Drinking is the chief amusement, and to become helplessly drunk is the

sum of all enjoyment. Frequent _sihkrans_ or feasts are held, lasting

for days, at which large numbers assist to drain the canoeful of liquor

prepared for the occasion. Occasionally surrounding villagers are

invited, and a drinking-bout is held, first in one house and then in

another, until the climax is reached in a debauch by both sexes of the

most revolting character. Quarrels are generally put off for these

occasions, but, as the wives have carefully hidden all weapons, recourse

is had to the fist, with which the combatants exchange blows in turn

until one has had enough. These trials of endurance are also held in

sport; the Smoo or Woolwa, for instance, who wishes to be held most

worthy of the fair sex, engages in a _lowta_ or striking-match with a

rival, each one presenting his bent back to the other in turn, until the

bravest stands declared. Death is not unfrequently the result of such

trials. Even boys, carried away by emulation, hold lighted sticks to

each other's skin. In early times the people of Honduras held regular

festivals at the beginning of each month, at the time of electing

officers, at harvest time, and three other grand celebrations during the

year, for which much food and drink were prepared. As the wine took

effect, the participants were seized with a desire to move to the

exhilarating sound of drum, flute, and rattle, and a simple dance was

organized. That of the Carib is merely a forward and backward movement

of hands and feet, accompanied by a peculiar intonation of voice, and at

their _seekroes_, or festivals in commemoration of the departed, they

stalk in a circle, one following the other, and singing in a loud and

uncouth tone. Their pas seul is livelier, however, the performer

skipping up and down, bending the body in different ways, and making the

most grotesque movements. They are not satisfied with a mere

drinking-bout at their reunions, but spread a good table, to which

guests often bring their own liquor. The Towkas and others prefer the

circle dance, walking at a slow, swinging pace, beating their knuckles

against emptied calabashes, and joining in a refrain, at the end of

which they strike their cups one against another's. At each additional

potation, the walk is increased in speed, until it assumes a trot and

ends in a gallop, the calabashes rattling in accordance. The Sambo dance

is like a minuet, in which the performers advance and recede, making

strange gesticulations. The women have also a dance among

themselves,--for they are not allowed to join with the men,--in which

they form a ring, holding each other round the waist with the left hand,

bending, wriggling, shaking calabash rattles, and singing until

exhausted. Dramatic representations usually accompany these saltatory

exhibitions, wherein the various phases of a lover's trials, comical

sketches, or battles are depicted. The people of Honduras are fond of

disguising themselves with feather tufts, and skins of animals, whose

actions and cries they imitate. The favorite entertainment of the Sambos

is to put on a head-dress of thin strips of wood painted in various

colors to represent the beak of a sword-fish, fasten a collar of wood

round the neck, from which a number of palm-leaves are suspended, and to

daub the face red, black, and yellow. Two men thus adorned advance

toward one another and bend the fish-head in salute, keeping time with a

rattle and singing, "shovel-nosed sharks, grandmother!" after which they

slide off crab-like, making the most ludicrous gestures imaginable. This

fun exhausted, fresh men appear, introducing new movements, and then the

spectators join in a 'walk around,' flourishing white sticks in their

hands, and repeating the above-mentioned refrain in a peculiar buzzing

tone produced by placing in the mouth a small tube covered with the

membrane of a nut.[998]

[Sidenote: GUAJIQUERO DANCE.]

The Guajiqueros in an interesting performance described by Squier,

depict incidents from their history. A square piece of ground having a

tree in the centre is marked off, and two poles adorned with feathers

are erected in opposite corners, one bearing the head of a deer, the

other that of a tiger. A dull, monotonous music is heard, and two

parties of youth, fantastically dressed up and painted, move up to the

square in a slow, but not ungraceful dance, and station themselves round

the poles that bear their respective insignia. A man, stooping as if

bent with age, starts out from the deers, dances round the ground,

trying to arouse the mirth of the spectators with his grotesque

movements. The tigers also dispatch a man, who does his best to excel

the other one in contortions and grimaces. After a while they meet, and

commence a discussion which ends in open rupture, the rising passions

being well delineated. The two men who represent ambassadors then return

to their party with an account of the mission, the result of which is a

general excitement, both factions starting out, dancing backwards and

forwards, up and down the square, until they meet under the tree, in the

centre. The leader of each then steps out and recites the glories and

prowess of his tribe, amidst the applause of his own men, and the

disapproval of the others. As soon as they are worked up to the

requisite pitch of irritation, the dialogue ceases, the music strikes

up, and a mimic combat ensues, in which the armies advance and retreat,

close and separate, using short canes for weapons. At last the tigers

lose their standard and take to flight, whereat the victors execute a

dance of triumph; but finding how dearly the victory has been bought,

their joy is turned into sorrow, and they bend their head upon the

knees, breaking out in loud lament. In a few moments one of them starts

up and begins a panegyric on the fallen brave, which is followed by a

mimic sacrifice and other ceremonies. The vanquished are now seen to

approach with downcast eyes, bringing tribute, which they lay at the

feet of the victors, who receive it with imperious bearing. The music at

these entertainments is not of a very inspiring nature; drums,

consisting of a section of hollow tree covered with skin, which are

generally beaten with the hand, and flutes of bamboo with four stops on

which eight notes are played with different degrees of speed for

variety, being the usual instruments. The Guajiqueros also use the

_chirimaya_, two flutes joined in one mouthpiece; the _syrinx_, or Pan's

pipe; a long calabash with a narrow opening at the small end, into which

the performer blows suddenly, at intervals, to mark time; and a sort of

drum consisting of a large earthen jar, over the mouth of which a

dressed skin is tightly stretched. To the centre of the skin, and

passing through an opening in the bottom, is attached a string which the

performer pulls, the rebound of the membrane producing a very lugubrious

sound. In western Honduras the so-called strum-strum is much used. This

is a large gourd cut in the middle, and covered with a thin board having

strings attached. The _marimba_, and the jews-harp which has been

introduced by the trader, are, however, the favorite instruments for a

quiet reunion, and the few tunes known to them are played thereon with

admirable skill and taste. Songs always accompany their dances and are

usually impromptu compositions on suitable subjects, gotten up for the

occasion by the favorite singers of the village, and rendered in a soft,

but monotonous and plaintive tone. They have no national melodies, but

on the receipt of any good or bad message, their feelings generally find

vent in a ditty embodying the news. Talking is a passion with them, and

as soon as a piece of news is received at a village, two or three

younger men will start with their women and children for the next

hamlet, where it is discussed for hours by the assembled population, who

in their turn dispatch a messenger to the next village, and thus spread

the news over the whole country in a very short time. In story-telling,

those who concoct the biggest lies receive the most applause. Of course,

the pipe must be smoked on these occasions, but as their own tobacco has

become too mild for them, recourse is had to the vilest description of

American leaf. When this is wanting, the smoke-dried leaves of the

trumpet and papah-tree are used by men as well as women. The favorite

drink is _mishla_, prepared chiefly from cassava-roots; but others from

bananas, pine-apples, and other fruits are also used. A number of young

women provided with good teeth, untiring jaws, and a large supply of

saliva, are employed to chew about half of the boiled and peeled roots

requisite to make a canoeful of liquor, the remainder being crushed in a

mortar. This delectable compound is stirred with cold water, and allowed

to ferment for a day or two, when it assumes a creamy appearance, and

tastes very strong and sour. Plantains are kneaded in warm water, and

then allowed to stand for a few days till the mixture ferments, or the

fruit is left in the water in small pieces, and the kneading performed

in the cup previous to drinking. A fermented drink from powdered cacao

and indigenous sugar-cane juice is called _ulung_, and _pesso_ is the

name given to another made from crushed lime-rinds, maize and honey; in

early times mead was a favorite drink in Honduras. The cocoa-nut palm

yields monthly a large quantity of liquor known as _caraca_. The tip of

the undeveloped shoots are cut off, and the branch bent down so as to

allow the fluid to drip into a calabash placed beneath. Its seeds, when

crushed and steeped in hot water give the _acchioc_.[999]

[Sidenote: BEVERAGES OF HONDURAS.]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO CUSTOMS.]

No name for a supreme good spirit is found in the vocabulary of the

Mosquitos; all their appeals are addressed to Wulasha, the devil, the

cause of all misfortunes and contrarieties that happen. The intercessors

with this dread being are the _sukias_, or sorceresses, generally dirty,

malicious old hags, who are approached with gifts by the trembling

applicant, and besought to use their power to avert impending evils.

They are supposed to be in partnership with their devil, for whom they

always exact the half of the fee before entering upon any exorcising or

divination. These witches exercise a greater power over the people than

the chief--a power which is sustained by the exhibition of certain

tricks, such as allowing poisonous snakes to bite them, and handling

fire, which they have learned from predecessors during their long

preparation for the office, passed amidst exposure and fasts in the

solitude of the wilderness. The people of Honduras had also evil

sorcerers who possessed the power of transforming men into wild beasts,

and were much feared and hated accordingly; but their priests or hermits

who live in communion with materialized gods, in small, elevated huts,

apart from the villages, enjoyed the respect of all, and their advice

was applied for on every matter of importance. None but the principal

men could approach them without the necessary offering of maize and

fowl, and they humbly knelt before them to receive their oracular

answer. Preparatory to important undertakings, dogs, cocks, and even men

were sacrificed to obtain the favor of their idols, and blood was drawn

from tongue, ears, and other members of the body. They thought it

likewise necessary to their welfare to have _naguals_, or guardian

spirits, whose life became so bound up with their own that the death of

one involved that of the other. The manner of obtaining this guardian

was to proceed to some secluded spot and offer up a sacrifice: with the

beast or bird which thereupon appeared, in dream or in reality, a

compact for life was made, by drawing blood from various parts of the

body. Caribs and Woolwas assemble at certain periods every year, to

propitiate controlling spirits with ceremonies transmitted from their

forefathers. A variety of ghosts, as Lewire, the spirit of the water,

are supposed to play their pranks at night, and it is difficult to

induce anyone to leave the hut after dark, unless in company. The belief

in dreams is so firmly rooted that their very course of life is

influenced by it. Every dream has a direct or indirect meaning; thus, a

broken calabash betokens loss of wife; a broken dish, the death of a

mother. Among other superstitions, it was believed that the lighting of

an owl upon the house-top would be followed by the death of an inmate;

when thunder roared, cotton-seed was burned; broken egg-shells and

deer-bones were carefully preserved lest the chickens or the deer should

die or disappear. Aware of the peculiar influence of the moon on man and

matter, they are careful not to sleep in its glare, nor to fish when it

is up, and mahogany-cutters abstain from felling trees at certain

periods for fear the wood may spoil. They are wonderfully good

pathfinders, and will pass through the densest forest without guiding

marks; as swimmers they are not to be surpassed. Their mode of greeting

a friend is very effusive, according to Dampier. One will throw himself

at the feet of another, who helps him up, embraces him, and falls down

in his turn to be assisted up and comforted with a pressure. Cockburn

says that the Honduras people bend one knee to the ground and clap their

hands in token of farewell.[1000]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

Their licentious life, and fruit and fish diet, with limited use of

salt, have left their constitution very susceptible to epidemics as

well as other diseases. The most common disorders are affections of the

bowels, such as dysentery and diarrhoea, but chills, rheumatism,

consumption, and measles are not unfrequent. Children suffer much from

worms, and their abdomen is sometimes enormously swollen. A very

painful, though not dangerous eye-disease termed _unkribikun_ is

prevalent; and the burrowing of the tick in the skin causes wounds and

inflammation if the fly be not speedily removed; the _chegoe_, or

sand-flea, attacks the feet in the same manner. But small-pox and

leprosy are the greatest scourges of this country, the former having

here as elsewhere in America committed enormous ravages among the

population. Leprosy--that living death reflecting the sins of former

generations, so capricious in the selection of its victims, taking the

parent, yet leaving the child intact, or seizing upon the offspring

without touching its mother--may certainly be less destructive, but it

is nevertheless fearful in its effect; half of the natives of the

Mosquito country being more or less marked by it, either in the shape of

white or livid spots, or red, white, and scabbed _bulpis_. All sickness

and affliction is supposed to be the work of the evil spirit who has

taken possession of the affected part; sukias must, therefore, be called

in to use their incantations and herbs against the enemy. The witch

appears with her face painted in hideous devices, and begins operations

by placing some herbs beneath the pillow of the patient, blowing smoke

over him, rubbing the body with the hands, and muttering strange words.

If this is not effective, a decoction is made from the herbs, to be used

as a drink or fomentation, and the patient is fenced in with painted

sticks, with strict orders to let no one approach; the witch herself

bringing the food to the patient, whistling a plaintive strain and

muttering over the invalid for some time to chase away the evil. No

pregnant woman, or person who has lately buried a friend, must come near

the house during the illness, nor must any one pass to the windward of

it, lest the sick be deprived of breath; any presumed breach of these

injunctions leaving a safe loophole for the sorceress, in case her

remedies fail. During epidemics, the sukias consult together and note

their dreams, to ascertain the nature and disposition of the spirit.

After muttering incantations all night, and invoking all sorts of

terrible monsters, they plant small painted sticks, mounted by grotesque

figures, to the windward of the village, and announce the expulsion of

the evil. Should the scourge continue, it is supposed that the spirits

are obstinate, and the people remove to other parts, burning the

village. The instructions of the sukia are always scrupulously followed,

and the credulous native may be seen lying on the beach for days, exposed

to all weathers, smeared with blood and waiting for restoration from

ills. Scarifications are much resorted to, and fever patients throw

themselves into cold water, where they remain until dead or until the

fever leaves them. In Honduras, on the other hand, the patient is taken

out of the water after a short immersion, and rolled to and fro before a

fire, until half dead with fatigue, when he was left to be restored by

sleep; blood is let from the thighs, legs, and shoulders; vomiting is

promoted by certain herbs; vermin are administered for jaundice. In

sickness a rigid diet is observed, the patient subsisting chiefly on

iguana broth. Snake-bites are cured by chewing the guaco-root, and

poulticing the wound therewith; the Caribs apply an oil obtained from

the head of the tommy-goff as an antidote for its bite. Herrera states

that the comfort of a sick person was but little regarded; bread and

drink were placed near the patient's head, and if strong enough to

partake thereof, well and good, but if not he might die; nobody took any

notice of him after this. The Mosquitos are not entirely devoid of

affection; but their grief seems to be reserved for the dead, not the

dying.[1001]

The corpse is wrapped in a cloth and placed in one half of a pitpan

which has been cut in two; friends assemble for the funeral and drown

their grief in mushla, the women giving vent to their sorrow by dashing

themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and inflicting other

tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As it is supposed that

the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of the body, musicians are

called in to lull it to sleep, while preparations are made for its

removal; all at once four naked men, who have disguised themselves with

paint, so as not to be recognized and punished by Wulasha, rush out from

a neighboring hut, and, seizing the rope attached to the canoe, drag it

into the woods, followed by the music and the crowd. Here the pitpan is

lowered into the grave with bow, arrow, spear, paddle, and other

implements to serve the departed in the land beyond; then the other half

of the boat is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed over the

grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink, and other

articles placed there from time to time by relatives. The water that

disappears from the porous jars is thought to have been drunk by the

deceased, and if the food is nibbled by birds it is held to be a good

sign. On returning from the grave the property of the deceased is

destroyed, the cocoa-palms being cut down, and all who have taken part

in the funeral undergo a lustration in the river. Relatives cut off the

hair, the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape of the neck

to the forehead; widows, according to some old writers, after supplying

the grave with food for a year, take up the bones, and carry them on the

back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night, for another year,

after which they are placed at the door, or upon the house-top. On the

anniversary of death, friends of the deceased hold a feast called

_seekroe_, at which large quantities of liquor are drained to his memory.

Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an occasion of this kind, says

that males and females were dressed in _ule_ cloaks fantastically

painted black and white, while their faces were correspondingly

streaked with red and yellow, and they performed a slow walk-around, the

immediate relatives prostrating themselves at intervals, calling loudly

upon the dead, and tearing the ground with their hands. At no other time

is the departed referred to, the very mention of his name being

superstitiously avoided. Some tribes extend a thread from the house of

death to the grave, carrying it in a straight line over every obstacle.

Froebel states that among the Woolwas all property of the deceased is

buried with him, and that both husband and wife cut the hair and burn

the hut on the death of either, placing a gruel of maize upon the grave

for a certain time.[1002]

[Sidenote: CHARACTER OF THE MOSQUITOS.]

Hospitality, a gentle and obliging disposition, faithfulness in the

fulfilling of engagements, honesty and docility, balanced by an

inaptness to make any avail of natural benefits, and a supineness in

matters of veracity and judgment, by reason of which they fall into many

excesses, especially in drink, characterize both Mosquitos and Caribs.

The apathy and slowness of the unadulterated aboriginal are, however, in

striking contrast to the vivacious and impressible nature of the Caribs,

whose versatility evidences a rather higher intelligence, which is again

overshadowed by an inordinate vanity, based chiefly upon their greater

strength and stature. Both possess a certain industry, the one being

more plodding, the other more energetic though less patient; this trait

is also noticeable in their pastimes, where the native is far less

exuberant and noisy than his darker neighbor. With regard to the effect

of negro admixture on character, comparisons may be made among the

Caribs themselves, when it will be found that the black race is much

more mercurial and vehement than the purer type, and possesses greater

volubility. The severe discipline kept up, and the disposition, among

the women at least, to provide for the morrow, augurs well for their

future. The bravery and love of freedom which so long kept the Spanish

invaders at bay both on the western and northern borders and on the

coast was subsequently subdued, instance the mild disposition of the

independent Xicaques, Poyas, and Secos, who are now inclined rather to

peaceful diplomacy than to warlike demonstrations; yet the Caribs

manifested considerable spirit during a late conflict with the Honduras

government, and proved themselves efficient soldiers. The character

given to the nations of this subdivision by ancient writers, contains

many unenviable qualities, for not only are they described as lazy,

vicious, lying, inconstant, but as cruel, void of affection, and of less

intelligence than the Mexicans; nevertheless they are obedient,

peaceable, and quiet. The only characteristic we have concerning the

Albatuins is that they were savage, and until of late the Ramas bore the

same character. Among the industrious Towkas we find that gentle

melancholy which characterizes some of the Guatemalans; while their

brothers, the Smoos, have the reputation of being a very simple people

whom the neighbors take delight in imposing upon, yet their women are

said to be more ingenious than the Sambo women. Proceeding to the

Toonglas and Sambos, we observe a preponderance of bad qualities,

attributable, no doubt, to their intercourse with buccaneers and

traders. By most writers they are characterized as a lazy, drunken,

debauched, audacious race, given to thieving; capricious, quarrelsome,

treacherous and exacting among themselves, though obliging to strangers,

their only redeeming traits being hospitality, and a certain

impulsiveness which is chiefly exhibited in grief, and indicates

something good at heart. Their want of energy, which deters them alike

from household work and the commission of great crimes, will not prevent

them from undertaking wearisome voyages to dispose of mere trifles; and

their superstitious fears and puerility under affliction, are entirely

lost when facing the raging surf or hungry shark. Other writers take

advantage of this trait to show that they are high-spirited enough to

carry anything through when once aroused, and add that they have proved

themselves faithful to their masters, are docile and intelligent,

abhorring to appear mean and cowardly.[1003]

[Sidenote: THE ISTHMIANS.]

The ISTHMIANS, by which name I designate all the nations occupying the

territory lying between the San Juan River and the southern shore of

Lake Nicaragua on the north, and the gulf of Urabá, or Darien, and the

River Atrato on the south, present several peculiarities when compared

with the other nations of Central America. The inhabitants of these

regions are a hardy and active race, jealous of their independence and

ever hostile to those who attempt to penetrate their country. Their

resoluteness in excluding all foreigners is materially strengthened by

the rugged and malarious nature of the country, by its deep ravines, its

miasmatic swamps, its abrupt heights, its rapid streams, its tangled

undergrowth, and densely wooded districts. The air of the table-lands

and valleys is hot and moist, the soil exceedingly fertile, but the

interior and mountainous localities have a milder and more temperate

climate with but little variation except that of the dry and wet

seasons. In the lowlands of Panamá, the swampy nature of the surface,

with the great humidity of the atmosphere, produces a luxuriant

vegetation, and the consequent quantity of decomposed vegetable matter

under the influence of a vertical sun, engenders a miasma deadly to the

unacclimated. The rich and marshy nature of the soil, however, sends

forth immense palm-trees, in the branches of which the natives build

their houses, thus obtaining a purer air and greater safety from the

numerous wild animals and dangerous reptiles that infest that region. A

great portion of the territory is rich in minerals which were once

produced by the natives in great quantities, but which, unfortunately,

were the loadstone that drew upon them the ruthless Spanish plunderers.

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN NATIONS.]

In the northern part of Costa Rica along the head waters of the Rio Frio

the _Guatusos_, or _Pranzas_, are located. Mr Squier is inclined to

think they are of the same stock as the Nahuas. Some striking physical

peculiarities observed among them have given rise to various surmises

and startling conclusions regarding their origin. Dwelling in the

western part of the state are the _Terrabas_ and the _Changuenes_,

fierce and barbarous nations, at constant enmity with their neighbors.

In the south-east and extending to the borders of Chiriquí dwell the

_Talamancas_ composed of a number of different tribes and declared by

some to be allied in race with the Guatusos. Besides these are the

_Buricas_, _Torresques_, _Toxas_, and others.[1004] In the mountains of

Chiriquí are the _Valientes_, so called by the Spaniards from their

heroic resistance to the invaders. Many of the warlike nations who

occupied the country at the time of the discovery derived their names

from the caciques that governed them. The people who dwell along the

shore of the Caribbean Sea, between Portobello and Urabá, and occupy the

Limones, Sasardi, and Pinos islands are supposed to be a branch of the

once powerful Darien nations who to the present day remain unconquered.

Their province is situated on the western shore of the gulf of Urabá,

and their town was originally near the mouth of the River Atrato. The

town and the river as well as the province were called by the natives

Darien. This town was conquered in 1510 by a little band of shipwrecked

Spaniards under the Bachiller Enciso. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, Francisco

Pizarro, and men of like metal were there, and this was the first

successful conquest and settlement on Tierra Firme. Whence, as the

conquests of the Spaniards widened, the name Darien was at length

applied to the greater part of the Isthmus. Still further westward were

the once powerful province of _Cueva_, and the site of the ancient city

of Panamá, discovered in 1515 by Tello de Guzman. This was a famous

fishing-station, the word Panamá signifying in the native tongue a place

where many fish are taken. Along the western shore of the bay of Panamá

dwelt several independent and warlike nations, those of _Cutara_,

_Paris_, _Escoria_, besides many others who waged continual war against

each other with the object of increasing their territories and adding

lustre to their names.[1005]

Slight differences only are observable in the Isthmian physique. The

people are generally well-built, muscular, and of average height,

although old authorities, such as Herrera, Andagoya, and Gomara,

describe a tribe, whom they locate near Escoria and Quarecas, as being

very tall--veritable giants. Women, as a rule, are small and of delicate

proportions, but after attaining a certain age, incline to obesity. The

mountain tribes are generally shorter in stature, with more pleasing

features than the coast-dwellers. A notable difference between the

Isthmians and the other aborigines of the Pacific States, is the short,

rather flat nose, in contradistinction to the almost universal aquiline

cast. In color they are of a medium bronze tint, varying according to

localities, the mountain tribes being the darker. Black, straight, and

very abundant coarse hair, black or dark eyes, and excellent teeth

predominate.[1006] In Costa Rica, on the Rio Frio, is the frequently

spoken of but never accurately described nation--the _Guatusos_--whom

somewhat mythical accounts describe as of fair complexions, with light

hair and blue eyes. Likewise Albinos are spoken of by Wafer, who relates

having seen people "milk white, lighter than the colour of any

Europeans, and much like that of a white horse." Furthermore, it is said

that their bodies were covered with a milk-white down, which added to

the whiteness of their skin; hair and eyebrows white, and eyes oblong,

with the corners pointing downwards. During daylight they were

weak-sighted, restive, and lacking energy, but after sundown, their

cheerfulness, activity, and eyesight returned--the latter being

apparently as good as that of other people.[1007]

[Sidenote: DRESS OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

Cotton textures and the bark of a certain tree, beaten in a wet state

until soft and pliant, were the materials used by the Isthmians to cover

their nakedness, if, indeed, they covered it at all. Where cotton was

used, as in parts of Costa Rica, the costume was simply a small strip of

cloth which both men and women wound round the loins or, as on the

islands in the gulf of Nicoya, the women passed it between the legs, and

fastened it to a string round the waist. These latter ornamented their

scanty raiment prettily with various designs painted in colors, and also

with seeds and shells. Near the bay of Herradura the men wore a kind of

mantle covering the whole front and back of the wearer, made of the

above-mentioned bark, in the centre of which was a hole through which

the head passed. The women of this locality only wrap themselves in a

piece of bark, without taking the trouble to fashion a mantle of it. Yet

more simple was the dress of the men near Cartago; a few cotton strings

wound round the foreskin of their virile member, sufficed them.[1008]

Near Panamá and Darien, the caciques only wore long cotton mantles

thrown over the shoulder and reaching nearly to the feet, the common

people going naked, only encasing their privy parts in a kind of funnel

made of gold, silver, shell, or bamboo, according to the wealth of the

wearer, and which was held in place by a string fastened to two holes

in the sides which was passed round the waist. Women in the same

localities wore cotton petticoats reaching to the knees, or, if ladies

of quality, to the ankles. Near the gulf of Nicoya, women wore the long

hair parted in the middle from the front to the back of the head, and

plaited into two braids which hung down on either side over the ears.

The men tied the hair up in a stiff queue with a cotton band, which was

at times arranged so as to rise straight over the crown of the head.

Necklaces of colored beads or of tiger's teeth were worn as ornaments.

Like many nations of the Hyperborean group, the Chorotegans of Nicoya

pierced the lower lip and inserted a round piece of bone. Their arms

they painted with a mixture of their own blood and charcoal. In portions

of Veragua and Behetrias even the funnel or cotton strings were omitted,

and the Gugures, Mandingos, and many others on the Pacific seaboard,

like the people of Veragua, went entirely naked, the chiefs only wearing

long mantles. All of the Isthmians were fond of ornaments; among those

which deserve special notice is the nose-pendant. This was a

crescent-shaped piece of gold or silver, of various sizes for different

occasions, those used on holidays hanging down so as to cover the mouth,

while those for ordinary use only reached the upper lip. Besides the

nose-pendant were ear-rings and a number of heavy necklaces of gold,

silver, tiger's teeth, colored seeds, shells, and coral, according to

the wealth of the wearer. Under their breasts the richer women also wore

gold bars as a support, which were held up by strings passed over the

shoulders. _Guanines_, or figures of animals made of gold, were worn

around the neck by the men on the coast of Veragua, Chiriquí, and Urabá;

others again wore on their heads fillets or crowns of gold or of the

claws of wild beasts, or of feathers. Thus did these naked savages

decorate themselves, often to the extent of several pounds weight. Women

considered it a mark of beauty to have thick legs, and to that end wore

bandages round them. Another Hyperborean custom is here met with--the

anointing of the body with oil--which in these tropics is extracted from

the _bixa_ or seed of the _arnotto_, and over which they sprinkled down

and feathers. Painting the body was everywhere practiced, and was

carried to a great extent, the different colors and figures employed

each having its peculiar significance.

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN BODY-PAINTING.]

On going to war, paint was used more freely than at other times, and the

greater the warrior the thicker the paint. Among the men of Cueba

painting had a double object; it served as an ornament to the person,

and also as a mark of distinction of rank. The chief, when he inherited

or attained his title, made choice of a certain device, which became

that of all his house. Freemen were painted from the mouth downward, and

on the arms and chest, while slaves were only painted or tattooed from

the mouth upward. All the lords, servitors, and vassals who were

freemen, were painted in exactly the same manner. If the son of a chief

adopted the ancestral totem, he could not afterward change it on coming

into his inheritance, but if during his father's life-time he declined

to use the distinctive badge of his house, he could, when he became

chief, choose any new device he might fancy. A son who did not adopt his

father's totem was always hateful to him during his lifetime. The

natives on the northern coast of Chiriquí painted the body in wavy

lines, from the shoulders to the heels; through the cartilage of the

nose they stuck a porcupine-quill, and in the chin the tooth of a wild

beast. The women had holes made in their cheeks through which they stuck

little bunches of feathers; they also wore tiger's claws in their ears.

At San Blas, some of the men painted themselves in black streaks, and

the women in red. At Porto Belo, the king was painted black and all his

subjects red. The natives of Escoria tattooed breast and arms; the women

of Darien across the bridge of the nose from one cheek to the other;

they also blacken their teeth. Others have figures of birds, animals, or

trees painted all over the body, according to fancy; their favorite

colors being black, red, and yellow, which are laid on with pencils

made of wood, chewed at the end till they become soft.[1009] All the

Isthmians pull out the hair from every part of the body except the head,

and rub themselves with herbs, which prevent its further growth. Both

sexes pride themselves on the length of the hair, and most of them allow

it to grow to its full length and hang loose over their shoulders, but

keep it cut on the forehead as low as the eyebrows. The men of Cariai

and some parts of Chiriquí, bind it with fillets and wind it in rolls

round the head, fastening it with a comb made of the heart of the

palm-tree; others wear round their head a band made of bark or certain

fibres of plants, and at festivals they often wear high caps, made from

the gaudy feathers of parrots. At Tanela married women cut their hair

short. It appears that head-flattening again crops out in these parts.

Las Casas states that infants had their heads placed between two pads,

one in front and another behind, in order to increase the length of the

head and width of the forehead.[1010]

[Sidenote: DWELLINGS ON THE ISTHMUS.]

In Costa Rica many of the natives live in small huts built of plaited

rushes. In the year 1545, Diego Gutierrez, governor of Nueva Cartago, in

Costa Rica, attempted to explore that territory. Arriving at the

province of Suere upon a river of that name at a point some twelve

leagues distant from the North Sea, he came to a village, and there

occupied a house belonging to the chief of the district. The old

Milanese chronicler, Girolamo Benzoni, who accompanied the expedition,

describing the dwelling of the cacique, says it was shaped like an egg

and was forty-five paces in length and nine in breath. The sides were of

reeds and the roof of palm-leaves all interlaced and well executed.

There were but few other houses in the village and those of inferior

character. Padre Zepeda, a jesuit, who in 1750 lived among the Guatusos

for several months, speaking of their towns and gardens, says that when

the rains commence, they construct small huts in the trees, where they

live safe from the danger of floods.[1011] Unlike most other nations,

the Isthmians do not build their villages in squares, but generally form

long streets, keeping the houses well apart from each other, probably as

a precaution against conflagrations. On many parts of the coast of

Darien and on the gulf of Urabá, the villages are built in the water.

Others are on the banks of rivers, and many of them are spacious and

constructed with great skill and attention to details. The supporting

posts of the roof are large bamboos or palm-trees. Three or four of

these are driven into the ground at equal distances, proportioned

according to the intended length of the house, and across the top is

laid the ridge-pole; on each side a number of shorter posts are sunk,

from which long rafters are laid to the ridge-pole; the whole is then

covered with palm-leaves, both roof and sides. Other houses are

plastered inside and outside with mud, and these have a flooring of open

bamboo work, raised six or eight feet from the ground. The dwellings are

divided into two or more rooms, having no doors to the entrances, which

are reached by ladders. Sometimes the house is built without walls, in

which case the roof descends to below the level of the floor, and the

structure is left open at both ends, having the appearance of an

elevated platform. The Savanerics and some others on the coast of

Veragua build circular or pyramidal dwellings, by driving strong posts

into the ground sloping toward each other, so as to unite in a point

where they are strongly bound with withes or vines, across which are

tied small sticks, some peeled, others with the bark on, or blackened,

thereby producing a pleasing effect. The walls inside are lined with

reeds beautifully interwoven. The upper portion of the structure is

thatched on the outside with straw and on the apex is placed an ornament

of baked clay. In the centre of the dwelling is a spacious apartment,

and round the walls are small rooms in which different families

reside.[1012] Each village has a public, town, or council house, or

fort, one hundred or more feet in length, constructed in the same manner

as the dwellings, but with no interior partitions; in the walls are

loop-holes for the discharge of arrows. There is an entrance at each

end, and thick doors, made of split palm-tree and bamboo strongly bound

together with withes, are kept in readiness to shut out the enemy. The

doors are kept in position by strong posts set in the ground behind

them. In the province of Veragua they build strong wooden fences or

palisades round some of the villages, to protect them from attacks of

enemies and wild beasts. During the expedition of Gaspar de Espinosa in

1517, Diego de Albitez, who invaded the province of a cacique named

Tabraba, some distance south-west from Panamá, found the inhabitants

protected by strong fortifications. Their forts are built with much

skill. The ground is first enclosed by a deep trench, upon the inner

bank of which trees are planted, and the interstices filled up with logs

and rocks. In many parts of the country the inhabitants were found

living in the tops of trees like birds, laying sticks across from one

branch to another, and building their houses upon them. In 1512, Vasco

Nuñez de Balboa surveyed several channels at the mouth of the River

Atrato in quest of gold and plunder. The surrounding country was low and

marshy, but the soil sent forth immense palm-trees, in the branches of

which the natives built their houses. Vasco Nuñez, entering an affluent

of the Rio Negro, discovered a large tree-top village, the name of whose

ruler was Abieiba. The houses were divided into several apartments, each

of a size sufficient to accommodate several families. They were built of

wood and willows, and were so pliable and yet so strong, that the

swaying to and fro of the branches, to which the elastic tenement

yielded, did not in the least interfere with the safety of the

occupants. Ladders, made of a single large bamboo split in two, were

used in making the ascent and descent. These were drawn up at night, or

in case of the invasion of an enemy. On the coast of Veragua Columbus

discovered similar dwellings, and he says that he could not account for

the custom, unless it was through fear of griffins which abound in that

country, or of enemies, each tribe being at war with every other tribe

along the coast. The true cause, however, of their taking to trees for

places of residence, is to place themselves beyond the reach of sudden

and violent floods, which are caused by the swelling of streams after

storms in the mountains, and also in order to be out of the reach of

reptiles and wild beasts in which that country abounds.[1013] Some of

the Isthmians built large enclosures for the chiefs, which early

contemporary writers call the king's palace. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, on

his march through the province of Comagre, situated on the northern

coast of Darien about thirty leagues from the gulf of Urabá, relates

that he visited the dwelling or palace of the cacique Comagre, which he

describes as follows: It was one hundred and fifty by eighty paces in

dimension, constructed upon heavy posts, which stood within a stone

wall. The upper part of the building was beautifully finished with

timbers, interlaced in such a manner as to strike the beholder with

amazement. The building contained various apartments--chambers, pantry,

and wine-cellar. In one very large apartment were sacredly kept the

remains of the king's ancestors arranged round the walls.[1014]

[Sidenote: FOOD OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

The Costa Ricans live chiefly by hunting and fishing, and many of them

cultivate maize, beans, and bananas; the Talamancas, especially, are

agriculturists. According to Father Zepeda, and others who penetrated

some distance into the country of the Guatusos, they had large fields

under cultivation. Salt is seldom used by any of these tribes, and none

of them ever eat dogs, as they keep them for hunting purposes. Their

chief game is wild hogs and deer, but they are not very particular as to

their animal diet, for they eat whatever they can catch, including

reptiles. Their mode of cooking fish renders them exceedingly palatable,

which is by roasting them wrapped in plantain-leaves. Bananas are

usually pulled when green, and buried in sand to ripen.[1015] Many of

the other Isthmians are agriculturists, and grow considerable

quantities of maize, plantains, cacao, pimiento, and cocoa-nuts; their

means of subsistence are further largely supplemented by game and fish.

A staple article of food among the coast tribes is turtle, of which they

capture large numbers. Monkeys afford them a favorite meal, and they are

especially fond of iguanas, young alligators, and their eggs. From the

yucca as well as corn they make a good quality of bread. The Doraches

and Guaimies of Veragua subsist mainly on wild roots and a fruit called

_pixbaex_, somewhat resembling dates, which toasted, makes an agreeable

and wholesome food. Most of their dishes are highly seasoned with

pimiento, a kind of pepper produced by a small shrub which is very

abundant on Tierra Firme. The toocan bird lives chiefly on the berry,

which it discharges from the stomach almost immediately after swallowing

it; the natives prefer it thus, as its bitterness is partly absorbed by

the bird. It is said that the Caribs ate human flesh whenever they had

an opportunity. Herrera says that some of the Isthmians purchased

slaves, whom they sold to the Caribs for food, and the inhabitants of

Paria supplied boys to the natives of Tubrabá for the same purpose. They

cooked the flesh of their enemies, and ate it seasoned with salt and

_ají_ (chile).[1016] When a piece of ground is to be planted, a number

of the villagers collect and cut down the brushwood on a selected spot;

the seed is then scattered among the wood as it lies. In due time the

grain, which is well sheltered from the sun by the branches, springs up

and overtops them, and when fit for harvesting the ears are gathered.

After this, the underwood and corn-stalks are set on fire, and the

ground continues to be used for agricultural purposes. In hunting deer

and wild swine, dogs are used to drive them out of the dense forest; at

other times they set fire to a part of the woods, and as the animals try

to escape, they kill them with spears and arrows. Birds are killed with

a blow-pipe. When fishing they use nets made of mahoe-bark or

silk-grass, and in places where rocks prevent their using a net, they

catch them with their hands or shoot them with arrows. Fishing by

torchlight with spears is frequently practiced. The Savanerics poison

pools with pounded leaves of the barbasco, and thus obtain fish without

much labor. For duck-hunting they also employ the often-described trick

of placing a calabash on the head, and in this manner approach the game.

The men of Cueba are celebrated for making pure white salt from sea

water--an article much used in this locality. In the same province a

kind of communism obtained; all provisions were delivered to the chief,

who distributed to each his share. Part of the community were employed

as agriculturists, and part as hunters and fishermen. At his meals the

cacique was served by women, some of his principal men eating with

him.[1017]

In their personal habits the Isthmians are cleanly; they bathe generally

twice a day and sometimes oftener; but commonly at sunrise and sunset.

The interior of their dwellings has a neat appearance, and order and

cleanliness prevail in all their domestic arrangements.[1018]

[Sidenote: WEAPONS OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

Bows and arrows, long spears, javelins, flint-edged clubs, and

blow-pipes, are the weapons used in these parts. The bows are

beautifully made, those of the Costa Ricans being about seven feet

long, of a dark-colored, very hard wood, with the string of well-twisted

silk-grass. Arrows are of the same wood, very long, and pointed with a

porcupine-quill or fish-bone. The bows and arrows of those farther south

are much shorter, and of black palm-wood, as are also their lances and

javelins. The arrows are pointed with flint or fish-bone, or are

hardened in the fire and barbed; the shaft is of reed having a piece of

hard wood eight or ten inches in length inserted in the end. The

inhabitants of Coiba and some of the tribes on the western shore of the

gulf of Urabá, do not use bows and arrows. In this respect, so far as I

have observed, they form an exception; as among the almost innumerable

tribes situated between the gulf of Urabá and the Arctic Ocean I know of

none others where bows and arrows are not used. These people in battle

employ a long wooden sword, and wooden spears, the ends of which are

hardened in the fire and tipped with bone; they also make use of slings

and darts. Their javelins are thrown with much force and dexterity by

means of a stick slightly grooved to hold the projectile. It is called

_estorica_ and is held between the thumb and two fingers, there being a

small loop on the side, near the centre, in which the forefinger is

placed; the dart is cast straight from the shoulder, while the projector

is retained in the hand. I have noticed a somewhat similar contrivance

employed by the Aleutian Islanders.[1019] The blow-pipe which is used

with much effect, is about six or seven feet long, and the darts shot

from it are made of Mucaw-wood, very thin with an exceedingly sharp

point, notched, so that when an object is struck it breaks off and it is

almost impossible to extract the broken point; others are poisoned so

that a slight wound causes death in a short time. One end is wrapped

with a little cotton, until it fits the tube which is placed to the

mouth and the dart blown out. It is quite effective for a distance of

one hundred yards. Different varieties of poison have been described by

writers and travelers. Herrera speaks of one which he says was made with

certain grey roots found along the coast, which were burnt in earthen

pipkins and mixed with a species of poisonous black ant; to this

composition were added large spiders, some hairy caterpillars, the wings

of a bat, and the head and tail of sea-fish called _tavorino_, very

venomous, besides toads, the tails of snakes, and manzanillas. All these

ingredients were set over a fire in an open field and well boiled in

pots by a slave till they were reduced to a proper consistency. The

unfortunate slave who attends to the boiling almost invariably dies from

the fumes. Another poisonous composition is spoken of as having been

made of fourteen different ingredients and another of twenty-four, one

that kills in three days, another in five, and another later, and when

one was employed it was stated that sometimes the wounded lived as many

days as the poison had been made. The natives said that fire, sea water,

and continency were the antidotes against the venom, others affirmed

that the dung of the wounded person taken in pills or otherwise was a

cure. Peter Martyr writes that the poison was made by old women skilled

in the art, who were shut up for two days in a house where they boiled

the ingredients; if at the expiration of the time, the women were found

in good health instead of being half dead, they were punished and the

ointment was thrown away. Captain Cochrane in his _Journal in Colombia_,

says that they obtain the poison from a small frog called the _rana de

veneno_. These frogs are kept in a hollow cane and regularly fed. When

required for use, they take one and pass a pointed stick down its throat

and out at one of its legs. The pain brings to the back of the toad a

white froth, which is a deadly poison and in it the darts are rubbed;

below the froth a yellow oily matter is found which is carefully scraped

off, as it is also a powerful poison, but not so lasting as the first

substance, which will retain its deadly properties for a year while the

yellow matter looses its strength after five or six months.[1020] The

javelins used by the Caribs were not made pointed but square at the end,

they also have very long pikes and heavy clubs. When Bartolomé Hurtado

in 1516 visited the island of Caubaco he relates that the cacique

presented him with a golden armor valued at one thousand castellanos. At

the island of Cabo seven leagues distant, the warriors wore a thick

matted armor of cotton impervious to arrows; they were armed with pikes

and in their march were accompanied with drums, conchs, and fifes.[1021]

[Sidenote: WEAPONS, ARMOR, AND WARS.]

Wars arise chiefly from the jealousies and ambition of rival chieftains.

Battles are frequent and sanguinary, often lasting for many days, and

are fought with tenacious courage. Throughout Darien it is customary to

place sentinels at night in the highest houses of the towns, to keep

watch and give warning of the approach of an enemy. At the commencement

of a campaign, chiefs and captains experienced in war are nominated by

the head of the tribe, to lead the men in battle and conduct the

operations; they wear certain insignia, so as to be distinguished from

the rest of the men, lofty plumes on the head, and a quantity of golden

ornaments and jewels, besides which they are painted in a different

style. All, however, adorn themselves when going to battle, with a

profusion of necklaces, bracelets, and golden corselets. The men are

cheered on to battle and encouraged during the fight by the blowing of

large shells and the beating of drums. In the province of Cueba, women

accompany the men, fighting by their side and sometimes even leading the

van. The action is commenced with the slings and estoricas, but they

soon meet at close quarters, when the heavy wooden swords and javelins

are brought into use. Certain rules and military regulations are

observed whereby the brave are rewarded, and offenders against military

discipline punished. Nobility is conferred on him who is wounded in war,

and he is further rewarded with lands, with some distinguished woman,

and with military command; he is deemed more illustrious than others,

and the son of such a father, following the profession of arms, may

inherit all the father's honors. He who disobeys the orders of his chief

in battle is deprived of his arms, struck with them, and driven from the

settlement. All booty is the property of him who captured it. The

prisoner is the slave of the captor; he is branded on the face and one

of his front teeth knocked out. The Caribs, however, used to kill and

eat their prisoners. Wafer mentions that upon some occasions, he who had

killed an enemy cut off his own hair as a distinguishing mark of

triumph, and painted himself black, continuing so painted until the

first new moon.[1022]

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN DISHES AND IMPLEMENTS.]

The Isthmians sleep in hammocks, often beautifully made, and suspended

between two trees or upright posts. Owing to the material of which they

are composed they are exceedingly cool and well adapted to the climate.

Gourds, calabashes, and cocoa-nut shells are employed for water-bowls

and drinking-cups. Their other household utensils consist of earthen

jars, flint knives, stone hatchets and boxes ingeniously made of

palm-leaves, and covered with deer or other skins. Drums of different

sizes, some very large, others small, are made of the hollow trunk of a

tree covered at the ends with deer's hide. Those of the largest size are

kept at the chief's residence or at the town-house. Hammocks are made of

finely woven cloth, or more frequently of plaited grass of various

colors and curiously ornamented. Wooden mortars, made from the knotty

part of a tree, are used to pound yucca, from which they make their

cassava. The metate or rubbing-stone is also in use among them. They

have nets of different kinds for both fishing and hunting. At night, as

a light for their dwellings they use torches made from palm-wood dipped

in oil and beeswax. The lords and principal men of the provinces of

Darien and Urabá are reputed to have drunk from golden cups of rich and

beautiful workmanship. Peter Martyr gives an account of golden trumpets

and a great number of bells found by the Spaniards in a town situated on

the River Dabaiba (Atrato). The bells were used at ceremonies and

festivals, giving forth a sweet and pleasant sound; the tongues or

clappers were beautifully made, of fish-bones. In another part of the

country, on the gulf of Urabá, says Peter Martyr, as rendered by the

ancient translator: "They founde also a great multitude of shetes, made

of the silke or cotton of the gossampine tree; likewise diuers kindes of

vessels and tooles made of wood, and many of earth; also many brest

plates of gold, and ouches wrought after their manner."[1023]

They manufacture strong cords from the bark of the mahoe-tree, which is

taken off in long strips, beaten with sticks, cleaned, and then twisted.

A finer description of thread is made from a species of pita, of which

the leaves undergo a somewhat similar process in preparation as flax,

being steeped in water for several days, then dried in the sun and

afterwards beaten, producing fine silky threads, from which their

hammocks and finer kinds of nets for catching small fish are made. From

the same plant they make excellent baskets and matting; the materials

are first dyed in different colors, prettily mixed and woven together so

closely as to hold water. They are of a soft texture and exceedingly

durable. The Dorachos are famed for the manufacture of pottery,

water-bottles, and other household utensils, elegantly shaped and

prettily painted. Cotton cloths are woven by women, and considering the

rude and simple implements they work with, the fineness of texture and

blending of colors present a marvel of skill and patience. The process

of weaving is thus described by Wafer: "The Women make a Roller of Wood,

about three Foot long, turning easily about between two Posts. About

this they place Strings of Cotton, of 3 or 4 yards long, at most, but

oftner less, according to the use the Cloth is to be put to, whether for

a Hammock, or to tie about their Waists, or for Gowns, or for Blankets

to cover them in their Hammocks, as they lie in them in their Houses;

which are all the Uses they have for Cloth: And they never weave a piece

of Cotton with a design to cut it, but of a size that shall just serve

for the particular use. The Threads thus coming from the Roller are the

Warp; and for the Woof, they twist Cotton-yarn about a small piece of

_Macaw_-wood, notch'd at each end; And taking up every other Thread of

the Warp with the Fingers of one Hand, they put the Woof through with

the other Hand, and receive it out on the other side: and to make the

Threads of the Woof lie close in the Cloth, they strike them at every

turn with a long and thin piece of _Macaw_-wood like a Ruler, which lies

across between the Threads of the Warp for that purpose."[1024]

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN BOATS AND NAVIGATION.]

The canoes and rafts of the Isthmians are admirably adapted to the

navigation of their rivers and gulfs, and the men who manage them are

skillful boatmen. The canoes vary in size; some are dug out from the

single trunk of a tree, others are constructed of bark. The largest are

thirty-five feet in length by three in breadth, and are capable of

carrying many persons, besides a considerable amount of cargo. They are

so lightly built that little difficulty is experienced in passing them

over obstructions, and those of smaller size are often carried on the

head. They draw very little water, and are propelled with paddles by two

persons, one in the stern, the other in the bow. When passing over

rapids, palancas, or poles, are used, with crotchets attached, which

answer the purpose of a boat-hook in laying hold of the bank or

overhanging branches of trees, where the depth of water prevents the

pole reaching the bottom. The rafts are made from an exceedingly light

and soft timber similar to cork-wood. Three or four logs are bound

together with ropes and across them are laid smaller timbers of the

same wood, fastened down with hard wooden pegs that are easily driven

through. The rafts are chiefly employed for fishing or crossing large

rivers. Canoes are, however, quite as frequently used for fishing

purposes.[1025]

The native products are gold, pearls, tortoise-shell, ivory-nuts, cacao,

caoutchouc, corozo-nuts, cocoa-nuts, dried venison, lard, and

deer-skins; these are offered in considerable quantities to foreigners,

and in exchange they receive salt and ironware, besides various trinkets

and such domestic utensils as they are in need of. The value of the

pearls was lessened on account of their practice of throwing oysters

into the fire in order to open them, which partially destroyed their

lustre. The natives of the coast carry into the interior dried fish and

salt, which they barter for gold dust and other products. At Pueblo

Nuevo sarsaparilla forms a principal article of trade. The native

traders are very shrewd, and as a rule practice fair dealing. On his

march through the country, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa found the people in

possession of large quantities of gold, jewelry, and pearls. Everywhere

along his route he received presents of gold; indeed, in some places he

found this metal in greater abundance than food.[1026]

The streams of this region are subject to frequent swellings, caused by

heavy rains. After the subsiding of these floods, the natives procure

gold from the river-beds; they also burn the grass in the mountains and

pick up the metal left exposed on the surface in large quantities. In

the district of Veragua and in Darien they have workers in gold,

crucibles for melting metals, and implements of silversmiths. They

understand the alloying of gold, from which they make vases and many

kinds of ornaments in the shape of birds and different varieties of

animals. The relics which from time to time have been exhumed in

Chiriquí and other parts of the Isthmus, prove that the natives had an

excellent knowledge of the art of working and also of sculpturing in

gold and stone. Painting and glazing on jars and other descriptions of

pottery was an art in which the men of Chiriquí were famous.[1027] The

Isthmians possessed only a very slight knowledge of the computation of

time. They calculate the hour of the day by the height of the sun in the

heavens, and have no division of time into years, months, or weeks.

Their enumeration is limited to twenty, and beyond that they count by

twenties to one hundred; their knowledge of numbers does not go

further.[1028]

[Sidenote: ARTS AND GOVERNMENT.]

In the provinces of Cueba, Comagre, and other parts of Darien the eldest

son succeeded to the government upon the death of his father. As soon as

the funeral ceremonies were over, the heir received the congratulations

of the attendant nobles, the highest and most aged of whom conducted him

to a chamber and laid him in a hammock. His subjects then came to offer

their submission accompanied with presents, which consisted of large

stores of edibles and fruits of every kind. They greeted him with

triumphal songs in which they recounted the deeds of his ancestors, as

well as those of other lords of the land, telling him who were his

friends and who his enemies. Much wine was consumed and the rejoicing

lasted several days. Afterwards ambassadors were dispatched to inform

all the neighboring caciques of the new accession, desiring their good

will and friendship for the future. In the province of Panamá upon the

death of the lord, the eldest brother succeeded him, and if there were

no brothers the succession went to a nephew by the sister's side. The

chiefs held undisputed authority over their people and were implicitly

obeyed. They received no tribute but required personal service for

house-building, hunting, fishing, or tilling the ground; men so employed

were fed and maintained by the chief. In Cueba the reigning lord was

called _quebi_, in other parts he was called _tiba_. The highest in rank

after the _tiba_ had the title of _sacos_, who commanded certain

districts of the country. _Piraraylos_ were nobles who had become famous

in war. Subject to the sacos were the _cabras_ who enjoyed certain lands

and privileges not accorded to the common people. Any one wounded in

battle, when fighting in presence of the _tiba_, was made a cabra and

his wife became an _espave_ or principal woman. A constable could not

arrest or kill a cabra; this could be done only by the tiba; once struck

by the tiba, however, any person might kill him, for no sooner was he

wounded by his chief than his title and rank dropped from him.

Constables were appointed whose duty it was to arrest offenders and

execute judgment on the guilty. Justice was administered without form by

the chief in person who decided all controversies. The cases must be

stated truthfully, as the penalty for false testimony was death. There

was no appeal from the decision of the chief. Theft was punishable with

death and anyone catching a thief in flagrante delicto, might cut off

the offender's hands and hang them to his neck. Murder was also punished

by death; the penalty for adultery was death to both parties. In

Darien, he who defloured a virgin had a brier thrust up his virile

member, which generally caused death. The facts had to be proved on

oath, the form of taking which was to swear by their tooth. As I have

said, a constable could not arrest or kill a noble; consequently if one

committed a crime punishable with death, the chief must kill him with

his own hand, and notice was given to all the people by beating the

large war drum so that they should assemble and witness the execution.

The chief then in presence of the multitude recited the offence, and the

culprit acknowledged the justice of the sentence. This duty fulfilled,

the chief struck the culprit two or three blows on the head with a

macana until he fell, and if he was not killed, any one of the

spectators gave him the finishing stroke. Criminals who were executed

were denied the right of burial. The Caribs had no chiefs, every man

obeyed the dictates of his own passions, unrestrained by either

government or laws.[1029]

[Sidenote: PUNISHMENTS AND SLAVERY.]

Slavery was in force among the various nations inhabiting the Isthmus,

and every principal man retained a number of prisoners as bondsmen; they

were called _pacos_, and, as I have already mentioned, were branded or

tattooed with the particular mark of the owner on the face or arm, or

had one of their front teeth extracted. When traveling, the slaves had

to carry their lord's effects, and a dozen or more were detailed to

carry his litter or hammock, which was slung on a pole and borne on the

shoulders of two men at a time, who were relieved at intervals by two

others, the change being made without stopping. On his march across the

Isthmus in 1513, Vasco Nuñez found some negro slaves belonging to the

cacique of Quarecas, but the owner could give no information relative to

them, except that there were more of that color near the place, with

whom they were continually at war.[1030]

[Sidenote: FAMILY RELATIONS OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

Caciques and lords married as many wives as they pleased. The marriage

of the first wife was celebrated with a great banquet, at the close of

which the bride was handed over to her husband. Subsequent wives were

not married with ceremonies or rejoicings, but took the place of

concubines, and were subject to the orders of the first wife. The number

of wives was limited only by the wealth of the lord. Vasco Nuñez took

prisoner the cacique Tumanamá with all his family, among which were

eighty wives. The children of the first wife were legitimate, while

those of others were bastards and could not inherit. Marriage was not

contracted with strangers or people speaking a different language, and

the tiba and lords only married with the daughters of noble blood.

Divorces were brought about by mutual consent and for slight causes, and

sometimes wives were exchanged. If a woman was barren, they promptly

agreed upon a separation, which took place when the woman had her

menstrual period, in order that there might be no suspicion of

pregnancy. When a maiden reached the age of puberty, she was kept shut

up, sometimes for a period of two years. In some parts of Darien, when a

contract of marriage was made, all the neighbors brought presents of

maize or fruits, and laid them at the door of the bride's father; when

the offerings were all made, each one of the company was given a

calabash of liquor; then followed speeches and dancing, and the

bridegroom's father presented his son to the bride, and joined their

hands; after which the bride was returned to her father, who kept her

shut up in a house with him for seven days. During that time all the

friends assisted in clearing a plantation and building a house for the

couple, while the women and children planted the ground. The seven days

having elapsed, another merrymaking took place, at which much liquor was

drunk. The bridegroom took the precaution to put away all weapons which

were hung to the ridge-pole of his house, in order to prevent any

serious fighting during their drunken orgies, which lasted several days,

or until all the liquor was consumed. If a man had several wives, he

often kept each one in a separate house, though sometimes they all lived

together; a woman who was pregnant always occupied a house to

herself.[1031] Women are easily delivered, and the young infant is tied

to a board on its back or between two pillows, and is kept so confined

until able to walk, the board being removed only to wash the child. Male

children are early accustomed to the use of weapons, and when able to

carry a few provisions for themselves, they accompany their fathers on

hunting expeditions. Girls are brought up to household duties, cooking,

weaving, and spinning. Prostitution was not infamous; noble ladies held

as a maxim, that it was plebeian to deny anything asked of them, and

they gave themselves up to any person that wooed them, willingly,

especially to principal men. This tendency to licentiousness carried

with it extremes in the use of abortives whereby to avoid the

consequence of illicit pleasures, as well that they might not be

deprived of them, as to keep their breasts from softening; for, said

they, old women should bear children, not young ones, who have to amuse

themselves. Sodomy was practiced by the nations of Cueba, Careta, and

other places. The caciques and some of the head men kept harems of

youths, who, as soon as destined to the unclean office, were dressed as

women, did women's work about the house, and were exempt from war and

its fatigues. They went by the name of _camayoas_, and were hated and

detested by the women.[1032]

[Sidenote: INTOXICATING LIQUORS.]

Their public amusements were called _areitos_, a species of dance very

nearly resembling some in the northern provinces of Spain. They took

place upon occasions of a marriage or birth, or when they were about to

go forth on a hunting expedition, or at the time of harvest. One led the

singing, stepping to the measure, and the rest followed, imitating the

leader. Others again engaged in feats of arms and sham battles, while

singers and improvisatori related the deeds of their ancestors and

historical events of the nation. The men indulged freely in fermented

liquors and wines, the drinking and dancing lasting many hours and

sometimes whole days, until drunk and exhausted they fell to the ground.

Actors in appropriate costumes counterfeited the various pursuits of

fishing, hunting, and agriculture, while others, in the guise of jesters

and fools, assisted in enlivening the scene. Their principal musical

instruments were drums and small whistles made of reeds; they had also

javelins with holes pierced in them near the end, so that when cast into

the air a loud whistling noise was produced.[1033] They have various

kinds of wines and liquors both sweet and sour. One is obtained from a

species of palm-tree, by tapping the trunk near the top, and inserting a

leaf into the cut. The liquor drawn off soon ferments, and in two or

three days is fit to drink; or it is boiled with water and mixed with

spices. Another kind called _chicha_ is made from maize; a quantity of

the grain is soaked in water, then taken out and left to sprout, when it

is bruised and placed in a large vessel filled with water, where it is

allowed to remain until it begins to turn sour. A number of old women

then collect and chew some of the grain, which they spit out into large

gourds until they have a sufficient quantity; this, as soon as it

ferments, is added to the water in the vessel, and in a short time the

whole undergoes fermentation. When the liquor is done working it is

drawn off from the sediment, and a strongly intoxicating liquor is thus

produced, which is their favorite beverage. They have another method of

making chicha, by boiling the sprouted grain in water till the quantity

is considerably reduced; it is then removed from the fire and left to

settle and cool. In two days it becomes clear and fit to drink, but

after five or six days it begins to acidify so that only a moderate

quantity is made at a time. Different varieties of wines and liquors are

made from dates, bananas, pineapples, and other fruits, and we are told

that the first Spanish explorers of the country found large quantities

of fermented liquors buried beneath the ground under their house-tree,

because if stored in their houses the liquor became turbid from constant

agitation. The cellar of the king Comagre is described as being filled

with great vessels of earth and wood, containing wine and cider. Peter

Martyr, in his account of the visit of Vasco Nuñez and his company to

the king, says "they drunke wines of sundry tastes both white and

black." Tobacco is much used by the Isthmians; the natives of Costa Rica

roll the leaf up in the form of a cigar, and tie it with grass threads;

they inhale the smoke, and, retaining it for a short time, pass it out

through the mouth and nostrils. The cigar used by the natives of the

isthmus of Panamá is much larger. Mr Wafer thus describes their manner

of making and smoking it: "Laying two or three Leaves upon one another,

they roll up all together side-ways into a long Roll, yet leaving a

little hollow. Round this they roll other Leaves one after another, in

the same manner but close and hard, till the Roll be as big as ones

Wrist, and two or three Feet in length. Their way of Smoaking when they

are in Company together is thus: A Boy lights one end of a Roll and

burns it to a Coal, wetting the part next it to keep it from wasting too

fast. The End so lighted he puts into his Mouth, and blows the Smoak

through the whole length of the Roll into the Face of every one of the

Company or Council, tho' there be 2 or 300 of them. Then they, sitting

in their usual Posture upon Forms, make, with their Hands held hollow

together, a kind of Funnel round their Mouths and Noses. Into this they

receive the Smoak as 'tis blown upon them, snuffing it up greedily and

strongly as long as ever they are able to hold their Breath, and seeming

to bless themselves, as it were, with the Refreshment it gives them."

After eating heartily, more especially after supper, they burn certain

gums and herbs and fumigate themselves to produce sleep.[1034]

The Isthmians are good walkers, their tread firm, but light and soft as

a cat, and they are exceedingly active in all their movements. When

traveling they are guided by the sun, or ascertain their course by

observing the bark of the trees; the bark on the south side being always

the thickest. When fatigued by travel they scarify their legs with a

sharpened reed or snakes' teeth. They are very expert swimmers and the

dwellers on the coast pass much of their time in the water. In

salutation they turn their backs to each other. No one will accept a

gift from a stranger unless with the especial permission of the

chief.[1035]

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN SORCERERS.]

They believe largely in spirits and divinations, and have sorcerers

called _piaces_ who are held in much respect and awe. The piaces profess

to have the power of foretelling the future and raising spirits. When

putting in practice their arts they retire to a solitary place, or shut

themselves up in a house, where, with loud cries and unearthly sounds

they pretend to consult the oracle. Boys destined to be piaces are taken

at the age of ten or twelve years to be instructed in the office; they

are selected for the natural inclination or the peculiar aptitude and

intelligence which they display for the service. Those so chosen are

confined in a solitary place where they dwell in company with their

instructors. For two years they are subjected to severe discipline, they

must not eat flesh nor anything having life, but live solely on

vegetables, drink only water, and not indulge in sexual intercourse.

During the probationary term neither parents nor friends are permitted

to see them; at night only are they visited by professional masters, who

instruct them in the mysteries of the necromantic arts. In the province

of Cueba masters in these arts are called _tequinas_. It is asserted of

the piaces that they could foretell an eclipse of the moon three months

before the time. The people were much troubled with witches, who were

supposed to hold converse with evil spirits, and inflicted many ills

especially upon children.[1036]

[Sidenote: MEDICAL PRACTICE.]

The Isthmians are a healthful and long-lived race. The ills most common

to them are fevers and venereal disease. The latter, as Oviedo affirms,

was introduced into Europe from Hayti, or Española, where it was

prevalent as well as throughout Tierra Firme. This is a subject that has

given rise to much contention among authors, but the balance of

testimony seems to indicate that the venereal disease in Europe was not

of American origin, although the disease probably existed in America

before the coming of Europeans. The remedies employed by the Isthmians

for the complaint were _guayacan_ wood, and other medicinal herbs known

to them. They are much troubled with a minute species of tick-lice that

cover their limbs in great numbers, from which they endeavor to free

themselves by applying burning straw. Another insect, more serious in

its consequences and penetrating in its attacks, is the _chegoe_, or

_pulex penetrans_; it burrows under the skin, where it lays its eggs,

and if not extracted will in time increase to such an extent as to

endanger the loss of the limb. The natives remove it with any

sharp-pointed instrument. They are liable to be bitten by venomous

snakes, which are numerous in the country and frequently cause death.

Whenever one is bitten by such a reptile, the sufferer immediately ties

above the wounded part a ligature made from plants well known to the

natives, and which they usually carry with them; this enables him to

reach a village, where he procures assistance, and by means of herbal

applications is often cured. Some of them are subject to a skin disease

somewhat similar in its appearance to ringworm; it spreads over the

whole body until eventually the skin peels off. Those who are thus

afflicted are called _carates_. These people are generally very hardy

and strong, with great powers of endurance. The piaces, as medicine-men,

consult their oracles for the benefit of all those who require their

services. The sucking cure obtains in these parts as well as northward.

When summoned to attend a patient, if the pain or disease is slight, the

medicine-man takes some herbs in his mouth, and applying his lips to the

part affected, pretends to suck out the disorder; suddenly he rushes

outside with cheeks extended, and feigns to spit out something, cursing

and imprecating at the same time; he then assures his patient that he

has effected a cure by extracting the cause of the pain. When the

sickness is of a more serious nature, more elaborate enchantments are

enacted, ending in the practitioner sucking it out from the sick

person's body, not, however, without undergoing infinite trouble, labor,

and contortions, till at last the piace thrusts a small stick down his

own throat, which causes him to vomit, and so he casts up that which he

pretends to have drawn out from the sufferer. Should his conjurations

and tricks not prove effectual, the physician brings to his aid certain

herbs and decoctions, with which he is well acquainted; their knowledge

of medicine is, however, more extensive in the treatment of external

than of internal diseases. The compensation given to the piace is in

proportion to the gravity of the case, and the ability of the individual

to reward him. In cases of fever, bleeding is resorted to; their mode of

practicing phlebotomy is peculiar and attended with much unnecessary

suffering. The operator shoots a small arrow from a bow into various

parts of the patient's body until a vein be accidentally opened; the

arrow is gauged a short distance from the point to prevent its

penetrating too far.[1037] Oviedo tells us that in the province of Cueba

the practice of sucking was carried on to a fearful extent, and with

dire consequences. The persons, men and women, who indulged in the habit

were called by the Spaniards _chupadores_. They belonged to a class of

sorcerers, and the historian says they went about at night visiting

certain of the inhabitants, whom they sucked for hours, continuing the

practice from day to day, until finally the unfortunate recipients of

their attentions became so thin and emaciated that they often died from

exhaustion.[1038]

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN GRAVES AND MOURNING.]

[Sidenote: FUNERAL RITES ON THE ISTHMUS.]

Among certain nations of Costa Rica when a death occurs the body is

deposited in a small hut constructed of plaited palm-leaves; food,

drink, as well as the weapons and implements that served the defunct

during life are placed in the same hut. Here the body is preserved for

three years, and upon each anniversary of the death it is redressed and

attended to amidst certain ceremonies. At the end of the third year it

is taken out and interred. Among other tribes in the same district, the

corpse after death is covered with leaves and surrounded with a large

pile of wood which is set on fire, the friends dancing and singing round

the flames until all is consumed, when the ashes are collected and

buried in the ground. In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs,

one for the principal men constructed with flat stones laid together

with much care, and in which were placed costly jars and urns filled

with food and wines for the dead; those for plebeians were merely

trenches, in which were deposited with the occupant some gourds of maize

and wine and the place filled with stones. In some parts of Panamá and

Darien only the chiefs and lords received funeral rites. Among the

common people a person feeling his end approaching either went himself

or was led to the woods by his wife, family, and friends, who, supplying

him with some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water, there left him

to die alone, or to be assisted by wild beasts. Others with more respect

for their dead, buried them in sepulchres made with niches where they

placed maize and wine and renewed the same annually. With some, a mother

dying while suckling her infant, the living child was placed at her

breast and buried with her in order that in her future state she might

continue to nourish it with her milk. In some provinces when the cacique

became sick, the priests consulted their oracles as to his condition and

if they received for answer that the illness was mortal, one half of his

jewelry and gold was cast into the river as a sacrifice to the god they

reverenced, in the belief that he would guide him to his final rest; the

other half was buried in the grave. The relatives of the deceased shaved

the head as a sign of mourning and all his weapons and other property

were consumed by fire in order that nothing should remain as a

remembrance of him. In Panamá, Nata, and some other districts, when a

cacique died, those of his concubines that loved him enough, those that

he loved ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed

themselves and were interred with him. This they did in order that they

might wait upon him in the land of spirits. They held the belief that

those who did not accompany him then, would, when they died a natural

death, lose the privilege of being with him afterwards, and in fact that

their souls would die with them. The privilege of attending on the

cacique in his future state was believed to be only granted to those who

were in his service during his lifetime, hence such service was eagerly

sought after by natives of both sexes, who made every exertion to be

admitted as servants in his house. At the time of the interment, those

who planted corn for him during his lifetime had some maize and an

implement of husbandry buried with them in order that they might

commence planting immediately on arrival in the other world. In Comagre

and other provinces the bodies of the caciques were embalmed by placing

them on a cane hurdle, hanging them up by cords, or placing them on a

stone, or log; and round or below the body they made a slow fire of

herbs at such a distance as to dry it gradually until only skin and bone

remained. During the process of embalming, twelve of the principal men

sat round the body, dressed in black mantles which covered their heads,

letting them hang down to their feet; at intervals one of them beat a

drum and when he ceased he chanted in monotonous tones, the others

responding. Day and night the twelve kept watch and never left the body.

When sufficiently dried it was dressed and adorned with many ornaments

of gold, jewels, and feathers, and set up in an apartment of the palace

where were kept ranged round the walls the remains of his ancestors,

each one in his place and in regular succession. In case a cacique fell

in battle and his body could not be recovered, or was otherwise lost,

the place he would have occupied in the row was always left vacant.

Among other tribes the body after being dried by fire was wrapped in

several folds of cloth, put in a hammock, and placed upon a platform in

the air or in a room. The manner in which the wives, attendants, and

servants put themselves to death was, with some, by poison; in such

case, the multitude assembled to chant the praises of their dead lord,

when those who were to follow drank poison from gourds, and dropped dead

instantly. In some cases they first killed their children. With others

the funeral obsequies of a principal chief were conducted differently.

They prepared a large grave twelve or fifteen feet square and nine or

ten feet deep; round the sides they built a stone bench and covered it

with painted cloth; in the middle of the grave they placed jars and

gourds filled with maize, fruit, and wines, and a quantity of flowers.

On the bench was laid the dead chief dressed, ornamented, and jeweled,

while around him sat his wives gaily attired with ear-rings and

bracelets. All being prepared the assembled multitude raised their

voices in songs declaring the bravery and prowess of the deceased; they

recounted his liberality and many virtues and highly extolled the

affection of his faithful wives who desired to accompany him. The

singing and dancing usually lasted two days and during its continuance

wine was freely served to the performers and also to the women who were

awaiting their fate. At the expiration of such time they became entirely

inebriated and in a senseless condition, when the final act was

consummated by throwing dead and doomed into the grave, and filling it

with logs, branches, and earth. The spot was afterwards held in sacred

remembrance and a grove of trees planted round it. At the end of a year

funeral honors were celebrated in memory of the dead. A host of friends

and relatives of equal rank with the deceased were invited to

participate, who upon the day appointed brought quantities of food and

wine such as he whose memory they honored delighted in, also weapons

with which he used to fight, all of which were placed in a canoe

prepared for the purpose; in it was also deposited an effigy of the

deceased. The canoe was then carried on men's shoulders round the court

of the palace or house, in presence of the deceased, if he was embalmed,

and afterwards brought out to the centre of the town where it was burned

with all it contained,--the people believing that the fumes and smoke

ascended to the soul of the dead and was pleasing and acceptable to

him.[1039] If the body had been interred they opened the sepulchre; all

the people with hair disheveled uttering loud lamenting cries while the

bones were being collected, and these they burned all except the hinder

part of the skull, which was taken home by one of the principal women

and preserved by her as a sacred relic.

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN CHARACTER.]

The character of the Costa Ricans has ever been that of a fierce and

savage people, prominent in which qualities are the Guatusos and

Buricas, who have shown themselves strongly averse to intercourse with

civilization. The Talamancas are a little less untameable, which is the

best, or perhaps the worst, that can be said. The Terrabas, also a cruel

and warlike nation, are nevertheless spoken of by Fray Juan Domingo

Arricivita as endowed with natural docility. The natives of Boca del

Toro are barbarous and averse to change. In Chiriquí they are brave and

intelligent, their exceeding courage having obtained for them the name

of _Valientes_ or _Indios Bravos_ from the early discoverers; they are

also noted for honesty and fair dealing. The same warlike and

independent spirit and fearlessness of death prevails among the nations

of Veragua, Panamá, and Darien. The inhabitants of Panamá and Cueba are

given to lechery, theft, and lying; with some these qualities are

fashionable; others hold them to be crimes. The Mandingos and natives of

San Blas are an independent and industrious people, possessing

considerable intelligence, and are of a docile and hospitable

disposition. The inhabitants of Darien are kind, open-hearted, and

peaceable, yet have always been resolute in opposing all interference

from foreigners; they are fond of amusements and inclined to indolence;

the latter trait is not, however, applicable to all, a noticeable

exception being the Cunas and Chocos of the Atrato Valley, who are of a

gentle nature, kind, hospitable, and open-hearted when once their

confidence is gained; they are likewise industrious and patient, and M.

Lucien de Puydt says of the former: "Theft is altogether unknown amongst

the Cunas." Colonel Alcedo, speaking of their neighbors, the Idibaes,

calls them treacherous, inconstant, and false. In the interior and

mountain districts the inhabitants are more fierce than those from the

coast; the former are shy and retiring, yet given to hospitality. On the

gulf of Urabá the people are warlike, vainglorious, and

revengeful.[1040]

Thus from the icy regions of the north to the hot and humid shores of

Darien I have followed these Wild Tribes of the Pacific States, with no

other object in view than faithfully to picture them according to the

information I have been able to glean. And thus I leave them, yet not

without regret: for notwithstanding all that has been said I cannot but

feel how little we know of them. Of their mighty unrecorded past, their

interminable intermixtures, their ages of wars and convulsions, their

inner life, their aspirations, hopes, and fears, how little do we know

of all this! And now as the eye rests upon the fair domain from which

they have been so ignobly hurried, questions like these arise: How long

have these backings and battlings been going on? What purpose did these

peoples serve? Whence did they come and whither have they

gone?--questions unanswerable until Omniscience be fathomed and the

beginning and end made one.

TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

The WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, the last groupal division of this

work, extend from the western boundary of Guatemala, south and eastward,

to the Rio Atrato. I have divided the group into three subdivisions,

namely: the _Guatemalans_, the _Mosquitos_, and the _Isthmians_.

The GUATEMALANS, for the purposes of this delineation, embrace those

nations occupying the present states of Guatemala, Salvador, and

portions of Nicaragua.

The _Lacandones_ are a wild nation inhabiting the Chammá mountains on

the boundary of Guatemala and Chiapas. 'Mountains of Chammá, inhabited

by the wild Indians of Lacandón ... a distinction ought to be drawn

between the Western and Eastern Lacandónes. All the country lying on the

W., between the bishopric of Ciudad Real and the province of Vera Paz,

was once occupied by the Western Lacandónes.... The country of the

Eastern Lacandónes may be considered as extending from the mountains of

Chammá, a day and a half from Cobán, along the borders of the river de

la Pasion to Petén, or even further.' _Escobar_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,

Jour._, vol. xi., pp. 93-4. Upon the margin of the Rio de la Passion.

_Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 271. 'Un tribu de Mayas sauvages appelés

Lacandons, qui habitent un district immense dans le centre du continent,

embrasse toute la partie occidentale du Peten; erre sur les bords

supérieurs de l'Usumasinta et le pays qui se trouve au sud de l'endroit

d'où j'écris.' _Galindo_, in _Antiq. Mex._, tom. i., div. ii., p. 67.

'The vast region lying between Chiapa, Tabasco, Yucatan, and the

republic of Guatemala ... is still occupied by a considerable body of

Indians, the Lacandones and others.' _Squier_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol.

iv., p. 65, 'The vast region embracing not less than from 8000 to 10,000

square miles, surrounding the upper waters of the river Usumasinta, in

which exist the indomitable Lacandones.' _Id._, p. 67. 'Mais la contrée

qui s'étendait au nord de Cahabon, siége provisoire des Dominicains, et

qui comprenait le pays de Dolores et celui des Itzas, était encore à peu

près inconnue. Là vivaient les Choles, les belliqueux et féroces Mopans,

les Lacandons et quelques tribus plus obscures, dont l'histoire a

négligé les noms.' _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 78, tom. i., p.

318. 'They are reduced to-day to a very insignificant number, living on

and near Passion river and its tributaries.' _Berendt_, in _Smithsonian

Rept._, 1867, p. 425. 'In the north of Vera Paz, to the west of Peten,

and all along the Usumacinta, dwell numerous and warlike tribes, called

generally Lacandones.' _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pref., p. xvi.;

_Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 471; _Pimentel_, _Mem. sobre la Raza Indígena_,

p. 197.

[Sidenote: THE MAMES OF GUATEMALA.]