in some chalky districts, generally in fields and other open ground, and
may be easily recognised by its close resemblance to the well-known
Sweet Mignonette (_R. odorata_), which is so highly valued as a garden
flower on account of its pleasant perfume. It is of a shrubby nature,
from one to two feet high, with scattered, stipuled leaves, the lower of
which are pinnate, while the upper are three-lobed. The flowers are
irregular, yellow, and arranged in short, conical racemes. The six
sepals are unequal and linear; and the petals, also six in number, are
very unequal, while the posterior one is divided into many parts. The
flowers bloom throughout the summer.
One of the most characteristic flowers of the chalk is the pretty Rock
Rose (_Helianthemum vulgare_--order _Cistaceæ_), which is often so
abundant that it completely covers large patches of banks and
pasture-land. The plant is of a procumbent nature, with woody stems, and
opposite, flat, oval or oblong leaves, green above and hoary beneath.
The yellow flowers are from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and
are arranged in racemes. There are five sepals, two of which are very
small; and the numerous stamens are sensitive, spreading out and lying
on the petals when the flower is squeezed. The time of flowering is from
June to September.
An allied species--the Hoary Rock Rose (_H. canum_ or _H.
marifolium_)--may be found in the limestone districts of the West of
England, flowering from May to July. The plant is very similar to the
last, but the leaves are not stipuled, are smooth or hairy above, and
very hoary beneath. The flowers, too, are much smaller.
A species of Violet--the Hairy Violet (_Viola hirta_--order
_Violaceæ_)--may be found in some limestone and chalk districts, and
also on some dry soils removed from calcareous rocks. It has no runners
like those of other species, and its cordate leaves are very hairy, on
petioles covered with spreading hairs. The flowers are scentless, pale
violet or white, with bracts below the middle of the peduncle; and the
spur of the corolla is long, blunt, flattened, and hooked.
Two species of Flax (order _Linaceæ_) are to be found on chalky soils.
One--the Perennial Flax (_Linum perenne_)--grows in hilly districts, but
is not at all common. It is a slender plant, with numerous wiry stems
from one to two feet high; and sessile, linear, acute leaves. The petals
are of a beautiful sky-blue colour, but so lightly attached that it is
difficult to secure a perfect specimen. The other species--the
Narrow-leaved Flax (_L. angustifolium_)--is moderately common on
calcareous hills of the South and West of England. It is very similar to
the last, and grows to about the same height, but its many stems are
more irregularly branched, and the alternate leaves are
linear-lanceolate. The corolla is of a lighter lilac-blue colour. _L.
perenne_ blooms during June and July, and the narrow-leaved species from
June to September. The latter is shown on Plate VIII.
Quite a number of species of leguminous plants (order _Leguminosæ_),
may, as a rule, be met with on dry soils, but only two common ones may
be described as particularly partial to chalk and limestone localities.
These are the Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_) and the
Sainfoin or Cock's-head (_Onobrychis sativa_). The former, represented
on Plate VIII, is a low, smooth, prostrate plant, six to eighteen inches
long, with yellow flowers that bloom from May to August. This plant is
sometimes confused with the Bird's-foot Trefoil, which it rather closely
resembles in general appearance, but it may be readily distinguished by
the pinnate leaves and the peculiar form of the pods. The latter are
flattened, and break up, when ripe, into from three to six one-seeded,
horse-shoe-shaped segments--a feature which has given rise to the
popular name.
The Sainfoin is often cultivated in the South-East of England as fodder
for cattle, but may frequently be found growing wild. It is a very
pretty, erect plant, from one to two feet high, with dense racemes of
rosy-red flowers beautifully striped with a darker tint. The stem is
stout and downy, and the pinnate leaves have membranous stipules and
numerous oblong leaflets which terminate abruptly in a point. The pod
is compressed, semicircular in form, indehiscent, and toothed along the
lower edge. This species flowers during June and July.
[Illustration: THE SAINFOIN.]
On some chalky heaths the True Sweet-briar (_Rosa rubiginosa_--order
_Rosaceæ_) is a common shrub, growing from three to six feet high, and
flowering during June and July. It is an erect and compact bush, with
numerous prickles of varying shapes--the larger ones being hooked, while
the smaller are straight and very unequal. The leaves are compound and
stipuled, and the leaflets are rounded at the base, downy, and doubly
serrate. The flowers often grow singly, but more commonly from two to
four together; they are of a deep rose colour, and the persistent sepals
are pinnately divided. The fruit is at first pear-shaped, but afterwards
becomes almost globular, and turns red when ripe.
[Illustration: THE SALAD BURNET.]
In similar situations we may find the Lesser Burnet or Salad Burnet
(_Poterium Sanguisorba_) of the same order. This plant is so different
in general appearance from the majority of the Rose family that the
amateur would hardly associate it with the others. The flowers are
small, and collected together in dense, purple cymes on the top of long,
angular stalks. They have no petals, and the four overlapping sepals are
usually deciduous. The stamens, five to thirty in number, are pendulous
on long, slender filaments; and the upper flowers display their crimson
stigmas before the lower ones produce their stamens. The stem is erect,
from six to eighteen inches in height; and the pinnate leaves have many
small, sessile, oblong leaflets with coarsely-serrate edges. This plant
flowers during June, July, and August.
[Illustration: THE FIELD GENTIAN.]
The Bedstraw Family (order _Rubiaceæ_) is represented on the chalk by
the Rough-fruited Corn Bedstraw (_Galium tricorne_), which is common in
fields. It is a spreading plant, with procumbent stems, one to three
feet long; and small, long, narrow leaves, rough with recurved prickles,
arranged in whorls of from six to eight. The flowers are small and
white, grouped in little cymes of three. The fruit is comparatively
large, and granulated, but not bristly, and it droops by the bending of
the pedicel. The plant flowers from June to October.
The Red Spur Valerian (_Centranthus ruber_--order _Valerianaceæ_) is a
glaucous, leafy plant (see Plate VIII), sometimes growing to a
height of two feet or more, often to be seen in chalk-pits and limestone
quarries, and frequently on old walls. It is not indigenous, but is
cultivated largely as a garden flower, and has now become naturalised.
Its corolla, which is sometimes white, has five unequal lobes, a long,
flattened tube, and a slender spur. The plant flowers from June to
September.
Of the Composite flowers we shall note two species, the first being the
Woolly-headed Plume-thistle (_Carduus eriophorus_), common in chalky
fields, where it throws up its large, cottony heads to a height of from
three to five feet during July and August. In order to distinguish it
from other similar thistles we must note that its stem is not winged,
and that the deeply-divided leaves, with bifid lobes, half clasp the
stem at the base; also that the involucre bracts are lanceolate, with
long, reflexed spines. The heads of this thistle are of a pale purple
colour, of a globular form, two to three inches in diameter, and covered
with a thick, cottony growth.
[Illustration: THE YELLOW-WORT.]
Our other example of the Composite flowers is the Ploughman's Spikenard
(_Inula Conyza_), which is common on chalky banks and pastures,
flowering from July to September. It is an erect, downy plant, from two
to five feet high, with oval, lanceolate, downy leaves of a dull green
colour. The upper leaves are entire and sessile, while the lower are
toothed and stalked. The numerous flower heads are of a dull yellow
colour, with leaflike bracts, arranged in a branched corymb. The
involucre bracts are linear and reflexed, and the ray florets are
inconspicuous.
Two representatives of the order _Gentianaceæ_ are commonly found on
chalk hills and pastures; they are the Field Gentian (_Gentiana
campestris_), and the Perfoliate Yellow-wort (_Chlora perfoliata_, or
_Blackstonia perfoliata_). The former is an erect plant, from four to
ten inches high, with a branched stem; opposite, sessile leaves; and
conspicuous, bluish-purple flowers, blooming in August and September.
The calyx is cleft into four, the two outer segments being large and
ovate. The corolla is also four-cleft, and salver-shaped.
[Illustration: THE GREAT MULLEIN.]
The Yellow-wort is an erect, glaucous plant, with an unbranched stem
from six to eighteen inches in height, and beautiful yellow flowers,
from four to nine in number, arranged in a cyme. The leaves are in
widely-separated pairs, united at their bases, so that the stem
penetrates them. The calyx is deeply divided, and the limbs of the
corolla are spreading. This plant flowers from June to September.
Some species of Mullein (_Verbascum_) are particularly partial to chalk
and limestone districts. They are handsome plants, belonging to the
order _Scrophulariaceæ_, rendered conspicuous by their woolly leaves and
spikes of yellow or white flowers. The Great Mullein (_V. Thapsus_) is
common on banks and roadsides, and flowers from June to August. Its stem
is stout, erect, very woolly, and varies from two to five feet in
height. The leaves are very large and thick, and are so woolly on both
sides that they resemble flannel. The flowers form a large, dense,
club-shaped spike. Each has a corolla with five spreading lobes; and
five stamens, with white hairs on their filaments, two longer than the
other three. The fruit is a capsule containing many seeds and splitting
longitudinally.
The White Mullein (_V. Lychnitis_) is not at all common, but may be
found in similar situations. Its stem is angular, seldom more than three
feet high, the leaves nearly smooth above, and the flowers white or
cream, blooming from June to August.
A third species--the Yellow Hoary Mullein (_V. pulverulentum_)--grows on
banks, chiefly in Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering during July and August.
It is about three feet in height; the stem is round, with a mealy
surface; and the leaves, which are not continued down the stem, are
covered both above and below with starlike hairs that give them a mealy
appearance. The flowers form a pyramidal panicle, and are of a bright
yellow colour, with scarlet stamens covered with white hairs.
[Illustration: THE RED HEMP-NETTLE.]
There is yet another species to be found on chalky soils, more
especially in hedges and on banks and roadsides. It is the Dark Mullein
(_V. nigrum_), so called on account of the darker hue of the stem and
leaves. It grows to a height of about three feet and flowers from June
to September. It is a beautiful plant, not so strong in build as the
Great Mullein, with an angular stem, and oblong heart-shaped leaves,
nearly smooth above, and covered with starlike hairs which give it a
downy appearance, especially on the under surface. The leaves are not
continued down the stem, and the lower ones have long stalks. The
flowers are bright yellow, very numerous, and form a spike-like panicle.
The stamens are covered with purple hairs.
The Spiked Speedwell (_Veronica spicata_), of the same order, neither
common nor widely distributed, is to be found chiefly in the chalk and
limestone districts of the South and West of England, flowering during
July and August. It has a long, dense, terminal spike of blue or pink
flowers about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The corolla has a long
tube, and unequal, narrow lobes; and the flattened capsules split into
two valves when ripe. A large variety of this species, known as the Tall
Spiked Speedwell, occurs in limestone districts of the West. The normal
form is shown in Fig. 4, of Plate VIII.
Of the Labiates perhaps the one most partial to the chalk is the Wild
Sage or Clary (_Salvia Verbenaca_); and even this is not confined to
calcareous soils, but thrives in dry pastures in many parts of the
country, particularly near the sea. It is an aromatic herb, from one to
two feet in height, with long spikes of bluish purple flowers that bloom
from May to September. The leaves, which are not numerous, are
oblong-cordate (the upper ones broadly cordate), blunt, coarsely
toothed, and wrinkled. Other Labiates are very similar to this species,
but the Clary may be distinguished by its two ovate, cordate bracts at
the base of each flower, and by its narrow corolla, which is a little
shorter than the calyx.
The Red Hemp-nettle (_Galeopsis Ladanum_), of the same order, is common
in chalky fields. It is about a foot in height, and displays its
_rose-coloured_ flowers from July to October. The plant is covered with
very soft hairs, and the stem is not swollen at the joints. These two
features serve to distinguish the species from the Common Hemp-nettle
(_G. tetrahit_) and the Large-flowered Hemp-nettle (_G. versicolor_) of
the same genus. It should also be noted that the corolla is not really
red, as the common name suggests, but rose-coloured, while in _G.
tetrahit_ it is purple or white, and in _G. versicolor_ it is yellow.
The upper lip of the flower, too, is only slightly notched.
The Viper's Bugloss (_Echium vulgare_--order _Boraginaceæ_) is common on
dry soils, especially in calcareous districts, where it is often found
close to the sea, even on the beach very near high-water level. It is a
very peculiar plant, both stem and leaves being thickly covered with
stiff, sharp bristles. The stem is unbranched, from two to three feet
high; and the leaves are lanceolate. The flowers are of a bright
rose-colour when they first open, and afterwards change to a bright
purple-blue; they are arranged in short, lateral, curved, one-sided
spikes. Both leaves and flowers droop very rapidly after they have been
gathered. This plant flowers from June to August.
Another species of the same genus, known as the Purple Viper's Bugloss
(_E. Plantagineum_), is common in the Channel Islands. It may be
distinguished by its branched stem and longer spikes of flowers. The
lower leaves, too, are oblong and stalked, while the upper ones are
cordate and half clasp the stem.
No doubt the reader is already acquainted with the commoner Plantains
(order _Plantaginaceæ_), so easily distinguished by their spreading
radical leaves, with prominent, parallel ribs, and their dense spikes of
greenish flowers. There are five British species, one of which--the
Hoary Plantain or Lamb's-tongue (_Plantago media_) is particularly
partial to chalky districts, where it grows in pastures and on dry
banks. Its flowering stems grow from three inches to a foot in height,
and the flowers bloom from June to September. The leaves are elliptical,
either sessile or shortly stalked, and have from five to nine ribs. They
lie so closely on the soil that nothing can grow beneath them, and even
present the appearance of having been pressed against the ground. They
also have a downy surface; and the stalk, where it exists, is flattened.
The flowering stem is round, and the spike cylindrical. The calyx is
cleft into four, with its segments turned backward; and the sepals are
not keeled as they are in some other species. The corolla is tubular,
with four spreading limbs; and the cream-coloured anthers are displayed
on the tips of long filaments.
[Illustration: AN ORCHIS FLOWER.
S, sepals. P, petals. L, lip. C, spur. A, pollen masses. B, stigma.]
We have now to consider several representatives of the _Orchidaceæ_, and
it will be well here to note the general characters of this remarkable
order as a whole. The Orchids have rounded or palmate tuberous roots, a
few glossy leaves which sheath the stem, and simple spikes or racemes of
flowers, the prevailing colours of which are red, pink, green and white.
The sepals, three in number, often partake more of the nature of petals.
There are three petals, the lowest one, forming the lower lip of the
flower, often prolonged into a spur, and frequently assuming a
remarkable form resembling an insect or some other member of the animal
creation. The stamens are united to the style, and form with it a solid
_column_, but usually only one produces pollen, and this one commonly
consists of one or two club-shaped masses. The ovary is inferior, often
twisted so as to invert the flower, and sometimes so long as to be
mistaken for a flower stalk. The stigma is hollow, sticky, and situated
just in front of the column above mentioned. The fruit is a three-valved
capsule, containing many seeds.
Orchids are generally scented flowers, and produce nectar which is
stored either in the cavity of the spur, or within the tissue of the
same. In the latter case it cannot be obtained by insects unless they
bore into the substance of the spur, and the delay caused renders the
removal of the pollen more certain. While the nectar is being withdrawn,
the head of the insect is pressed against a sticky disc at the base of
the pollen masses, with the result that both disc and pollen masses are
bodily removed, and the insect leaves the flower with the whole attached
to its head. It often happens, too, that the pollen masses bend forward
as the insect flies through the air, and thus they are more likely to be
pressed against the stigma when another flower is visited. Here, then,
is another wonderful contrivance for the purpose of securing
cross-fertilisation, and the whole process may be imitated by thrusting
the point of a pencil into the spur of a flower which has not been
previously visited by an insect, and then inserting the point into the
spur of a second flower. It should be noted, also, that the pollen is
not all removed by contact with the sticky surface of a stigma against
which the pollen masses are pressed, and thus the pollen obtained from
one flower will often fertilise several others.
Our first species--the Broad-leaved Helleborine (_Epipactis latifolia_),
is common in hilly woods, where it flowers during July and August. Its
single stem grows from one to three feet high, and the leaves are
broadly ovate and ribbed. The flowers are greenish, with reddish-purple
lips, and are arranged in a long, loose, one-sided raceme. The sepals
are ovate, longer than the acute lower lobe of the lip; and the bracts
are generally longer than the flowers. The ovary is downy, and not so
long as the bracts. (Plate II, Fig. 5.)
The somewhat similar Large White Helleborine (_Cephalanthera
grandiflora_), which bears creamy white flowers in May and June, is also
common in some of the woods on calcareous soils.
The Pyramidal Orchis (_O. pyramidalis_) grows in limestone pastures,
flowering during July and August. This species varies from six to
eighteen inches in height, and has linear, acute leaves. The spike of
flowers is very dense, of a pyramidal form, and the individual blooms
are small, usually of a rose colour, but occasionally white or nearly
so. The sepals are spreading, and the lip of the flower has three equal
lobes which are oblong and abruptly cut at the tips. The spur is slender
and longer than the ovary.
The Fragrant Gymnadenia or Sweet-scented Orchis (_Habenaria conopsea_ or
_Gymnadenia conopsea_) is common on chalky heaths and hilly pastures. It
grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, has palmate, tuberous roots,
and oblong-lanceolate, acute, keeled leaves. The flowers appear from
June to August, and are in a dense, elongated spike. The buds are of a
deep rose colour, and the open flowers are very fragrant, of a lighter
colour, and not spotted. The bracts have three veins; the lateral sepals
are spreading; the spur long and slender, much longer than the ovary;
and the lip of the flower has three, equal, undivided lobes.
[Illustration: THE SWEET-SCENTED ORCHIS.]
The Green Man Orchis (_Aceras anthropophora_), though rather rare, and
confined to the dry, chalky pastures of East England, is too interesting
to be omitted from our selection. The plant is from six to twelve inches
high, with palmate tubers, and mostly radical leaves. The flowers are
sessile, forming a loose spike, and are strange caricatures of the human
figure. Each has a comparatively large green hood, a slender yellowish
lip with two lateral lobes to represent the arms, and two similar
terminal lobes for the legs. The lateral sepals are green, ovate and
convergent; and the flower has no spur. The time of flowering is June
and July.
The Green Musk Orchis (_Herminium Monorchis_), also rather rare, is to
be found in chalky pastures of the South, flowering in June and July. It
has oval, stalked tubers; two lanceolate, radical leaves, and generally
only one leaf on the slender stem. The spike is loose and slender; and
the flowers, which are small and green, are sessile, and emit a musky
odour during the night. The sepals are broad ovate; the petals narrower;
and the lip is three-lobed, pouch-like at the base, with terminal lobe
longer than the other two.
One of the most remarkable, and, at the same time, one of the most
beautiful of Orchids is the Bee Orchis (_Ophrys apifera_). Although not
to be described as common, it is frequently to be seen in moderate
numbers on banks and in open ground in calcareous districts. Its height
is from six to twelve inches, and it flowers during June and July. The
leaves are short, oblong, and mostly radical; the bracts large and
leafy; and the flowers, numbering from two to six, are arranged in a lax
spike, and very closely resemble certain species of bees. The sepals are
spreading, oval, and pink inside; and the petals are linear and downy.
The lip of the flower is swollen and broad, very velvety, and of a rich
brown colour variegated with yellow. It is not longer than the sepals,
and has four lobes, the two lower of which are hairy, while the other
two are bent under. There is also a sharp, reflexed appendage in the
notch. The flower is shown on Plate VIII.
A rare variety, very much like the commoner type just described, is
occasionally seen in Kent and Surrey. It is called the Late Spider
Orchis (variety _arachnites_), and is supposed to resemble a spider more
than a bee. The petals are more triangular than in the Bee Orchis, and
the lip is longer than the sepals. It may also be distinguished by the
appendage in the notch, which is cordate in form, and flat.
Another rare plant--the Spider Orchis (_Ophrys aranifera_) is to be
found in chalky pastures of the South-East. Its flowers are smaller, and
generally fewer in number. The sepals are yellowish-green inside, and
the petals smooth and linear. The lip is swollen and four-lobed, but
without any appendage in the notch, and is of a deep purple-brown, with
yellowish markings. This is an earlier species, flowering during April
and May.
Our last example of this order is the pretty little Fly Orchis (_Ophrys
muscifera_). It is a slender plant, with a few oblong leaves, and
usually from two to ten flowers arranged in a loose spike. The sepals
are yellowish-green, and the very slender petals resemble the antennæ of
an insect. The lip of the flower is of a brownish purple colour, with a
blue blotch in the middle; and is oblong, with three lobes, the middle
of which is divided into two. This species grows from six inches to a
foot in height, and flowers from May to July. It is moderately common in
the open spaces and on the banks of some calcareous districts.
Although a great variety of Grasses (order _Gramineæ_) are to be found
on calcareous soils, there are two common species which are almost
exclusively confined to dry, chalky pastures. One is the Downy Oat Grass
(_Avena pubescens_), which flowers in June and July. It has a creeping
stem, and grows from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are short,
hairy, with sharply-pointed ligules, and terminate abruptly in a sharp
point. The flowers are arranged in a nearly simple panicle, with erect
spikelets of five or six flowers. The glumes are nearly equal, the inner
one with three ribs. The flowering glume is divided at the tip, and
provided with a long, bent, twisted bristle.