found in almost all wet and marshy places, flowering during July and
August. Its stems are round, leafless, soft, faintly furrowed, solid,
with a continuous pith. They are from one to three feet high, and are
sheathed at the base by a few brownish scales, but the plant has no true
leaves. Most of the stems bear a panicled cluster of green or brown
flowers about six inches from the top. These panicles are very variable
in form and size, being either loose or dense, and varying from one to
three inches in diameter.
The Hard Rush (_Juncus glaucus_) is a very similar plant, flowering at
the same time; but its stem is slender, rigid, deeply furrowed, with the
pith interrupted by air spaces. It is generally from one to two feet
high; and, like the last species, has no true leaves. The panicle is
looser than that of _J. communis_, with fewer and larger flowers; and it
is never more than two or three inches below the top of the stem.
A few of the Rushes form a group known collectively as the Jointed
Rushes, because their cylindrical or slightly-flattened, hollow leaves
are divided within by transverse partitions of pith which give them a
jointed appearance, especially when they are dried. Two or three of the
species referred to are very common in wet places. They are very similar
in general appearance, and one of them--the Shining-fruited Jointed Rush
(_Juncus lamprocarpus_) is selected for illustration.
Another species is the little pale-coloured Toad Rush (_J. bufonis_),
which grows to a height of only a few inches. It has tufted stems that
branch from near the base; and its flowers are either solitary or in
clusters of two or three.
As regards the Sedges (order _Cyperaceæ_), the species are so numerous
that it is impossible to do them justice in a work of this nature.
[Illustration: THE SHINING-FRUITED JOINTED RUSH.]
Their stems are solid, usually more or less triangular, not swollen at
the nodes as in grasses; and the sheaths of the leaves which surround
the stems are not split. The flowers are in little green or brown
spikelets that are either solitary at the top of the stem, or collected
into a cluster, spike, panicle, or umbel. Each spikelet is in the axil
of a scaly or leafy outer bract, and consists of several scales or
glumes, each with a single sessile flower in its axil. The flowers have
no perianth, but there are often a few very small scales or bristles at
their base. They have two or (generally) three stamens; a one-celled
ovary; and a style that is more or less deeply cleft into two or three
slender stigmas. The fruit is a small, one-seeded nut, usually flattened
in the species which have two stigmas, and triangular where the stigmas
are three.
[Illustration: THE COMMON SEDGE.]
The reader should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the above
features of the sedges, in order to avoid any confusion with the rushes,
on the one hand, and with the grasses on the other; and he must not be
led astray by the fact that some of the sedge family are popularly known
as rushes.
Of this order the pretty Cotton Grasses (_Eriophorum_) often form a very
conspicuous feature of marshes and other wet places. They are tufted or
creeping plants with terminal spikelets, very much like those of the
other sedges, but their flowers are perfect, and the bristles which
represent the perianth grow to a considerable length as the flowering
advances, protruding far beyond the overlapping glumes, and at last
forming dense tufts of fine cottony hairs.
Two species are decidedly common and widely distributed, more especially
the Common Cotton Grass (_Eriophorum polystachyon_), which is often so
abundant as to give a general whitish appearance to whole patches of
boggy land. It is a creeping plant, with solid, rigid, solitary stems,
from six inches to over a foot in height; a few shorter, radical leaves;
and a few leaves on the stem. Its spikelets, three to twelve in number,
form a terminal cluster, the inner ones sessile, or nearly so, and the
outer stalked and more or less drooping. They are at first oval or
oblong, about half an inch long; but in fruit, usually in the month of
June, they form dense cottony tufts from one to two inches in length.
[Illustration: THE MARSH SEDGE.]
The other is the Hare's-tail or Sheathing Cotton Grass (_E.
vaginatum_)--a tufted species, common on boggy moors, with many stems
which are round below and triangular above, at first about six or eight
inches high, but lengthening as the flowering advances. At the top of
each stem is a solitary oval spikelet, of a dark brownish-green colour,
over half an inch long, with many straight bristles that eventually form
a dense, globular, cottony tuft about an inch in diameter. This is an
earlier species, flowering during April and May.
The large genus _Carex_ contains many common sedges with grass-like
leaves springing from the base or the lower part of the stem. Some of
them have a solitary spikelet; others have several spikelets in a
terminal cluster or spike, with, sometimes, stalked spikelets below; or
they are arranged in a compound spike or panicle. The flowers are all
imperfect, without perianth; and the male and female flowers are either
in separate spikelets or in different parts of the same one. The glumes
overlap all round the axis of the spikelet; there are generally three
stamens; and the ovary is enclosed in a little vase-shaped covering with
a little hole at the top through which the two or three stigmas
protrude.
We give illustrations of two of the commonest species; the Common Sedge
(_Carex vulgaris_), which flowers from June to August; and the Marsh
Sedge (_C. paludosa_), that flowers in May and June. The former grows to
a height varying from six inches to two feet; and the latter to from two
to three feet.
[Illustration: _Plate VI._
FLOWERS OF DOWN, HEATH AND MOOR.
1. Musk Thistle. 2. Clustered Bell-flower. 3. Spiny Rest Harrow. 4.
Hairy Hawkbit. 5. Sheep's-bit. 6. Spotted Orchis. 7. Heath Rush.]
XVI
ON HEATH, DOWN AND MOOR
On the exposed and more or less bleak heath, down and moor we do not
meet with many species of spring flowers, and for this reason we have
included both spring and summer blossoms in the same chapter.
It must not be supposed, however, from the above statement, that we
regard these exposed situations as devoid of interest, or even lacking
in flowers, for the small number of species flowering early in the
season is often compensated for by the profusion in which their blossoms
are produced.
The golden blaze of the Furze or Gorse, aided more or less by the
similar flowers of its little relative--the Petty Whin, is alone
sufficient to add a charm to the scene, while the large yellow blossoms
of the Broom often take the place of, or add to, the glorious display,
which is frequently varied by the globular flowers of the Whortle, and
the catkins and early leaves of the Dwarf Willow. Occasionally the scene
is still further varied by the evergreen, needle-like foliage of the
Juniper, intermixed with the little axillary catkins; while among the
surrounding grass we see the pretty flowers of the little Eyebright; the
brown flowers and hairy leaves of the Field Woodrush, often growing as
thickly as the grass itself; and the short, stiff leaves and sessile
spikelets of the Spring Sedge.
Among the more gaudy flowers we may note the large purple heads of the
Musk Thistle, a common plant on the heaths of some southern counties;
and in boggy districts we may see the abundant white, silky tufts of the
Hare's-tail Cotton Grass; and the flower-clusters of the Yellow Sedge.
These and the few other spring flowers of heaths and moors are
described, in their order, among the summer flowers of the present
chapter. Some of them are exclusively spring blossoms, and are to be
seen only in their fruiting stages during the summer months, but a few
continue to bloom after spring has ended, and even far into the summer.
The Furze, which often commences to flower during the first few weeks of
the year, may be seen, still in bloom, during July and early August; and
the Eyebright may be found in flower even to the beginning of autumn.
The Musk Thistle, too, though its first flower-heads may be observed in
May, or, sometimes, even in April, will continue producing new flowers
well into October.
[Illustration: THE MILKWORT.]
A good many species are included in the present chapter, and most of
these, at least, will be easily identified by the descriptions given.
On almost all heaths and downs we may see the pretty little Milkwort
(_Polygala vulgaris_)--the only British representative of its order
(_Polygalaceæ_), unless we regard some varieties of this variable plant
as distinct species, according to the opinions of some authorities. It
is a smooth or slightly hairy plant, with a woody stem that gives off
several spreading branches varying from two to nine inches in length.
The nature of the leaves and the arrangement of the flowers are shown in
our illustration. The latter are very variable in colour, ranging from a
pure white to lilac and a deep, rich blue; and each has five sepals, of
which the two inner ones are wing-shaped, persistent, and coloured like
the corolla; and at its base are three bracts, the middle and largest of
which is as long as the short pedicel. The petals, three to five in
number, are united, smaller than the wing-sepals, and the lowest is
keel-shaped. The plant blooms from June to August; and the drooping
flowers, though small, are often so abundant as to distinctly modify the
general colouring of patches of heath and moor.
[Illustration: THE BROOM.]
Two small species of St. John's Wort (order _Hypericaceæ_) are
moderately abundant on downs and commons, especially in South Britain.
The flowers of this order are all yellow, and may be easily recognised
by their stamens, three or five in number, which are so much branched
that they give the appearance of a large number of stamens arranged in
three or five clusters. In the two species we have to consider these
stamens are three in number. One is the Trailing St. John's Wort
(_Hypericum humifusum_), a little tufted, prostrate plant, with small
oblong leaves marked by minute transparent spots, and by black dots
under the margins; and flowers with unequal sepals. The other is the
Small St. John's Wort (_H. pulchrum_) which is erect, from one to two
feet high, with cordate leaves that embrace the stem, and panicled
flowers which are tipped with red when in the bud. Both species flower
during July and August.
Passing now to the _Leguminosæ_, we take first the Broom (_Sarothamus
scoparius_ or _Cytisus scoparius_)--a smooth or slightly hairy shrub,
from two to six feet high, bearing large, yellow flowers during May and
June. Its branches are long, erect, angular and green; and the leaves
are small, ternate, with obovate, silky leaflets, or sometimes reduced
to a single leaflet. The large flowers are either solitary or in pairs,
shortly stalked, and arranged in the axils of the leaves of the previous
summer. The fruits are black pods, usually more than an inch long, hairy
round the edges of the valves, and surmounted at first by a
spirally-curved style.
[Illustration: THE FURZE OR GORSE.]
The Furze, Gorse, or Whin (_Ulex europæus_) is a bush of about the same
size, with more or less erect branches that all terminate in a sharp,
rigid point. Sometimes little lanceolate leaves may be seen near the
bases of the short branches, but normally all the leaves are reduced to
sharp, green spines, about half an inch long. The flowers, usually more
than half an inch long, are placed singly in the axils of the thorny
leaves of the previous season, and are often so abundant as to form
dense, showy clusters. The Furze is abundant in all parts of Great
Britain with the exception of North Scotland, and may be seen in flower
from February (or even January if the weather is mild) to July.
[Illustration: THE TOREMENTIL.]
The Dwarf Furze (_Ulex nanus_), also abundant on the heaths of most
parts of Britain, commences to flower in July--just about the time that
the last species ceases to produce its blossoms, and continues in bloom
almost to the end of the year. It is a much smaller shrub, usually from
one to two feet high, of a deeper green colour. Its stem is usually
procumbent; its spines weaker, and generally turned downward; and its
flowers smaller, and of a deeper, golden yellow.
On heaths and downs of most parts of England and Scotland we may meet
with the Needle Green-weed, Needle Whin, or Petty Whin (_Genista
anglica_)--a little spiny shrub, varying from a few inches to two feet
in height, with erect stem and spreading branches. Its lower branches
are simple, or are reduced to branched thorns, while the upper are
compound, bearing small ovate or narrow leaves; and solitary, axillary,
pale yellow flowers in short, leafy clusters. This species flowers
during May and June.
In the same order (_Leguminosæ_) are two species of Rest Harrow, common
on heaths and stony banks. One of these--the Common Rest Harrow (_Ononis
arvensis_)--is a very variable plant, with pink or rose-coloured flowers
that bloom from June to September. Its stem is sometimes procumbent and
rooting at the base, sometimes ascending or nearly erect, and is thinly
clothed on all sides by soft, spreading hairs. The leaves are usually
trifoliate, with obovate or oblong, toothed leaflets, but the lateral
leaflets are often very small or altogether wanting. The flowers are
solitary, sessile or shortly-stalked, on short, lateral branches; and
the standard (upper petal) is streaked with a darker colour.
The other species, shown on Plate VI, Fig. 3, is the Spiny Rest
Harrow (_O. spinosa_), which, however, is sometimes regarded as a
variety of the last. Its flowers are very similar in form and colour,
and appear during the same time; but the stem is erect, spiny, without
runners, seldom more than a foot high, and has two longitudinal rows of
hairs.
Passing next to the order _Rosaceæ_, we first note the Dropwort (_Spiræa
Filipendula_), of the same genus as the Meadow Sweet, frequently met
with on the downs and dry pastures of England and Scotland. Its leaves
are mostly radical, three or four inches long, interruptedly pinnate,
with many oval or narrow segments which are themselves pinnately lobed
or deeply toothed. At the base of each is a pair of stipules which are
attached to the leaf-stalk throughout their length. The flowers, which
appear during June and July, are white, and very much like those of the
Meadow Sweet (p. 219), but are larger, without scent, and
generally pink when in the bud. The height of the plant is usually from
twelve to eighteen inches.
In the same order we have the Tormentil (_Potentilla Tormentilla_),
which is very abundant on heaths, dry pastures and stony banks,
flowering from June to August. This plant has a prostrate (rarely
erect) stem, from six to ten inches long, repeatedly forked, and clothed
with silky hairs. The leaves are compound, with three or five
deeply-toothed leaflets; the lower ones sometimes shortly stalked, but
the upper always sessile. The flowers are rather small, yellow,
generally with four petals, on slender peduncles arising from the axils
of the leaves or from the forks of the stem.
Our last example of the _Rosaceæ_ is the Blackberry (_Rubus
fruticosus_); but it should be mentioned at once that the popular name
of Blackberry embraces quite a number of shrubs, often estimated at some
scores of species and varieties. We cannot here, however, attempt to
divide and classify the group; but we shall simply point out the
features by which the shrubs in question may be distinguished,
collectively, from allied shrubs that are not properly included under
the same popular name. The stem of the Blackberry grows to from three to
twelve feet long, and has stiff or downy hairs in addition to the
prickles. It is sometimes quite prostrate, sometimes erect, but more
commonly arched, and rooting at the tips as they bend to the ground. The
leaves are very variable, but usually consist of three or five large,
ovate leaflets, with toothed edges, more or less downy, having curved
prickles along the midrib and stalks. The flowers are white or pink, in
terminal panicles, with five free sepals, five distinct petals, and many
stamens. The fruit is black, and consists of several one-seeded carpels
which do not readily separate from the receptacle when ripe; and the
persistent sepals are usually bent downward below it.
Coming now to the _Rubiaceæ_, we have to note four species, all
characterised by whorled leaves; a corolla of four, united petals;
stamens attached to the corolla; and an inferior ovary, of two carpels,
that ripens to a dry fruit. Three of the four belong to the Bedstraw
genus (_Galium_), in which the corolla is wheel-shaped. They are:--
1. The Yellow or Ladies' Bedstraw (_G. verum_), very abundant on downs
and dry banks, flowering from June to September. It has a prostrate or
semi-erect, smooth stem, from six inches to two feet in length; and
small, narrow leaves, six to eight in a whorl, generally slightly rough
on the edges. The flowers are pale yellow, golden yellow, or greenish,
arranged in dense, terminal and axillary panicles. The fruit is small
and smooth.
2. The Smooth Heath Bedstraw (_G. saxatile_).--Abundant on downs,
flowering from June to August. Its stem is prostrate, smooth, from four
to six inches long; and the leaves are generally in whorls of five or
six. The flower-stalks are numerous, erect, weak, angled, smooth, each
bearing a terminal panicle of many small, white flowers. The fruit is
small, with a granulated surface.
3. The Upright Bedstraw (_G. erectum_).--Not so common as the preceding,
but often found on downs and hilly pastures, flowering from June to
August. It is sometimes regarded as a variety of the Great Hedge
Bedstraw (_G. Mollugo_), described on p. 172. Its stem is erect,
from one to two feet high; and the leaves, six to eight in a whorl, are
very narrow, with marginal prickles pointing forwards. The flowers are
white, in a panicle with slender, erect branches; and the fruit is
smooth.
[Illustration: THE SMOOTH HEATH BEDSTRAW.]
The remaining plant of this order is the Small Woodruff or
Squinancy-wort (_Asperula cynanchica_), which is common in many parts of
England and Ireland. Its stem is smooth, sometimes erect with scattered
leaves, and sometimes prostrate, leafy and tufted. It varies in length
from six to ten inches. The leaves are very narrow, usually four in a
whorl, and very unequal. At the upper nodes two of each whorl are often
reduced to mere scales, or are absent altogether. The flowers, which
appear during June and July, are white or pinkish, and are clustered at
the tips of the erect stems. The fruit is small, with a granulated
surface.
[Illustration: THE DWARF THISTLE.]
The Small Scabious (_Scabiosa Columbaria_), of the order _Dipsaceæ_, is
common on the dry heaths of England, and is readily distinguished from
the Devil's-bit Scabious, which it somewhat resembles, by its
deeply-divided leaves and pale purple or lilac flowers. Its stem is
erect, from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are rather crowded,
and usually have a large, oval or oblong, terminal segment, deeply
toothed or lobed, and some smaller ones below it. The stem leaves are
cut into very narrow segments which are either entire or pinnately
lobed. The flowers are in dense, terminal heads, surrounded by a whorl
of short bracts, and intermixed with the little, narrow scales of the
receptacle, the outer flowers of each head being larger than the others,
and very irregular. This plant flowers during July and August.
Of the _Compositæ_ we shall first take the Hairy Hawkbit (_Leontodon
hirtus_), which is very common on moors in most parts of Great Britain,
flowering during July and August. Although known as the _Hairy_ Hawkbit,
this plant is sometimes quite smooth; more commonly, however, the leaves
and peduncles are clothed with thinly-scattered, stiff, forked hairs.
Its leaves are all radical, either oblong or very narrow, with
coarsely-toothed or wavy margins. The flower-heads are solitary, on
peduncles from three to eight inches long, and of a bright yellow
colour. Each head is surrounded by a whorl of about a dozen green,
smooth bracts, outside which are several shorter ones. All the florets
are strap-shaped and perfect; and the fruits, which taper at the top,
are mostly crowned by a pappus of feathery hairs as long as the achene
itself, with a few shorter ones outside. This species appears on Plate
VI, Fig. 4.
We have next to note a few thistles that are more or less common on
downs and moors, the first being the Musk Thistle (_Carduus nutans_),
common in the South of England, but much less frequent in the North. It
is a stout plant, usually scantily covered with a loose, cottony down,
with a furrowed stem from one to three feet high. The leaves are very
deeply divided pinnately, very prickly, and extend down the stem in the
form of narrow, prickly wings. The flower-heads are very large, of a
purple or crimson colour, drooping, usually solitary, but sometimes in
loose clusters of from two to four. Each head is surrounded by numerous
very narrow, stiff bracts, more or less covered with cottony down. All
of these terminate in a sharp prickle which is erect on the inner
bracts, but spreading or turned backward in the case of the outer ones.
This thistle may be seen in flower from May to October. It appears on
Plate VI, Fig. 1.
The next species--the Dwarf Thistle (_Carduus acaulis_)--is found only
in the southern and midland counties of England, but is very common on
some of the elevated downs of the South-East, especially on chalky
soils. It has a very thick and hard rootstock, but hardly any trace of a
stem, so that its spreading tuft of radical leaves lie close on the
ground, around the large, purple, stemless, and, usually, solitary
flower-head. The plant flowers from July to September.
[Illustration: THE CARLINE THISTLE.]
The Carline Thistle (_Carlina vulgaris_), as its name shows, does not
belong to the same genus as the others, from which it differs
principally in having its inner bracts coloured and spreading. It is an
erect plant, with a stiff stem, usually branching, from six to eighteen
inches high. Its leaves are very prickly, and do not form wings down the
stem. The flower-heads are particularly interesting, having much the
appearance of everlasting flowers. In fact, the whole plant is of such a
stiff and dry nature that it undergoes but little change in appearance
when cut and preserved. The outer bracts are leafy and spreading, with
strong, prickly teeth or lobes; and the inner ones are very narrow,
entire, white or pale yellow, of a chaffy nature and very glossy. The
latter are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions, spreading
horizontally when the air is dry, and closing over the florets in humid
air; and they respond so readily to the changed conditions that their
movements may be watched as they are transferred from warm, dry air to a
moist chamber, or _vice versa_. This plant is common on the downs of
England and Ireland, and flowers from July to September.
[Illustration: THE COMMON CHAMOMILE.]
Our last Composite flower is the Common Chamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_),
which is abundant on the downs of the southern counties of England,
flowering from July to September. It is an aromatic herb, with a
procumbent stem, from six to twelve inches long, and ascending, leafy,
flowering branches. The leaves are bipinnate, slightly downy, with very
fine, almost hairlike, segments. The flower-heads are terminal, with a
white ray and yellow disc, surrounded by blunt bracts the inner of which
have membranous tips. On the receptacle are little broad scales, nearly
as long as the disc florets.