwards from the
anther cells. The berries are globular or nearly so, and contain several
seeds. Some species of this genus are rare, but three, at least, may be
included here. They are--
1. The Whortleberry or Bilberry (_Vaccinium Myrtillus_).--A smooth
shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, common everywhere except in
some of the eastern counties, flowering from April to June. Its stem is
erect or spreading, branched, green, and sharply angular. The leaves are
shortly stalked, ovate, serrate, seldom more than an inch long; and the
flowers are nearly globular, with small teeth, drooping on short stalks,
and placed singly in the axils of the leaves. They are of a greenish
rose or flesh-colour, often tinged with red, and have a very waxy
appearance.
2. The Great Bilberry or Bog Whortleberry (_Vaccinium uliginosum_).--A
smaller and more woody shrub, from six to ten inches high, growing only
in the moorland bogs of North Britain. Its stem and branches are round
or scarcely angular, and usually procumbent and crooked. The leaves are
small, obovate or round, entire, thin, deciduous, with the veins
strongly marked on the under side; and the flowers are globular, of a
pale pink colour, smaller than those of the last species. This species
flowers during May and June.
3. The Red Whortleberry or Cowberry (_V. Vitis-idæa_).--A straggling,
much branched, and woody shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, found
chiefly on the mountainous heaths of the North. Its leaves are
evergreen, obovate, dotted beneath, with the margins slightly rolled
back; and the flowers are bell-shaped, of a pale pink or flesh-colour,
arranged in rather dense, drooping clusters. The latter, which bloom
from June to August, are followed by red, globular berries.
On wet, marshy heaths we occasionally meet with the Marsh Gentian
(_Gentiana Pneumonanthe_). It is a very local plant, growing chiefly,
though not exclusively, in the northern and midland counties of England.
Its stem is erect, stiff, leafy and unbranched, usually from six to ten
inches high; and its leaves are sessile, linear, obtuse, rather thick,
the lower ones broader than the upper. The flowers, which bloom during
August and September, are represented on Plate V.
[Illustration: THE EYEBRIGHT.]
In the same order (_Gentianaceæ_) is the Autumn or Small-flowered
Gentian (_Gentiana Amarella_)--a little erect plant, from three to
twelve inches high, common on dry heaths and stony pastures. Its stem is
square, very leafy, simple or branched, often of a blue-green or purple
colour; and the leaves are sessile, opposite, ovate or lanceolate. The
flowers are of a pale purple colour, from half to three-quarters of an
inch long, arranged in an oblong, leafy cluster. The calyx is divided
quite half way down into five unequal, narrow segments; and the corolla
has a broad tube with four or five ovate lobes that spread only in the
direct rays of the sun. The time of flowering is August and September.
One of the Dodders--the Lesser Dodder (_Cuscuta Epithymum_)--is
essentially a plant of heaths and moors, where it is parasitic on
Heaths, Thyme, and other shrubby plants. It is described in Chapter
XXIII, where will also be found a short account of its growth and
parasitic habits.
Our only example of the _Scrophulariaceæ_ as far as this chapter is
concerned--the Eyebright (_Euphrasia officinalis_)--is also a partial
parasite, and is referred to, with other plants of the same nature, in
Chapter XXIII. It is a little plant, the general appearance of which is
shown in our illustration. It varies from one to eight inches high, and
bears little lilac, lipped flowers, streaked with purple, with a rather
large yellow spot at the base of the lower lip.
One of the Mints--_Mentha Pulegium_ (order _Labiatæ_)--well-known as a
garden herb under the name of Pennyroyal, is to be found on damp heaths.
Though not very common, it is widely distributed, occurring in nearly
all parts of Great Britain. It is very aromatic, and is largely
cultivated for use as a remedy for colds. The flowers are of a lilac
colour, arranged in dense, distant whorls in the axils of the upper
leaves. The calyx is downy without, hairy at the throat within; and the
corolla has almost equal lobes, the upper of which is notched. The plant
flowers in August and September.
In the same order is the Wild Thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_)--a little,
wiry, prostrate plant, with an aromatic odour, very abundant on the dry
heaths of most parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its stem
is thin but hard, and much branched, the numerous flowerless branches
usually forming a dense tuft close to the ground. The flowers are
purple, in whorls of five or six in the axils of the upper leaves. The
calyx is lipped, of a deep red colour, and its mouth is closed with
hairs after the corolla is shed. The corolla is of a paler colour, and
indistinctly divided into two lips, the upper of which is erect and
notched, while the lower is cleft into three lobes. The time of
flowering is from June to August.
The Wood Sage or Wood Germander (_Teucrium Scorodonia_) is very abundant
on damp heaths, and is also commonly seen in hedgerows and on banks,
especially in hilly and heathy districts. It is an erect plant, from one
to two feet high, with a hard, hairy, slightly-branched stem. Its paired
leaves are stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, downy, and much wrinkled
like the leaves of the true Sages. The flowers are yellowish white,
arranged in pairs on terminal and axillary racemes, with a small bract
at the foot of each short flower-stalk. Although not very conspicuous,
they are very attractive to bees, providing abundance of nectar. There
is no true upper lip to the corolla, the upper part being deeply cleft,
with a small lobe on each side; and the stamens and stigma project
beyond the petals. This plant flowers during July and August.
[Illustration: THE WILD THYME.]
On moist heaths, especially in the west of Britain, we commonly meet
with the Lesser Skull-cap (_Scutellaria minor_), another of the
Labiates. It is a little plant, seldom more than six inches high, with
pale pink flowers that bloom from July to October. The stem is rather
slender, and branched; and the paired leaves are broadly ovate below,
narrower above, obtuse, very shortly stalked, and either entire or
slightly toothed. The flowers are only a quarter of an inch long,
shortly stalked, and usually placed singly in the axils of the leaves.
The calyx has two lips, the upper of which bears, on the middle of its
back, a prominent hollow scale; and the corolla has a long tube with two
small lips, the lower of which is divided into three lobes.
[Illustration: THE AUTUMNAL LADY'S TRESSES.]
The Dwarf Silky Willow (_Salix repens_--order _Salicaceæ_) is very
common on heaths. It is a small, straggling shrub, from one to three
feet high, sometimes erect, but more commonly procumbent and rooting at
the base, with slender branches. Its leaves are often less than an inch
in length, oblong or narrow, with recurved margins, shining above and
silky below. When young, the leaves are silky on both sides; and the
young twigs and the buds are also clothed with a silky down. The flowers
are imperfect, and are in short, sessile, erect, oblong catkins, which
appear in April and early May, before the leaves. The male and female
flowers grow on different shrubs; but in both cases the catkins are
about half an inch long, with a few leafy bracts at the base, and the
flowers are intermixed with silky scales. The capsules split when ripe,
liberating numerous minute seeds that are tufted with long, white, silky
hairs.
The Juniper (_Juniperus communis_), one of the few British conifers, is
not uncommon on dry, gravelly or chalky downs, more especially in the
North. It is a profusely-branched, evergreen shrub, either erect or
procumbent, and usually from one to five feet high. Its leaves are very
narrow, half an inch or less in length, concave above, terminating in a
very sharp point, and arranged three in a whorl. The male and female
flowers grow on separate shrubs, and are clustered in minute catkins,
about a twelfth of an inch long, sessile in the axils of the leaves. The
fruit is a bluish-black, berrylike cone, about a third of an inch in
diameter. The Juniper flowers during May and June.
[Illustration: THE BUTCHER'S BROOM, IN FRUIT.]
Passing now to the _Orchidaceæ_ we have to note two species, the first
of which is the Autumnal Lady's Tresses (_Spiranthes autumnalis_), a
moderately common plant on the dry downs of South Britain, flowering
from August to October. It has two or three thick, oval tubers; and a
slender stem, from four to eight inches high, with sheathing, acute
scales. The radical leaves, four or five in number, are about an inch
long, ovate, sharp, and form a tuft by the side of the stem. The flowers
are small, white, scented, and form a single, spiral line on the stem;
but while each flower is turned to one side, its bract is erect on the
other side of the stem. The sepals and petals are much alike. The upper
sepals are joined to the petals, and the lateral ones curve over the
base of the lip of the corolla.
The other plant of this order is the very common Spotted Palmate Orchis
(_Orchis maculata_), abundant on the moist heaths and commons of most
parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its root has two or
three flattened tubers with long, finger-like lobes; and the stem is
solid, erect, from six inches to more than a foot high. The leaves are
ovate below, narrow above, and usually marked with many dark spots. The
spike of flowers is dense, oblong or pyramidal in form, and two or three
inches long. At the base of each flower is a bract usually shorter than
the ovary. The flowers are pale purple, lilac, or (occasionally) white,
and are generally conspicuously marked with irregular lines and spots of
a deeper tint. The sepals are spreading, about a quarter of an inch
long; and the petals are arched over the column. The lip is broad,
deeply three-lobed, more or less toothed, either flat or with the
lateral lobes slightly turned back. The spur is slender and a little
shorter than the ovary. This Orchis is represented on Fig. 6 of Plate
VI.
[Illustration: THE COMMON QUAKING GRASS.]
Our single example of the _Liliaceæ_ is the Butcher's Broom (_Ruscus
aculeatus_), the only British monocotyledonous shrub. It is of a very
dark green colour, varies from one to four feet in height, and is
occasionally met with on the wooded heaths of the southern counties. Its
rigid, evergreen, leaflike appendages, which are ovate in form,
terminating in a sharp spine, are not really leaves, but leaflike
branches or _cladodes_; for, it will be observed, they bear the flowers
and fruits, which are attached to their centres. The only leaves
possessed by the plant are the minute, deciduous scales, from the axils
of which the cladodes grow. The flowers are white, very small, with a
deeply six-cleft, persistent perianth, each one attached to the centre
of a cladode by a very minute stalk. They are always on the upper side
of the cladode, though it generally happens that they are turned
downwards by a twisting of the base of the leaflike branch. The flowers
are always imperfect, the male and female blossoms growing on separate
shrubs, and both have a small bract at the base. The ovary of the latter
develops into a rather large, scarlet, berry-like fruit containing one
or two seeds. The flowers appear during March and April.
[Illustration: THE COMMON MAT GRASS.]
Two of the Rushes (order _Juncaceæ_) are very common on heaths and
moors. One of these is the Heath Rush (_Juncus squarrosus_), which
appears on Plate VI. This is a rigid Rush, varying from four to
ten inches high, flowering in June and July. Its stems are stout, solid,
and generally leafless; and the leaves are narrow, grooved, usually less
than half the length of the stem. The flowers are brown, either distinct
or in clusters of two or three, arranged in a compound raceme, with a
perianth of shining segments membranous at the margins, and about a
sixth of an inch long. The capsules are blunt, but terminate in a
pointed bristle.
The other is the Field Woodrush (_Luzula campestris_), a small plant,
usually from four to six inches high, flowering from March to June, and
often very abundant among the grass of hilly pastures and heaths. Its
leaves are fringed with long, soft, white hairs; and the flowers, which
are of a very dark brown colour, are arranged in three or four round or
oval spikes. The segments of the perianth are very sharp, about an
eighth of an inch long, with membranous margins; and the capsules are
blunt.
We conclude this chapter with a brief notice of two of the Grasses of
heaths and downs. One of these is the Common Quaking Grass or Totter
Grass (_Briza media_).--A very pretty, erect grass, rather rigid, from
six to eighteen inches high, common on dry downs except in the extreme
North of Britain, flowering during June and July. Its stems are tufted,
or sometimes slightly creeping; and its leaves are narrow and flat. The
spikelets are round or broadly ovate, nearly a quarter of an inch long,
more or less tinged with purple, on the long, slender branches of a
loose, spreading panicle three or four inches long. The broad glumes are
all similar in shape, but decrease in size upwards, and are not
bristled.
The other is the Common Mat Grass (_Nardus stricta_), a densely tufted,
wiry grass, from four inches to a foot in height, common on heaths and
moors, flowering in June and July. The leaves are very fine and stiff,
quite bristle-like. The flowers are in a one-sided spike, from one to
three inches long, the one-flowered spikelets being placed alternately
in two rows, in the notches of the central axis. The spikelets are often
of a reddish or purplish colour, and each has a single, narrow, pointed
glume, about a third of an inch long, an inner glume with a short
bristle, three stamens, and a single style.
[Illustration: _Plate VII._
FLOWERS OF THE CORNFIELD.
1. Long Smooth-headed Poppy. 2. Field Scabious. 3. Corn Cockle. 4. Corn
Marigold. 5. Flax. 6. Corn Pheasant's-eye.]
XVII
IN THE CORN FIELD
The flowers included in the present chapter are to be found principally
in cultivated fields; but since they are more particularly associated
with corn crops, or occur so commonly in those fields in which grain is
one of the products included in the rotation adopted, we separate them
from the other flowers of the field, and consider them under the above
head.
It will be observed that the majority of the flowers thus dealt with are
summer-bloomers that flower while the ears of corn are filling out, and
consequently are in fruit at the time of harvest. Hence, when the corn
is cut, their seeds are shaken from the ripe fruits, or the fruits are
themselves levelled to the ground, with the result that those which are
not ploughed too deeply into the soil spring up almost in the same
position in the following season.
Starting with the species of the Buttercup family (order
_Ranunculaceæ_), we take first the beautiful Pheasant's Eye (_Adonis
autumnalis_), which is sometimes seen among the corn, especially in the
fields of the southern counties. The plant is not a native, but has
become well established as a wild flower in several parts, though it is
common in only a few localities. It is erect, from six to twelve inches
high, and flowers in summer and autumn. The coloured illustration on
Plate VII, Fig. 6, renders a written description unnecessary.
The little Mouse-tail (_Myosurus minimus_) of the same order is a very
different kind of plant. It seldom exceeds a height of five or six
inches, and is commonly only two inches high. Its leaves are all
radical, very narrow, fleshy, and measure only from one to three inches,
including the stalk; and the little yellowish-green flowers, which bloom
from April to June, are solitary on radical stalks. Each flower has five
spreading sepals which are prolonged downward at the base into a short
spur; five very narrow, tubular petals; a few stamens; and a spike-like
cluster of many carpels in the centre. As the fruit ripens the cluster
of carpels lengthens into a slender spike from an inch to an inch and a
half long. This species is rather common in the South and South-East of
England, and is to be seen most frequently in moist fields.
The Corn Crowfoot (_R. arvensis_) is a slightly hairy plant, with a
branched stem from six to eighteen inches in height. The whole is of a
pale green colour, and the leaves are deeply cut into narrow, lobed
segments. The flowers are pale yellow, about half an inch in diameter,
with spreading sepals; and are usually placed opposite the leaves. Their
carpels are few in number, comparatively large, flattened, and covered
with hooked spines. This is an abundant species, especially in the
southern counties, and is most common in weedy fields in which
corn-crops have been previously raised. It flowers from May to July.
[Illustration: THE MOUSE-TAIL.]
The same order (_Ranunculaceæ_) includes the Field Larkspur (_Delphinium
Ajacis_) which sometimes grows wild in corn-fields. It is not
indigenous, but has been introduced from South Europe; and the wild
plants are probably escapes from cultivation. The stem is from nine to
eighteen inches high, with a few spreading branches; and the leaves are
all deeply cut into very narrow segments. The flowers are blue, pink or
white, and are arranged in a long, terminal raceme. The five sepals are
coloured, the posterior one prolonged into a narrow, hollow spur about
half an inch long. There are only two petals, and these are united into
a narrow spur which lies within that of the calyx. The fruit consists of
a single, downy follicle that contains several seeds. This plant flowers
during June and July.