CHAPTER VII.

WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE--THREE GROUPAL DIVISIONS;

FIRST, THE NATIONS OF YUCATAN, GUATEMALA, SALVADOR, WESTERN

HONDURAS, AND NICARAGUA; SECOND, THE MOSQUITOS OF HONDURAS;

THIRD, THE NATIONS OF COSTA RICA AND THE ISTHMUS OF

PANAMÁ--THE POPOLUCAS, PIPILES, AND CHONTALES--THE

DESCENDANTS OF THE MAYA-QUICHÉ RACES--THE NATIVES OF

NICARAGUA--THE MOSQUITOS, POYAS, RAMAS, LENCAS, TOWKAS,

WOOLWAS, AND XICAQUES OF HONDURAS--THE GUATUSOS OF THE RIO

FRIO--THE CAIMANES, BAYAMOS, DORACHOS, GOAJIROS, MANDINGOS,

SAVANERICS, SAYRONES, VISCITAS, AND OTHERS LIVING IN COSTA

RICA AND ON THE ISTHMUS.

Of the WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, which territorial group completes

the line of our Pacific States seaboard, I make three divisions

following modern geographical boundaries, namely, the aborigines of

Guatemala, Salvador, and Nicaragua, which I call _Guatemalans_; the

people of the Mosquito Coast and Honduras, _Mosquitos_; and the nations

of Costa Rica and the isthmus of Darien, or Panamá, _Isthmians_.

[Sidenote: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL AMERICA.]

The territory occupied by this group of nations lies between the

eighteenth and the seventh parallels of north latitude, that is to say,

between the northern boundary of the Central American states, and the

river Atrato, which stream nearly severs the Isthmus from the South

American continent. This continental tract is a narrow, irregular,

indented coast-country of volcanic character, in which Guatemala and

Honduras alone present any considerable breadth. The two

cordilleras, running through Mexico and meeting on the isthmus of

Tehuantepec, continue their course through Guatemala, where they form a

broken table-land studded with elevations, of less height than the

plateaux of Mexico. After sinking considerably at the isthmus formed by

the gulf of Honduras, this mountain range takes a fresh start and offers

a formidable barrier along the Pacific coast, which sends a number of

transverse ranges into the interior of Honduras, and gives rise to

countless rivers, chiefly emptying into the Atlantic. The chain passes

at a diminished altitude through Nicaragua, where it forms a large

basin, which holds the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua; but on reaching

Costa Rica it again becomes a bold, rugged range, capped by the volcano

of Cartago. Seemingly exhausted by its wild contortions, it dwindles

into a series of low ridges on entering Veragua, and passes in this form

through the isthmus of Panamá, until it unites with the South American

Andes. The scenery of this region is extremely varied, uniting that of

most countries of the globe; lakes, rivers, plains, valleys, and bays

abound in all forms and sizes. The north-east trade winds blow the

greater part of the year, and, meeting the high ranges, deposit their

superabundant moisture upon the eastern side, which is damp, overgrown

with rank vegetation, filled with marshes, and unhealthful. The summer

here, is hot and fever-breeding. Relieved of their moisture, and cooled

by the mountains, the trade winds continue their course through the gaps

left here and there, and tend materially to refresh the atmosphere of

the Pacific slope for a part of the year; while the south-west winds,

blowing from May to October, for a few hours at a time, bring short

rains to temper what would otherwise be the hot season on this coast.

Dew falls everywhere, except in the more elevated regions, and keeps

vegetation fresh. Palms, plantains, mahogany, and dye-woods abound in

the hot district; maize flourishes best in the temperate parts, while

cedars, pines, and hardier growths find a home in the tierra fria. The

animal kingdom is best represented on the Atlantic side, for here the

puma, the tiger-cat, and the deer, startled only by the climbing opossum

or the chattering monkey, find a more secure retreat. Birds of brilliant

plumage fill the forests with their songs, while the buzz of insects

everywhere is heard as they swarm over sweltering alligators, lizards,

and snakes. The manifold productions, and varied features of the country

have had, no doubt, a great influence in shaping the destiny of the

inhabitants. The fine climate, good soil, and scarcity of game on the

Pacific side must have contributed to the allurements of a settled life

and assisted in the progress of nations who had for centuries before the

conquest lived in the enjoyment of a high culture. It is hard to say

what might have been the present condition of a people so happily

situated, but the advent of the white race, bent only upon the

acquirement of present riches by means of oppression, checked the

advancement of a civilization which struck even the invaders with

admiration. Crossing to the Atlantic side we find an over-abundant

vegetation, whose dark recesses serve as a fitting shelter for the wild

beast. Here man, imbibing the wildness of his surroundings, and

oppressed by a feverish climate, seems content to remain in a savage

state depending upon natural fruits, the chase, and fishing for his

subsistence. Of a roaming disposition, he objects to the restraint

imposed by government and forms. The natives of Costa Rica and the

isthmus of Darien escaped the civilizing influence of foreign

intercourse,--thanks to their geographical isolation,--and remain on

about the same level of culture as in their primitive days.

[Sidenote: CENTRAL AMERICAN NATIONS.]

Under the name of GUATEMALANS, I include the natives of Guatemala,

Salvador, and Nicaragua. I have already pointed out the favorable

features of the region inhabited by them. The only sultry portion of

Guatemala is a narrow strip along the Pacific; it is occupied by a few

planters and fishermen, who find most of their requirements supplied by

the palms that grow here in the greatest luxuriance. The chief part of

the population is concentrated round the various lakes and rivers of

the table-land above, where maize, indigo, cochineal, and sugar-cane are

staple products. In the altos, the banana is displaced by hardier fruits

sheltered under the lofty cedar, and here we find a thrifty and less

humble people who pay some attention to manufactures. Salvador presents

less abrupt variation in its features. Although outside of the higher

range of mountains, it still possesses a considerable elevation running

through its entire length, which breaks out at frequent intervals into

volcanic peaks, and gives rise to an abundant and well-spread water

system. Such favorable conditions have not failed to gather a population

which is not only the most numerous comparatively, but also the most

industrious in Central America. Northern Nicaragua is a continuation of

Salvador in its features and inhabitants; but the central and southern

parts are low and have more the character of the Guatemalan coast, the

climate being hot, yet not unhealthful. Its Atlantic coast region,

however, partakes of the generally unfavorable condition described

above.

The Spanish rulers naturally exercised a great influence upon the

natives, and their ancient civilization was lost in the stream of

Caucasian progress, a stream which, in this region, itself flowed but

slowly in later times. Oppressed and despised, a sullen indifference has

settled upon the race, and caused it to neglect even its traditions. The

greater portion still endeavor to keep up tribal distinctions and

certain customs; certain tribes of lesser culture, as the cognate

_Manches_ and _Lacandones_, retired before the Spaniards to the north

and north-east, where they still live in a certain isolation and

independence. The name Lacandones has been applied to a number of

tribes, of which the eastern are described to be quite harmless as

compared with the western. The _Quichés_, a people living in the altos,

have also surrounded themselves with a certain reserve, and are truer to

their ancient customs than the _Zutugils_, _Cakchiquels_, and many

others related by language to the Quichés surrounding them. The

_Pipiles_, meaning children, according to Molina, are the chief people

in Salvador, where their villages are scattered over a large extent of

territory. In Nicaragua we find several distinct peoples. The aboriginal

inhabitants seem to have been the different peoples known as

_Chorotegans_, who occupy the country lying between the bay of Fonseca

and lake Nicaragua. The _Chontales_ (strangers, or barbarians) live to

the north-east of the lakes, and assimilate more to the barbarous tribes

of the Mosquito country adjoining them. The _Cholutecs_ inhabit the

north from the gulf of Fonseca towards Honduras. The _Orotiñans_ occupy

the country south of the lake of Nicaragua and around the gulf of

Nicoya. Further information about the location of the different nations

and tribes of this family will be found at the end of this chapter.[960]

[Sidenote: PHYSIQUE AND DRESS.]

The GUATEMALANS, that is to say the aborigines of Guatemala, Salvador,

and Nicaragua, are rather below the middle size, square and tough, with

a finely developed physique. Their hue is yellow-brown, in some parts

coppery, varying in shade according to locality, but lighter than that

of the standard American type. The full round face has a mild

expression; the forehead is low and retiring, the cheek-bones

protruding, chin and nose short, the latter thick and flat, lips full,

eyes black and small, turned upwards at the temples, with a stoical,

distrustful look. The cranium is slightly conical; hair long, smooth,

and black, fine but strong, retaining its color well as old age

approaches, though sometimes turning white. Although the beard is

scanty, natives may be seen who have quite a respectable moustache. The

limbs are muscular, the calf of the leg being especially large; hands

and feet small; a high instep, which, no doubt, partly accounts for

their great endurance in walking. The women are not devoid of good

looks, especially in Nicaragua, where, in some districts, they are said

to be stronger and better formed than the men. The custom of carrying

pitchers of water upon the head, gives to the women an erect carriage

and a firm step. The constitution of the males is good, and, as a rule,

they reach a ripe old age; the females are less long-lived. Deformed

persons are extremely rare. Guatemala, with its varied geographical

aspects, presents striking differences in physique; the highlanders

being lighter in complexion, and finer in form and features than the

inhabitants of the lowlands.[961]

[Sidenote: GUATEMALAN DRESS AND ORNAMENTS.]

Intercourse with Spaniards seems to have produced little change in the

dress of the Guatemalans, which is pretty much the same as that of the

Mexicans. The poorer class wear a waist-cloth of white cotton, or of

_pita_, which is a kind of white hemp, or a long shirt of the same

material, with short sleeves, partly open at the sides, the ends of

which are passed between the legs, and fastened at the waist; a strip of

cotton round the head, surmounted by a dark-colored hat of straw or

palm-leaves, with a very wide brim, completes the attire. This cotton

cap or turban is an indispensable article of dress to the highlander,

who passes suddenly from the cold air of the hilly country, to the

burning plains below. Sumptuary regulations here obtain, as aboriginally

the lower classes were not allowed to wear anything better than pita

clothing, cotton being reserved for the nobles. The primitive dress of

the nobility is a colored waist-cloth, and a mantle ornamented and

embroidered with figures of birds, tigers, and other designs, and,

although they have adopted much of the Spanish dress, the rich and

fanciful stitchings on the shirt, still distinguish them from their

inferiors. On feast-days, and when traveling, a kind of blanket,

commonly known as _serape_, _manga_, or _poncho_, is added to the

ordinary dress. The serape, which differs in style according to

locality, is closer in texture than the ordinary blanket and colored,

checked, figured, or fringed, to suit the taste. It has an opening in

the centre, through which the head is passed, and hanging in loose folds

over the body it forms a very picturesque attire. Some fasten it with a

knot on one shoulder, leaving it to fall over the side from the other.

The serape also serves for rain-coat and wrapper, and, at night, it is

wound round the head and body, serving for bed as well as covering, the

other portion of the dress being made into a pillow. The carriers of

Guatemala use a rain-proof palm-leaf called _suyacal_. Shepherds are

distinguished by a black and white checked apron, somewhat resembling

the Scotch kilt. The hair, which, before the conquest of Guatemala, was

worn long, and hung in braids down the back, is now cut short, except in

the remote mountain districts, where long loose hair is still the

fashion. In Salvador and Nicaragua, on the other hand, the front part of

the hair used to be shaved off, the brave often appearing perfectly

bald. Most natives go bare-footed, except when traveling; they then put

on sandals, which consist of a piece of hide fastened by thongs. The

women, when at home, content themselves with a waist-cloth, generally

blue-checked, secured by a twisted knot; but, on going abroad, they put

on the huipil, which is a piece of white cotton, having an opening in

the middle for the head, and covering the breast and back, as far as the

waist. Some huipils are sewed together at the sides and have short

sleeves. On this part of their dress the women--who, for that matter,

attend to the manufacture and dyeing of all the clothing--expend their

best efforts. They embroider, or dye, the neck and shoulders with

various designs, whose outlines and coloring often do great credit to

their taste. In Guatemala, the colors and designs are distinct for

different villages, so that it may at once be seen to which tribe the

wearer belongs. The hair is plaited into one or two braids, interlaced

with bright-colored ribbons, and usually wreathed turban-fashion round

the head. The Quichés, whose red turban-dress is more pronounced than

others, sometimes vary it by adding yellow bands and tassels to the

braids, which are permitted to hang down to the heels. Thomas Gage, who

lived in Guatemala from about 1627 to 1638, relates that on gala-days

the fair natives were arrayed in cotton veils reaching to the ground.

The ancient custom of painting, and of piercing the ears and lip, to

hold pendants, is now restricted to the remote hill country, and

ornaments are limited to a few strings of beads, shells, and metal for

the arms and neck, with an occasional pair of ear-rings; the women add

flowers and garlands to their head-dress, especially on feast-days. Some

mountain tribes of Guatemala wear red feathers in their cotton

turbans--the nobles and chiefs using green ones--and paint the body

black: the paint being, no doubt, intended for a protection against

mosquitos. The apron worn by the women is made of bark, which, after

being soaked and beaten, assumes the appearance of chamois leather. The

Lacandones also wore cotton sacks adorned with tassels, and the women

had bracelets of cords with tassels. In Nicaragua, tattooing seems to

have been practiced, for Oviedo says that the natives cut their faces

and arms with flint knives, and rubbed a black powder obtained from

pine gum into the scars. Children wear no other dress than that provided

by nature: here and there, however, the girls are furnished with a strip

of cotton for the waist.[962]

[Sidenote: GUATEMALAN DWELLINGS.]

The conquerors have left numerous records of large cities with splendid

palaces and temples of stone, but these exist now only in their ruins.

The masses had, doubtless, no better houses than those we see at

present. Their huts are made of wooden posts and rafters supporting a

thatched roof of straw or palm-leaves, the side being stockaded with

cane, bamboo, or rush, so as to allow a free passage to the air.

Generally they have but one room; two or three stones in the centre of

the hut compose the fireplace, and the only egress for the smoke is

through the door. The room is scantily furnished with a few mats, a

hammock, and some earthenware. Their villages are generally situated

upon rising ground, and, owing to the houses being so scattered, they

often extend over a league, which gives some foundation to the

statements of the conquerors reporting the existence of towns of

enormous size. The better kind of villages have regular streets, a thing

not to be seen in the ordinary hamlets; and the houses, which are often

of _adobes_ (sun-burnt bricks), or of cane plastered over, containing

two or three rooms and a loft, are surrounded by neatly kept gardens,

enclosed within hedges. When a Guatemalan wishes to build a hut, or

repair one, he notifies the chief, who summons the tribe to bring straw

and other needful materials, and the work is finished in a few hours;

after which the owner supplies the company with chocolate. Some of the

Vera Paz tribes are of a roaming disposition. They will take great

trouble in clearing and preparing a piece of ground for sowing, and,

after one or two harvests, will leave for another locality. Their

dwellings, which are often grouped in hamlets, are therefore of a more

temporary character, the walls being of maize-stalks and sugar-cane,

surmounted by a slight palm-leaf roof. During an expedition into the

country of the Lacandones, the Spaniards found a town of over one

hundred houses, better constructed than the villages on the Guatemalan

plateau. In the centre of the place stood three large buildings, one a

temple, and the other two assembly houses, for men and women

respectively. All were enclosed with fences excellently varnished. The

Nicaraguan villages seem to be the neatest; the houses are chiefly of

plaited cane or bamboo frame-work, raised a few feet from the ground,

and standing in the midst of well-arranged flowers and shrubbery.

Dollfus describes a simple but ingenious method used by the Guatemalans

to cross deep rivers. A stout cable of aloe-fibres is passed over the

stream, and fixed to the banks at a sufficient height from the surface

of the water. To this rope bridge, called _garucha_, is attached a

running strap, which the traveler passes round his body, and is pulled

across by men stationed on the opposite side.[963]

These natives are essentially agricultural, but, like all who inhabit

the warm zone, desire to live with the least possible labor. Most of

them are content with a small patch of ground round their huts, on which

they cultivate, in the same manner as did their forefathers, the little

maize, beans, and the banana and plantain trees necessary for their

subsistence. There are, however, a number of small farmers, who raise

cochineal, cacao, indigo, and cotton, thereby adding to their own and

their country's prosperity. In the more thinly settled districts,

hunting enables them to increase the variety of their food with the

flesh of wild hogs, deer, and other game, which are generally brought

down with stone-headed arrows. When hunting the wild hog, they stretch a

strong net, with large meshes, in some part of the woods, and drive the

animals towards it. These rush headlong into the meshes, and are

entangled, enabling their pursuers to dispatch them with ease.

[Sidenote: FOOD OF THE GUATEMALANS.]

Beans, and tortillas of maize, with the inevitable chile for seasoning,

and plantains or bananas are their chief food. To these may be added

meat in small quantities, fish, eggs, honey, turtle, fowl, and a variety

of fruit and roots. Salt is obtained by boiling the soil gathered on the

sea-shore. Maize is prepared in several ways. When young and tender, the

ears are boiled, and eaten with salt and pepper; or a portion of them

are pressed, and the remainder boiled with the juice thus extracted.

When ripe, the fruit is soaked and then dried between the hands,

previous to being crushed to flour between two stones. It is usually

made into tortillas, which are eaten hot, with a strong sprinkling of

pepper and occasionally a slight addition of fat. _Tamales_ is the name

for balls of cooked maize mixed with beef and chile, and rolled in

leaves. A favorite dish is a dumpling made of maize and frijoles. The

frijoles, or beans, of which a stock is always kept, are boiled a short

time with chile; they are then mixed with maize, and again put into the

pot until thoroughly cooked, when they are eaten with a sauce made of

salt, chile, and water. There are a number of fluid and solid

preparations made chiefly from maize, and known as _atole_, to which

name various prefixes are added to denote the other ingredients used.

Meat, which is usually kept jerked, is a feast-day food. Gage describes

the jerking process as follows: Fresh meat is cut into long strips,

salted, and hung between posts to dry in the sun for a week. The strips

are then smoked for another week, rolled up in bundles, which become

quite hard, and are called _tassajo_ or _cesina_. Another mode of

preparing meat is described by the same author: When a deer has been

shot, the body is left until decay and maggots render it appetizing; it

is then brought home and parboiled with a certain herb until the flesh

becomes sweet and white. The joint is afterwards again boiled, and eaten

with chile. The Lacandones preserve meat as follows: A large hole is

made in the ground, and lined with stones. After the hole has been

heated, the meat is thrown in, and the top covered with leaves and

earth, upon which a fire is kept burning. The meat takes four hours to

cook, and can be preserved for eight or ten days. Cacao forms an

important article of food, both as a drink and as bread. The kernel is

picked when ripe, dried on a mat, and roasted in an earthen pan,

previous to being ground to flour. Formerly, cacao was reserved for the

higher classes, and even now the poor endeavor to economize it by adding

_sapuyal_, the kernel of the _sapote_. They observe no regularity in

their meals, but eat and drink at pleasure. When traveling, some roasted

maize paste called _totoposte_, crumbled in boiling water with an

addition of salt and pepper, and a cup of warm water, suffice for a

repast. Fire is obtained in the usual primitive manner, by rubbing two

sticks together.[964]

Most authorities agree that they are clean in their habits, and that

frequent bathing is the rule, yet it is hinted that leprosy is caused

partially by uncleanliness.[965]

[Sidenote: WAR, WEAPONS, AND IMPLEMENTS.]

Since the Spaniards assumed control of the country, weapons, as applied

to war, have fallen into disuse, and it is only in the mountain

districts that we meet the hunter armed with bow and spear, and slung

over his shoulder a quiver full of reed arrows, pointed with stone. In

Salvador and Nicaragua, the natives are still very expert in the use of

the sling, game often being brought down by it.[966]

I find no record of any wars among the aborigines since the conquest,

and the only information relating to their war customs, gathered from

the account of skirmishes which the Spaniards have had with some of the

tribes in eastern Guatemala, is, that the natives kept in the

back-ground, hidden by rocks or trees, waiting for the enemy to

approach. As soon as the soldiers came close enough, a cloud of arrows

came whizzing among them, and the warriors appeared, shouting with all

their might. The Lacandones occasionally retaliate upon the planters on

their borders for ill-treatment received at their hands. A number of

warriors set out at night with faggots of dry sticks and grass, which

are lighted as they approach the plantation, and thrown into the enemy's

camp; during the confusion that ensues, the proposed reprisal is made.

One writer gives a brief description of the ceremonies preceding and

following their expeditions. In front of the temple are burning braziers

filled with odoriferous resin; round this the warriors assemble in full

dress, their arms being placed behind them. A smaller brazier of incense

blazes in front of each warrior, before which he prostrates himself,

imploring the aid of the Great Spirit in his enterprise. On their

return, they again assemble, disguised in the heads of various animals,

and go through a war dance before the chief and his council. Sentinels

are always pacing the summit of the hills, and give notice to one

another, by trumpet blast, of the approach of any stranger. If it is an

enemy, they speedily form ambuscades to entrap him.[967]

I have already referred to the bare interior of their dwellings: a few

mats, a hammock, and some earthenware being the only apology for

furniture. The mats are plaited of bark or other fibres, and serve,

among other purposes, as a bed for the children, the grown persons

generally sleeping in hammocks attached to the rafters. Scattered over

the floor may be seen the earthen jar which the women so gracefully

balance on their head when bringing it full of water from the well; the

earthen pot for boiling plantains, with its folded banana-leaf cover;

cups made from clay, calabash, cocoa-nut, or wacal shells, with their

stands, often polished and bearing the marks of native sculpture; the

metate for grinding the family flour; the _comal_, a clay plate upon

which the tortilla is baked. A banana-leaf serves for a plate, and a

fir-stick does the duty of a candle. Their hunting or bag nets are made

of pita or bark-fibres. The steel machete and the knife have entirely

displaced their ancient silex tools, of which some relics may still be

found among the Lacandones. Valenzuela mentions that in the

meeting-house of this tribe, the conquerors found two hundred hanging

seats.[968]

These natives still excel in the manufacture of pottery, and produce,

without the aid of tools, specimens that are as remarkable for their

fanciful forms, as for their elegance and coloring. Water-jars are made

sufficiently porous to allow the water to percolate and keep the

contents cool; other earthenware is glazed by rubbing the heated vessel

with a resinous gum. Nor are they behind-hand in the art of weaving, for

most of the fabrics used in the country are of native make. The

aboriginal spinning machine is not yet wholly displaced, and consists,

according to Squier, of a thin spindle of wood, fifteen or sixteen

inches in length, which is passed through a wheel of hard, heavy wood,

six inches in diameter, and resembles a gigantic top. When used, it is

placed in a hollowed piece of wood, to prevent it from toppling over. A

thread is attached to the spindle just above the wheel, and it is then

twirled rapidly between the thumb and forefinger. The momentum of the

wheel keeps it in motion for half a minute, and meantime the thread is

drawn out by the operator from the pile of prepared cotton in her lap.

Their mode of weaving is the same as that of the Mexicans, and the

fabrics are not only durable, but tastefully designed and colored to

suit the quality and price. The dyes used are, indigo for blue,

cochineal for red, and indigo mixed with lemon juice for black. The

Nicaraguans obtain a highly prized purple by pressing the valve of a

shell-fish found on the sea-shore. Baily says that they take the

material to the seaside, and, after procuring a quantity of fresh

coloring matter, dip each thread singly into it, and lay it aside to

dry. From the aloe, and pita, or silk-grass, which are very strong and

can easily be bleached, they obtain a very fine thread, suitable for

the finest weaving. Reeds and bark give material for coarser stuff, such

as ropes and nets. Mats and hammocks, which are made from any of the

last-mentioned fibres, are often interwoven with gray colors and rich

designs. Some idea may be formed of the patient industry of the native

when we learn that he will work for months upon one of the highly prized

hats made from the fibre of the half-formed _carludovica palmata_ leaf.

They drill holes in stones, for pipes and other objects, by twirling a

stick rapidly between the hands in some sand and water placed upon the

stone.[969]

[Sidenote: GUATEMALAN CANOES.]

Canoes are the usual 'dug-outs,' made from a single cedar or mahogany

log, cedar being liked for its lightness, mahogany for its durability.

They are frequent enough on the coast, and even the north-eastern

Guatemalans used to muster fleets of several hundred canoes on their

lakes and rivers, using them for trade as well as war. Pim, when at

Greytown, particularly observed the hollowed-out boats, some upwards of

fifty feet in length, and straight as an arrow. He says that they are

very skillfully handled, and may be seen off the harbor in any weather.

The paddles, which are used both for steering and propelling, are of

light mahogany, four feet long, with very broad blades, and a cross at

the handle.[970]

Their wealth, which, since the conquest, mostly consists of household

goods, is the product of their farms and industry mentioned under food,

implements, and manufactures. The coast tribes, in Salvador, have a

source of wealth not yet referred to--balsam--and they are very jealous

of their knowledge of obtaining it. The process, as described by

Dollfus, is to make several deep incisions in the trunk of the

balsam-tree, and stuff the holes with cotton rags. When these have

absorbed sufficient balm, they are placed in jars of water, and

submitted to a moderate heat. The heat separates the substance from the

rags, and the balsam rises to the surface to be skimmed and placed in

well-closed jars for shipment. These people possess no written records

to establish ownership to their property, but hold it by ancient rights

transmitted from father to son, which are transferable. The right of

first discovery, as applied to fruit-trees and the like, is respected,

and can be transmitted. Goods and lands are equally divided among the

sons. There is a general interchange of products on a small scale, and

as soon as the farm yield is ready, or a sufficient quantity of

hammocks, mats, hats, and cups have been prepared, the native will start

on a short trading-tour, with the load on his back--for they use no

other mode of transport. The ancient custom of holding frequent markets

in all towns of any importance has not quite disappeared, for Masaya,

among other places, continues to keep a daily _tianguez_. Cacao-beans,

which were formerly the chief currency, are still used for that purpose

to a certain extent, and make up a large item in their wealth. The

Lacandones at one time drove a brisk trade on the rio de la Pasion,

employing several hundred canoes, but this has now greatly diminished,

and they seem to grow less and less inclined to intercourse. Hardcastle

relates that two shy mountain tribes of Guatemala "exchange dogs and a

species of very sharp red pepper, by leaving them on the top of the

mountain, and going to the spot in turn."[971]

[Sidenote: ART AND GOVERNMENT.]

The native's aptitude for art is well illustrated by the various

products of his industry, decorated as they are with fanciful designs,

carvings, and coloring. The calabash cups are widely circulated, and the

artistic carving of leaves, curious lines, and figures of all

descriptions, in relief, with which the outside is ornamented, has been

much admired. No less esteemed are the small Guatemalan earthen figures,

painted in natural colors, representing the various trades and

occupations of the people, which may be said to rival European

productions of the same character. The ornaments on their pottery bear

some resemblance to the Etruscan. They are equally advanced in painting,

for many of the altar-pieces in Central America are from the native

brush, and their dishes are often richly colored in various designs.

Original lyric poetry seems to flourish among them, and is not wanting

in grace, although the rendering of it may not be exactly operatic. The

subject generally refers to victorious encounters with monsters, but

contains also sarcasms on government and society.[972]

A reverential respect for authority is innate with these people, and the

chief, usually a descendant of the ancient caciques, who is also the

head of the municipal government introduced among them by the Spaniards,

receives the homage paid him with imperturbable gravity. These chiefs

form a proud and powerful noblesse, who rule with an iron hand over

their submissive followers. Although governed to all appearance by the

code of the country, they have their own laws based on custom and common

sense, which are applied to civil as well as criminal cases. Among the

Lacandones, the chief is elected by a council of old men, when death,

misconduct, or the superior abilities of some one else call for such a

step. Pontelli adds that the new chief is invested with lion-skins and a

collar of human teeth to represent his victories; a crown of feathers

or a lion-skin is his usual distinctive head-dress. The wife of the

chief is required to possess some rare qualities. These people are very

strict in executing the law; the offender is brought before the old men,

and if the crime is serious his relatives have often to share in his

punishment. The people of Salvador, according to Dollfus, have frequent

reunions in their council-house at night. The hall is then lighted up by

a large fire, and the people sit with uncovered heads, listening

respectfully to the observations and decisions of the _ahuales_--men

over forty years of age, who have occupied public positions, or

distinguished themselves in some way. Gage makes a curious statement

concerning the rio Lempa that may be based upon some ancient law. Any

man who committed a heinous crime on the one side of the river, and

succeeded in escaping to the other, was allowed to go unmolested,

provided he did not return.[973]

[Sidenote: MARRIAGE AND CHILDBIRTH.]

Marriages take place at an early age, often before puberty, and usually

within the tribe. When the boy, in Guatemala and Salvador, has attained

the age of nine, his parents begin to look around for a bride for him,

the mother having a good deal to say in this matter. Presents are made

to the parents of the girl chosen, and she is transferred to the house

of her future father-in-law, where she is treated as a daughter, and

assists in the household duties, until she is old enough to marry. It

sometimes happens that she has by this time become distasteful to the

affianced husband, and is returned to her parents. The presents given

for her are then demanded back, a refusal naturally follows, and feuds

result, lasting for generations. Gage states that when the parties to

the betrothal are of different tribes, the chiefs are notified, and meet

in solemn conclave to consult about the expediency of the alliance. The

consultations often extend over a period of several months, during

which the parents of the boy supply the council with refreshments, and

make presents to the girl's family for her purchase. If the council

disagree, the presents are returned, and the matter drops. When the

youth has reached his sixteenth or eighteenth year, and the maid her

fourteenth, they are considered able to take care of themselves; a house

is accordingly built, and the father gives his son a start in life. The

cacique and relations are summoned to witness the marriage ceremony, now

performed by the priest, after which the pair are carried upon the

shoulders of their friends to the new house, placed in a room, and shut

in. The bride brings no dowry, but presents are made by the friends of

the families. Several tribes in Guatemala are strictly opposed to

marriages outside of the tribe, and destroy the progeny left by a

stranger. The Lacandones still practice polygamy, each wife having a

separate house and field for her support. In Nicaragua, where women are

more independent, and fewer of the ancient marriage customs have been

retained than elsewhere, the ceremony is often quickly disposed of, the

husband and wife returning to their avocations immediately after. The

life of the woman is one of drudgery; household duties, weaving, and the

care of children keeping her constantly busy, while the husband is

occupied in dolce far niente; yet their married life is not unhappy.

Although the female dresses scantily and is not over shy when bathing,

she is by no means immodest or unchaste, but bears rather a better

character than women of the superior race. Childbirth is not attended

with any difficulties, for it sometimes happens that the woman, after

being delivered on the road, will wash the child and herself in the

nearest stream, and proceed on her journey, as if nothing had occurred.

The Quichés, among others, still call in the sorcerer to take the

horoscope of the new-born, and to appeal to the gods in its behalf. He

also gives the infant the name of some animal, which becomes its

guardian spirit for life. Belly states that more boys are born to the

natives, while the whites have more girls. The mother invariably nurses

the child herself until its third year, and, when at work, carries it on

her back in a cloth passed round her body; the movements of the mother

in washing or kneading tending to rock the infant to sleep. Otherwise

the child is little cared for, and has to lie on the bare ground, or, at

most, with a mat under it. As the boy grows older the father will take

him into the field and forest, suiting the work to his strength, and

instructing him in the use of tools, while the mother takes charge of

the girl, teaching her to cook, spin, and weave. Respect for parents and

older people is inculcated, and children never presume to speak before a

grown person unless first addressed. They remain under the parents' roof

until married, and frequently after, several generations often living

together in one house under the rule of the eldest. The native is fond

of home, for here he escapes from the contempt of the other races, and

reigns supreme over a family which is taught to respect him: patriotism

has been replaced by love of home among this oppressed people.[974]

[Sidenote: GUATEMALAN MUSIC.]

Their amusements are less common and varied than among the whites, and

are generally reserved for special occasions, when they are indulged in

to excess. Still, they have orderly gatherings round the hearth, at

which wondrous and amusing stories form the chief part of the

entertainment. Songs follow in natural order, and are loudly applauded

by the listeners, who join in repeating the last words of the verse. The

subject, as given by some local poet, or transmitted from an ancient

bard, is pleasing enough, but the rendering is in a plaintive,

disagreeable monotone. Their instrumental music is an improvement on

the vocal, in some respects, and practice has enabled the player to

execute pieces from memory with precision and accord. The _marimba_, a

favorite instrument, consists of a series of vertical tubes of different

length but equal diameter, fastened together in a line by bark fibre,

and held firm between two pieces of wood. The tubes have a lateral

opening at the base covered with a membrane, and the upper end is closed

by a small, movable elastic plate, upon which the performer strikes with

light drumsticks. The play of the plates causes a compression of air in

the tube, and a consequent vibration of the membrane, which produces a

sound differing in character according to the length of the tube. All

the parts are of wood, the tube being, however, occasionally of

terra-cotta, or replaced by calabash-shells. The marimba of usual size

is over a yard in length, and consists of twenty-two tubes ranging from

four to sixteen inches in length, forming three complete octaves. The

pitch is regulated by a coating of wax on the key-plates. Some

drumsticks are forked to strike two plates at once. Occasionally,

several persons join in executing an air upon the instrument, or two

marimbas are played in perfect accord with some song. Their usual drum

is called _tepanabaz_, described by Gage as a smooth hollow trunk with

two or three clefts on the upper side and holes at the ends. It is

beaten with two sticks, and produces a dull heavy sound. Other drums

covered with wild goat skin, tortoise-shells, pipes, small bells, and

rattles, are chiefly used at dances. The Lacandones possess a kind of

mandolin, a double-necked, truncated cone, with one string, made to pass

four times over the bridge; also a clarionet-like instrument named

_chirimiya_; their drum is called _tepanahuaste_. A dance is generally a

grand affair with the native, combining as it does dress with dramatic

and saltatory exhibitions. At the _tocontin_ dance, in Guatemala, from

twenty to forty persons dressed in white clothes richly embroidered, and

bedecked with gaudy bands, colored feathers in gilt frames fastened on

the back, fanciful helmets topped with feathers, and feathers, again, on

their legs, in form of wings. The conductor stands in the centre beating

time on the tepanabaz, while the dancers circle round him, one following

the other, sometimes straight, sometimes turning half-way, at other

times fully round, and bending the body to the ground, all the time

shouting the fame of some hero. This continues for several hours, and is

often repeated in one house after another. In another dance they

disguise themselves with skins of different animals, acting up to the

character assumed, and running in and out of the circle formed round the

musicians, striking, shrieking, and hotly pursuing some particular

performer. There are also several dances like those of the Mexicans, in

which men dress in women's clothes and other disguises. The Nicaraguan

dances vary but little from the above. Several hundred people will

gather in some well-cleared spot, their arms and legs ornamented with

strings of shells, their heads with feathers, and with fans in their

hands. The leader, walking backwards, commences some movements to be

imitated by the dancers, who follow in threes and fours, turning round,

intermingling, and again uniting. The musicians beat drums and sing

songs to which the leader responds, the dancers taking up the refrain in

their turn, and shaking their calabash rattles. After a while they pass

round each other and perform the most curious antics and grimaces,

crying, laughing, posturing, acting lame, blind, and so on. Drinking is

inseparable from these reunions, and they do not usually break up until

all have attained the climax of their wishes--becoming helplessly drunk.

The principal drinks are, atole made from maize, but which assumes

different prefixes, according to the additional ingredients used, as

_istatole_, _jocoatole_, etc.; pulque, chiefly used in the highlands;

and, not least, _chicha_, made from maize and various fruits and roots,

fermented with honey or sugar-cane juice. Gage states that

tobacco-leaves and toads were added to increase the flavor. The

Nicaraguans make their favorite drink from a wild red cherry. It takes

several weeks to prepare these liquors, but by the generous aid of

friends the stock is often consumed at one carousal.[975]

[Sidenote: CUSTOMS IN GUATEMALA AND NICARAGUA.]

Ignorant and oppressed as they are, superstition is naturally strong

among them, the evil eye, ominous import of animals and the like being

firmly believed in. Nicaraguans gave as a reason for speaking in

whispers at night, that loud talking attracts mosquitos. The Quichés, of

Istlávacan, among others, believe in certain evil and certain good days,

and arrange their undertakings accordingly. When meeting a stranger,

they present the forehead to be touched, thinking that a beneficial

power is imparted to them by this means. They still adhere to their

sorcerers, who are called in upon all important occasions, to predict

the future, exorcise evil spirits and the like, with the aid of various

decoctions and incantations. The Chontales have diviners who, with the

aid of drugs, taken after a fast, fall into a trance, during which they

prophesy. They form a sort of guild, and live alone in the mountains

with a few pupils, who support them in return for the instruction

received. Although idolatry proper is abolished, some ancient practices

still live, blended with their Christian worship, and it is said that

tribes inhabiting the remote mountain regions still keep up their old

rites in secret. Dollfus is apparently inclined to believe that the

songs he heard the natives chant every morning and evening may be the

relic of some ancient religious ceremony. The Itzas hold deer sacred,

and these animals were consequently quite familiar with man, before the

conquerors subdued the country. The Lacandones are said to have been the

last who publicly worshiped in their temple, and whose priests

sacrificed animals to idols. By the side of the temple stood two other

large buildings used as meeting-houses, one for men, the other for

women. Dogs and tame parrots formed part of their domestic

establishment. The native is very taciturn before strangers, but on

paying a visit to friends he will deliver long harangues full of

repetition. It is almost impossible to obtain a direct answer from him

to any question. Another peculiarity with many is to hoard money at the

expense of bodily comfort. It is buried in some secret place, and the

owner dies without even caring to inform his kin of the whereabouts of

his treasures. The favorite occupation of the people is to act as

porters, and Guatemala certainly possesses the most excellent carriers,

who are trained for the business from an early age. They usually go in

files, headed by a chief, all armed with long staffs and water-proof

palm-leaf mats, and travel from twenty to thirty miles a day, for days

in succession, without suffering any inconvenience. The weight varies

from one hundred to two hundred and fifty pounds, according to road and

distance, and is carried on the back, supported by straps passed over

the forehead and shoulders. They are very moderate in eating, and never

drink cold water if they can avoid it; when tired, they stretch

themselves at full length on the ground, and are speedily refreshed.

Women are also accustomed to carry burdens, and may frequently be seen

taking several filled pitchers to market in nets suspended from their

forehead and shoulders. Water they usually bring in jars balanced on the

head.[976]

[Sidenote: MEDICAL PRACTICE.]

The ruling diseases are small-pox, which makes yearly havoc; dysentery,

which is also not uncommon in the highlands during the summer; and

leprosy, manifested by wounds and eruptions, and caused by filth,

immoral habits, and bad food. In some parts of Nicaragua, the latter

disease breaks out in horny excrescences, similar in appearance to the

tips of cow-horns. Rheumatism and chest diseases are rare, in spite of

their rough life. Superstitious practices and empirical recipes

transmitted from their ancestors are the remedies resorted to. Hot

bathing is the favorite treatment. They are skillful at blood-letting,

making very small punctures, and applying a pinch of salt to them after

the operation is ended. Cauterizing wounds to prevent inflammation is

not uncommon, and does not affect the patient much. The principal remedy

of the Chorotegans consists of a decoction from various herbs injected

by means of a tube. Some tribes of the highlands call in sorcerers to

knead and suck the suffering part. After performing a variety of antics

and grimaces, the wise man produces a black substance from the mouth,

which he announces as the cause of the sickness; the friends of the

patient take this matter and trample it to pieces amidst noisy

demonstrations.[977]

Their dead are washed, and dressed in a fresh suit; friends then

assemble to express their regard and sorrow by burning copal and

performing a wild dance round the corpse, which is buried with all its

belongings, as well as food for sustenance on the long journey. The

Itzas, inhabiting the islands in the lake Peten, are said to have thrown

their dead into the lake, for want of room.[978]

The character of the Guatemalans exhibits a number of excellent traits.

They have always been a gentle race, and easily led by kindness, but

centuries of oppression have thrown over them a timid, brooding spirit.

Far from warlike, they have nevertheless proved themselves efficient

soldiers during the late civil wars. Their honesty and faithfulness to a

trust or engagement is universally admitted, and every traveler bears

witness to their hospitality and obliging disposition. Although taciturn

before strangers, whom they naturally distrust, they are quite voluble

and merry among themselves, especially the women; their mirth, however,

wants the ring of true happiness. Looking at the darker side, it is

found that drunkenness stands preëminent, and if the native is not

oftener drunk, it is because the means for carousing are wanting.

Surrounded by a bountiful nature, he is naturally lazy and improvident,

whole days being passed in dreamy inaction, without a symptom of ennui.

He is obstinate, and clings to ancient customs, yet he will not dispute

with you, but tacitly forms his own opinion. Taught to be humble, he

does not possess much manliness, has a certain cunning, will weep at

trifles, and is apt to be vindictive, especially if his jealousy is

aroused. The highlanders form an exception to these general

characteristics in many respects. The purer air of the mountain has

infused in them a certain independent energy, and industry. Nor are the

women to be classed as lazy, for their position is rather that of slaves

than of wives, yet they are vivacious and not devoid of coquetry, but of

undisputed modesty. Many of the remoter tribes are brave, and the

Manches, for instance, behaved lately in so spirited a manner as to

compel the government to treat with them. The Itzas are said to have

been warlike and cruel, but their neighbors the Lacandones are not so

ferocious as supposed. The Quichés bear a high character for industry,

and intelligence, while those of Rabinal excel in truthfulness, honesty,

and morality. The Vera Paz tribes are less active and industrious than

those of the plateau; this applies especially to the eastern nations who

are also more stupid than the western. The Salvador people are noted

for their phlegmatic temperament, and the provoked stranger who seeks to

hurry them, is merely laughed at; otherwise they, as well as the

Nicaraguans, are more docile and industrious than the Guatemalans, but

also more superstitious. Scherzer thinks that they have all the

inclination for becoming robbers, but want the energy. The Aztec

remnants in Nicaragua are particularly patient and thrifty, but

extremely shy and brooding. The Chontales, on the other hand, are said

to have been a savage and debased race, while the Cholutecs were brave

and cruel but subject to petticoat rule. Opinions concerning the

intelligence of the natives and their prospect of advancement are

varied, some affirming that they are dull and spiritless, incapable of

making any progress, while others assign them a high character and

intelligence, which, properly directed, would give them a prominent

position.[979]

[Sidenote: THE MOSQUITOS.]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO NATIONS.]

The MOSQUITOS, the second division of the Central American group, are at

the present day composed in part of an incongruous mixture of Carib

colonists and negro importations, and in part of a pure native element.

Owing to the independent spirit of the tribes along the central chain of

mountains, which successfully resisted the attempts of Spaniards to

penetrate the territory, and to the unhealthy climate of the coast, this

country, with the exception of the northern part of Honduras, has as yet

escaped subjection to the white race. The country, aside from the

sea-shore, possesses many attractive features. The transverse ranges,

radiating from the principal chain, form a series of terraces which

gradually lessen in elevation, until they disappear in a low coast

region. Between them innumerable rivers, fed by the moisture-laden

sea-winds, now rushing boisterously from heavily wooded heights, now

sluggishly wending their way through luxuriant prairie-land, flow

through a region of most pleasing variety, and at last empty into vast

lagoons bordering the ocean. The aborigines still form the greater part

of the population, and are composed of a large number of tribes which,

while practicing agriculture to a limited extent, subsist chiefly on

natural fruits and on the products of the chase. Excepting the small

tribes of the eastern Mosquito country, Mr Squier, who has given much

patient research to their languages, includes the natives of this

sub-division among the Lenca family, at the head of which stand the

_Guajiqueros_ in western Honduras, essentially an agricultural people.

East of these are the _Xicaques_, and _Poyas_, names given to a

collection of closely related tribes, some of which have been brought

under the subjugating influences of the missionary Fathers, while others

still keep their ancient customs intact. The _Secos_ on Black River are

included by some writers with the Poyas. South and west of these are the

_Moscos_, and in the western part of the Mosquito coast, the _Woolwas_,

who still cherish a tradition of their emigration from the north-west.

East of the latter live the _Towkas_ and _Cookras_, who extend to

Blewfields, and speak dialects varying little from the Woolwa tongue,

but stand lower in the scale of humanity. Bell states that the Towkas

are merely a branch of the _Smoos_, who have many points in common with

the Poyas, though differing from them in language. Among other

aborigines may be mentioned the _Albatuinas_, _Tahuas_, _Panamekas_,

_Jaras_, _Taos_, _Gaulas_, _Itziles_, _Motucas_, and the _Ramas_ on the

Blewfields lagoon; of several others the names are either lost or

unknown. Following the coast southward we meet the _Caribs_, a strong,

hardy, but crude race at present, of varied negro admixture, chiefly

descended from the turbulent natives of San Vicente island, whom the

English transported in 1796 to the island of Roatan, whence they were

brought over to Honduras. The Caribs, who have within a few decades

spread from a small colony over the whole northern coast, driving other

nations into the interior and southward, appear to be superseding the

aborigines, now fast disappearing under the annihilating effect of drink

and disease. South of the Caribs round cape Gracias á Dios are the

_Sambos_, or _Mosquitos_ proper, said to have sprung from the union of

native women with negro slaves wrecked on the coast during the

seventeenth century. Owing to their geographical position they were

brought in contact with the buccaneers, and placed in a position to gain

ascendancy over other tribes from the Poyas southward, but were at the

same time inoculated with the degrading vices and disorders which are

now so rapidly bringing about their extinction. Elated by their position

as masters of the coast, they assumed the proud title of _Waiknas_, or

men, in which conceit they have been imitated by the subjected tribes,

which are gradually adopting the Sambo tongue. Adjacent to them are the

_Toonglas_, a not very numerous offshoot of Smoos and Sambos.[980]

Race-mixtures in certain localities have almost obliterated aboriginal

types, which are portrayed as of medium stature, regular form, and

varying in color from light brown to dark coppery. The people about cape

Gracias á Dios are represented by the first voyagers to have been nearly

as dark as negroes. The face is rather flat and oval, the head smaller

than among Europeans; forehead high and cheek-bones not very prominent;

hair long, straight, coarse, and black; beard scanty; nose very small,

thin, and usually aquiline among the coast people, but larger and

broader toward the interior. The iris of the eye is generally black, but

often verges toward brown; mouth broad, with thin lips and regular

teeth. The women present a full bust and abdomen; they are called

pretty, but early marriages soon make them old. It is suspected that

infant murder has something to do with the rarity of deformed people.

The Towkas and Ramas present the finest pure-blooded type, the former

being very fair, while the latter are large, athletic, and

stern-looking. The Poyas are copper-colored, short, but muscular,

broad-faced, with large forehead, bent nose, and small, mild eyes. The

Toonglas are duskier; the Smoos approach the fair Towkas in hue, though

they have a flatter head, accompanied by a stolid look. The darkest of

all are the Woolwas, whose color seems a mixture of yellow ochre and

India ink. Proceeding to Honduras, we meet the Caribs, whose varied

admixture of negro blood separates them into yellow and black Caribs.

The former are distinguished by a somewhat ruddy hue, with a hooked

nose; while his duskier brother is taller, hardier, and longer-lived;

with a nose inclining to aquiline. Children are prettier as they

approach the negro type. The hair varies in curl and gloss according to

purity of blood. The Mosquitos proper are more uniform in appearance,

and buccaneers have no doubt assisted in bringing out many of the

characteristics that have obtained for the Sambo race the leading

position on the coast. They are all well-built, raw-boned, nimble, and

of a dull, dark, copper color. The face is oval, with a coarse, lustful

expression, the hair rough, wavy, and black, eyes bright and remarkably

strong; women pretty, with large eyes, and small feet and ankles.[981]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO PHYSIQUE AND DRESS.]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO HEAD-FLATTENING.]

A piece of cloth fastened at the waist in a twist or by a cord, and

reaching to the knee, constitutes the native male costume in these

parts, that of the women being somewhat shorter. This cloth is either of

cotton, sometimes woven with down, or of fibres from the inner bark of

the caoutchouc tree, beaten on stones till they become soft, and is

often large enough to serve for a covering at night. Some are quite

fanciful in color and design, and formerly they were painted. Those of

the Woolwas are usually six feet long by three broad, striped blue and

yellow; they are passed between the legs and fastened at the waist by a

thong. The Xicaques, on the contrary, wear the cloth serape-fashion, by

passing the head through a slit in the centre, and tying the folds round

the waist. Even this scanty covering is often reduced to the smallest

apron, and is dispensed with altogether in some parts, for modern

travelers speak of natives in a naked state. Women occasionally wear a

small square cloth, having an opening for the head, one part of which

covers the breast, the other the back. In some parts chiefs are

distinguished by a cotton cap, and a long sleeveless robe, open in

front and often nicely ornamented; in other places men of rank wear

turbans decorated with plumes and feathers, and dress in skins of

eagles, tigers, and other animals; these are also used by the common

people on festive occasions. The Smoos' head-dress is especially pretty,

with its embroidery and feather-work. Ordinarily the long loose hair is

deemed sufficient to protect the head, and is kept sleek and shining by

palm-oil, which they say furthers its growth. The women have longer hair

than the men, and often dress it in ringlets, seldom in a knot or

wreath. The people of northern Honduras wear a lock hanging over the

forehead; some highland chieftains, on the contrary, shave the front of

the head, but allow the back hair to grow long, while the Poyas part

theirs in the middle, keeping it in position with a band. That of the

religious men reaches to the waist, and generally falls in braids

behind. In mourning, both sides of the head are shaved, a bushy comb

being left along the middle. Formerly all hair except that on the head,

even eyebrows and lashes, was pulled out, because it was thought fit for

animals only to have hair on the body. All go barefooted, and it is only

where the native has to travel over a rough road that he puts on

_alparagats_, or sandals of bark, wood, or skin, which are fastened by

thongs round the foot. Whatever is wanting in actual dress, however, is

made up by paint and ornaments, of which both sexes are equally fond.

The face and upper part of the body are either uniformly daubed over or

tattooed with rays, fanciful lines, and designs representing animals and

the like, chiefly in red and black. Taste is not wanting in this

adornment, for the tint is often delicate, and the black circles round

the eyes indicate that they understand effect, increasing as they do the

lustre of the orbs. Esquemelin states that when visitors were expected,

the men combed the hair, and smeared the face with an ointment of oil

and black powder, the women using a red admixture. Tattooing figures on

the body by cauterization, as seen by Columbus on the Mosquito Coast,

is still practiced in certain parts of the interior. Aboriginal

Mosquitos also perforated ears, lips, and cheeks, to hold pendants of

fish-bones and green stones; the holes in the ears being as large as

eggs. The natives of Corn island not only carried large pieces of wood

in the ears, but gradually enlarged the hole in the lower lip; at

fifteen years of age the wood was removed and a tortoise-shell inserted.

Women wore a tight bandage round the ankle to increase the size of their

calves. Strings of tastefully arranged beads, bones, shells, and stones,

and gaily colored bandages, were worn round the neck and wrist; the

women adorning the legs and ankles in a similar manner, and also using

feathers and flowers. Certain interior tribes, as the Smoos, esteem a

round forehead as a reproach, and hence the head is flattened, the

effect of which would be more noticeable, were it not for the thick

bushy hair. This head-flattening fashion here appears for the first time

since we left the Columbian group; we shall see it once again further

south, and that is all. The process here is essentially similar to that

of the Columbians. When the infant is a month old, it is tied to a

board, and a flat piece of wood, kept firm by bands, is placed upon the

forehead. The child remains in this painful position for several months,

the pressure increasing as the head grows.[982]

Towns there are none, except in certain parts; seldom do more than four

or five houses stand in a group; the locality being changed at intervals

for sanitary or superstitious purposes. A few upright posts planted in

parallel lines, or in a circle, and occasionally interwoven with cane or

leaves, support what may be called the hut proper, which is a sharply

sloping, well-thatched palm-leaf roof with projecting eaves, reaching to

within three or four feet of the ground. There is usually but one

apartment, the floor of which is often coated with clay, and raised a

little to avoid dampness. In the center is the fireplace, surrounded by

household ware and cackling hens, and all round may be seen hammocks and

nets suspended from the bamboo rafters. Some sleep on a frame-work of

bamboo placed upon posts. The better class of houses contain partitions

for the several families occupying it, and stand in fields enclosed by

stalk fences. A village with many of the interior tribes consists of one

large building, often one hundred feet long by thirty feet wide. The

front and end of these structures are open, but the back is partitioned

off into small closets with the bark of the cabbage-palms, each serving

as a bedroom for a married couple, or for unmarried women. A platform

immediately under the roof is used as a sleeping-place for the boys, and

an apartment at the end of the hut is set apart for women about to be

confined. Some of the Guajiquero villages contain over a hundred

substantial huts of mud, or of cane plastered over and whitewashed. The

Toonglas and Cookras, erect temporary sheds near the streams, during the

summer, but seek more secure huts in the winter. Carib dwellings are the

neatest of all; some are of cane, others of frame-work filled with mud.

Cockburn relates that, during his journey through Honduras, he came

across a bridge made of a net-work of cane, which was suspended between

trees so that the centre hung forty feet above the surface of the

stream. He found it very old and shaky, and concluded that it belonged

to the remote past.[983]

[Sidenote: FOOD IN HONDURAS.]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO COOKERY.]

Redundant nature here leaves man so little to do, as scarcely to afford

an opportunity for development. The people of northern Honduras,

according to Herrera, cleared the ground with stone axes, and turned the

sod by main strength with a forked pole or with sharp wooden spades, and

by this means secured two or three yields every year; but the present

occupants scarcely take so much trouble. On marrying, the men prepare a

small field for a few beds of yams, beans, cassava, and squash, some

pepper, and pine-apples, besides twenty to thirty plantain and cocoa-nut

trees, leaving their wives to give it such further care as may be

required. Where maize is cultivated it is either sown two or three

grains in holes two feet apart, or broadcast over freshly cleared

woodland a little before the rainy season. The Poyas are the only people

who cultivate respectable farms. Fishing is the favorite occupation of

the coast tribes, and their dexterity with the spear and harpoon is

quite remarkable. The proper time for catching the larger species of

fish, such as the tarpom and palpa, is at night, when a fleet of

pitpans, each with a pitch-pine torch in the bow, may be seen on the

lagoon intermingling in picturesque confusion. One or two paddlers

propel the boat, another holds the torch, while the harpooneer stands at

the bow with a _waisko-dusa_, or staff, having a loosely fitting, barbed

harpoon at one end, and a piece of light wood at the other. A short line

attached to the harpoon, passes along the staff, and is rolled round

this float for convenience. The glare of the torch attracts the fish and

enables the bowman to spy his prey, which is immediately transfixed by

the harpoon. Away it darts, but the float retards its progress, and

points out its whereabouts to the boatmen, who again seize the line, and

drag it to the shore. Occasionally the tarpom is taken in strong nets,

the meshes of which require to be six inches square in order to entangle

it. Manatees or sea-cows are caught in the early morning, and to get

within striking distance of the wary animal, it is necessary to deck the

canoe with bushes and leaves, giving it the appearance of a floating

tree. The line attached to the harpoon is in this case payed out from

the canoe, which is often trailed by the manatee in a lively manner. It

generally takes several harpoons as well as lances to kill it. Smaller

harpoons, without barb, with merely quadrangular points an inch and a

half long and nearly as wide, are used for catching turtles so that the

shell may not be damaged. As the canoe approaches, the turtle slides

under the water; the bowman signalizes the oarsman how to steer, and

when the turtle rises to breathe, it is speared, dragged into the

canoes, and placed on its back. Some fishermen will jump into the water

after the animal, and bring it up in their hands, but this feat is

attended with danger, from bites and sharp coral. The hawk-bill turtle

is set free after the shell has been stripped of its scales, but the

green species is eaten, and its eggs, which are esteemed a dainty, are

sought for in the sand by poking suspected places with a stick. Smaller

fish are speared with the _sinnock_, a long pole with a fixed point. The

river people take less pleasure in fishing, and resort thereto only as

driven by necessity. Weirs of branches and clay are constructed, with a

small outlet in the middle, where men are stationed to catch the passing

fish with nets and spears. The Poyas employ a still surer method. The

water is beaten with sticks for some distance above the weir, so as to

drive the fish together; a quantity of juice extracted from a wild vine

called _pequine_, which has a stupefying effect, is thrown into the

water, and the men have merely to select the best looking, the smaller

ones being allowed to float away and recover in the unadulterated waters

below. The preserving of fish is the work of women, who cut them in

slices,--sometimes rubbing them with salt,--and place the pieces on a

framework of cane over the fire to be smoke-dried; after which they are

exposed to the sun for a day or two. Part of the fish is cooked, or

baked in oil, and eaten at once. If we except the Smoos and Xicaques,

who follow game with true precision and patience, the usual mode of

hunting is as primitive as weir-fishing. A number of men assemble and

set fire to the grass, which drives the terrified animals into a

corner, where they are shot or struck down, or the game is entrapped in

holes partly filled with water. The wild hog, the tapir, and deer supply

most of the meat, which is cured in the same way as fish: some cutting

the meat in strips, and curing it on the _buccan_, or grate of sticks,

while others prefer the barbecue method which is to smoke-dry the whole

animal. Certain old writers state that human flesh was eaten, but this

is discredited by others, who think that the error arose from seeing the

natives feast on monkeys, which, skinned, have much the appearance of

humans. The statement of their eating raw fish may also be wrong, for

the natives of the present day are very careful about thoroughly cooking

their food, and even avoid fruit not fully ripened. A well-known article

of food is the Carib bread, a sort of white hard biscuit made from

cassava or mandioc roots, which are skinned, washed, and grated on a

board set with sharp stones. The pulp is rinsed in water to extract the

poisonous juice, and when it is sufficiently whitened by this means, the

water is carefully pressed out, and the substance set to dry in the sun.

The sifted flour is made into large round thin cakes, which, after being

exposed to the sun for a while, are slowly baked over the fire. The

Poyas make large rolls, which are wrapped in leaves and baked in the

ashes. These soon become sour, and are then eaten with a relish. Others

grind cassava or maize on the metate, and bake tortillas. A gruel is

also made of the flour, and eaten with salt and chile, or syrup. One of

their dainties is _bisbire_, the name given to plantains kept in leaves

till putrid, and eaten boiled. Scalding hot cacao mixed with chile is

the favorite stimulant, of which large quantities are imbibed, until the

perspiration starts from every pore. Cacao-fruit is also eaten roasted.

Notwithstanding the richness of the soil and the variety of its

productions, the natives are accused of resorting to insects for food,

and of eating their own vermin. The coast people have the greater

selection, but trust mostly to fishing, while the interior tribes after

natural products depend upon the chase. The Cookras subsist chiefly on

the cabbage-palm. Sambo girls have a peculiar fancy for eating charcoal

and sand, believing that their charms are improved thereby. No

regularity is observed in eating, but food is taken at any hour, and

with voracity; nor will they take the trouble to procure more, until the

whole stock is consumed, and hunger drives them from their hammocks. The

Poyas and Guajiqueros seem to be the only tribes who have any idea of

providing for the future; the latter laying up a common reserve.[984]

Frequent bathing is the rule, yet the Sambos, who have a better

opportunity for this, perhaps, than other tribes, are described as dirty

in their surroundings, and, when warmed by motion, emit a disagreeable

odor, arising from the use of ointments and powders. The Poyas,

Xicaques, Secos, and especially the Caribs are, on the contrary, very

cleanly in their habits.[985]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO WEAPONS AND WAR.]

The bow and arrow figures as the chief weapon of the Mosquitos, the

former being usually of iron-wood, spanned with twisted mahoe-bark, and

often six feet in length; the latter of reed or wood, hardened in fire,

and pointed with hard wood, flint, fish-bones, or teeth. They not only

handle the bow well, but some are expert in the art of defense. To

attain this dexterity, children are taught to turn aside, with a stick,

the blunt darts thrown at them, and in time they become sufficiently

expert to ward off arrows in the same manner. They also fight with cane

lances about nine feet long, with oblong diamond points, javelins,

clubs, and heavy sharp-pointed swords made of a poisonous wood, a

splinter from which causes first madness and then death. The milky

juice of the manzanilla-tree is used to poison arrows and darts.

Blowpipes, whose light arrows surely and silently bring down birds at a

hundred feet and over, are in great favor with the youth. Armor is made

of plaited reeds covered with tiger-skins, and ornamented with feathers;

besides which, the northern Mosquitos employ a breastplate of twisted

cotton, like that of the Mexicans. Mosquito women are said to be as good

archers as the men.[986]

Aboriginal wars were continually waged in Honduras without any other

object than to avenge the death of an ancestor, or to retaliate on those

who had carried away friends into slavery. Neighboring tribes, however,

agreed to a truce at certain times, to allow the interchange of goods.

Previous to starting on an expedition, turkeys, dogs, and even human

beings were sacrificed to influence the gods; blood was drawn from

tongue and ears, and dreams carefully noted, and their import

determined. Ambassadors were sent to challenge the enemy to a pitched

battle, and, if they were not responded to, the country was ravaged.

When prisoners were taken they were usually held as slaves, after having

the nose cut off. Forty thousand men sometimes composed an expedition,

operating without chief or order, devising ambushes and stratagems as it

suited them, and accompanied by women to act as porters. Mosquito

warriors blacken the face, and place themselves under the temporary

command of the bravest and most experienced. The coast people are bold

and unyielding, and usually kill their prisoners. When the Sambos

confederate with their neighbors, they expect their allies to pay for

friends lost in battle.[987]

Domestic utensils in the homes of the Mosquitos consist of stones for

grinding grain and roots, clay pots and plates for cooking purposes, and

gourds, calabashes, and nets for holding food and liquids. The stone

hatchet, which is fast becoming a relic, is ten inches long, four broad,

and three thick, sharp at both ends, with a groove to hold the handle

which is firmly twisted round its centre. Besides the implements already

referred to under fishing and weapons, may be mentioned the lasso, in

the use of which they are very expert, and the _patapee_, a pretty

water-tight basket that the Caribs plait of reeds. The men usually sleep

in hammocks, or on mats spread on the ground near the fire, with a stick

for a pillow, while the women prefer a platform of cane raised a few

feet from the ground, and covered with a mat or a skin.[988]

Fibres of mahoe and ule bark, pisang-leaves and silk-grass furnish

material for ropes, nets, mats, and coarse fabrics. Most of the

Mosquitos grow a little cotton, which the women spin on a rude wheel,

like that of the Guatemalans, and weave on a frame loom into strong and

neat cloths. The favorite blue color for dyeing is obtained from the

_jiquilite_ plant; the yellow from the _achiolt_ tree. Pottery is a very

ancient art among them, as may be seen from the fine specimens

discovered in the graves and ruins of Honduras. Their red cooking-pots

are very light but strong, and the water-jars, which are only slightly

burnt to permit percolation, show considerable taste in design.[989]

[Sidenote: BOATS AND FISHERIES.]

Nowhere do we find more daring and expert boatmen than the Mosquitos,

who will venture out upon the roughest sea in a boat barely large enough

to hold a man and a boy. If the boat capsize it is at once righted,

bailed out, and the voyage resumed, and seldom is any part of the cargo

lost. The _dory_, or ordinary sea-boat is a hollowed-out tree, often

twenty-five to fifty feet long, four to six wide, and four to five deep,

round-bottomed, buoyant, and with good handling safe. The best are made

by the up-river tribes, especially the Towkas, who prepare them roughly

with axe and fire, and sell them to the coast people to be finished

according to fancy. After the dug-out has been trimmed, it is often

soaked in water for a time, so that the sides may be stretched and

secured with knees. The _pitpan_, which is used on rivers and lagoons,

differs from the dory in being flat-bottomed, with broad and gradually

rounded ends, and of less depth and width. Cedar is chiefly used for

pitpans on account of its lightness, and the stronger mahogany for

dories; but the latter are, however, soon injured by worms if kept in

the water. Small boats are propelled by a single broad-bladed paddle;

sails also are employed with the _crean_ or keeled canoe.[990]

Harpoon and canoe are the basis of the Mosquito's wealth, for with them

he obtains his food and the tortoise-shell, the principal article of

traffic. The season for catching hawk-bill turtles is from April to

August, when fleets of canoes, each manned by about twelve men, proceed

to different parts of the coast, as far south as Chiriquí, and bring

home ten thousand pounds of shell on an average. Green turtles, which

are caught near reefs, also find a good market in Blewfields and

elsewhere. All keep hogs, the Caribs more than others; many possess

cattle and horses, which are allowed to run wild over the prairies, the

horses being lassoed whenever required for riding. Their manner of

breaking them is unique. One man leads the horse with the lasso into

water, to a depth of three or four feet, when another jumps upon his

back, and responds to buckings and skittishness with blows on the head,

until in about half an hour the exhausted animal surrenders. A line of

bark-fibre serves for reins, and a few plaited palm-leaves for saddle.

Preservation of wealth is little thought of, for cattle are most

recklessly slaughtered at feasts and for offences, and fruit-trees, as

well as other property are, as a rule, destroyed on the death of the

owner. Quite a trade is carried on in these parts, the inland tribes

bringing rough canoes, calabashes, skins, cloth, honey, and cacao to the

coast people, and receiving therefor turtles, salt, English fancy and

useful articles; while many of the latter undertake lengthy coast trips

to dispose of the bartered produce, as well as their own. The Wankees

deal heavily in _bisbire_, or decomposed plantains, while sarsaparilla

and honey are the staple articles of the Secos and Poyas. A mixture of

shrewdness and simplicity characterizes their dealings. A party wishing

to dispose of hides, for instance, first produces the worst ones, which

are thrown aside by the buyer until those of the standard quality are

brought out; a sum is then offered for the whole, which is often

unhesitatingly accepted by the native who is too dazzled by the

apparently high price to consider the amount of produce given for it.

Very little value is placed upon labor, for canoes, which have taken a

considerable time to prepare, are often bartered for a mere trifle. The

people of Honduras have always a stock of cloth and honey to pay taxes

with, and set a high value on colored feathers obtained from Yucatec

coast traders, who take cacao for return cargoes.[991]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO CALENDAR AND ART.]

Although versatile enough in handicrafts, their mental faculties are

exceedingly crude. With the aid of fingers and toes the Sambo is able to

count to twenty, but anything beyond that confuses him. Time is

reckoned by _kates_, or moons, thirteen of which make a _mani_, or

year. When asked to fix the date of an event, he will say that it

occurred so many sleeps or moons ago; but when the time exceeds a year

or two, the answer is given in the rather indefinite term of "many, many

years;" consequently he is unable to tell his age. His ideas of

cosmology are equally vague; thus, stars are held to be glowing stones.

The people of Honduras call the year _iolar_, and divide it in the same

manner as the Mexicans, by whom the system has, no doubt, been

introduced. They reckon time by so many nights or twilights, not by

days, and determine the hour by the height of the sun. The song-language

of the Mosquitos differs greatly from that employed in conversation, a

quaint old-time style being apparently preserved in their lyrics.[992]

The art of extracting and melting gold has long been known to them, but,

although they wear a few ornaments of this metal, they do not seem to

prize it very highly. At the time of Cockburn's visit to Honduras, dams

were used in mining, and instruments of cane to sift the gold. The mode

employed by the Poyas to separate gold from sand is the one known in

California as panning, and is thus described by Squier: "Scooping up

some of the sand in his bowl, and then filling it with water, he whirled

it rapidly, so that a feathery stream of mingled sand and water flew

constantly over its edge. He continued this operation until the sand was

nearly exhausted, and then filled the bowl again. After repeating this

process several times, he grew more careful, balancing the bowl

skillfully, and stopping occasionally to pick out the pebbles ... after

the process was complete, the Poyer showed me a little deposit of gold,

in grains, at the bottom of the calabash." The gold dust passes into

the hands of the white trader.[993]

[Sidenote: GOVERNMENT, SLAVERY, POLYGAMY.]

The Mosquitos proper are ruled by a hereditary king, who claims

sovereignty over the interior tribes of the Mosquito Coast, which, in

many cases, is merely nominal. Before the English made their influence

felt, this monarch, who, in these latter degenerate days, does not

possess many prerogatives, seems to have had but a small extent of

territory, for among the earlier travelers some assert that the

inhabitants of this coast lived under a republican rule, while others

observed no form of government. Each village or community has a

principal man, or judge, selected from the eldest and ablest, who

settles minor grievances, referring weightier matters to the king, and

superintends the contribution of canoes, tortoise-shells, and produce

for the support of the monarch and chiefs--for regular taxes are not

collected. Among the Poyas, the old men, who are highly respected by

their juniors, assemble every evening to deliberate upon the duties of

the following day; all members of the tribe take part in the work, and

share alike in the results. According to Young, the Mosquitos had an

officer, in whom was vested certain authority. The Caribs are also ruled

by elders, dignified by the title of captains. Their laws are in some

respects harsh: for instance, a woman who has had intercourse with a man

of another race is whipped slowly to death. Sambos are less particular

in this matter, the adulterer being merely mulcted in a cow. If the

decision of a chief be not satisfactory, the contestants resort to trial

by combat. The Xicaques live in communities of from seventy to one

hundred persons ruled by chiefs elected for life. The insignia of a

judge or ruler in Honduras are a white staff, often elaborately

ornamented with a golden head and tassels. Formerly each town or

province was ruled by an hereditary cacique, who administered justice

with four nobles as counselors. Theft was punished by confiscation of

property, and in graver cases the ears and hands of the culprit were cut

off; the adulterer caught in the act had his ear-rings forcibly torn

out; then he was whipped by the relatives of the injured, and deprived

of his possessions. The woman went free on the supposition that she, as

the weaker party, was not responsible.[994]

One principal object of war among the ancient nations of Honduras was to

make slaves, but the Mosquito Coast was free from this scourge,

according to all accounts.[995]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO MARRIAGE CUSTOMS.]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO COURTSHIP.]

Polygamy obtains, some men having six wives each, and the king yet more.

The first wife, who as a rule, is betrothed from early infancy, is

mistress commanding; her marriage is attended with festivities, and

later additions to the harem are subject to her. The custom is to marry

early, often before puberty, and it is not unusual to see a girl of

thirteen with an offspring in her arms; but the marriage tie is not very

binding, for the wife may be discarded or sold at will, on the slightest

pretence, especially if children do not follow the union. The interior

tribes, which are less given to plurality of wives, bear a pretty good

character for female chastity. The cacique of ancient Honduras married

among his own class. On behalf of a suitor not previously engaged, an

old man was dispatched with presents to the father of the chosen girl,

before whom he made a long harangue on the ancestry and qualities of

the youth. If this proved satisfactory, the presents were accepted, and

Bacchanalia followed. Next morning the bride was closely wrapped in a

gorgeously painted cloth, and, seated upon the shoulder of a man, was

conveyed to the bridegroom, a number of friends accompanying her,

dancing and singing along the road, drinking out of every rivulet, and

feasting at every stopping-place. On arrival, she was received by the

female friends of the groom, and subjected to a cleaning and perfuming

process, lasting three days, during which the friends of the two

families held a grand feast to celebrate the approaching union. She was

then delivered to the husband, who kept her three nights at his home,

and then proceeded to the house of his father-in-law, where the couple

remained three other nights, after which they returned to their own

house and renewed festivities. These were the ceremonies attending the

marriage of nobles only. An old woman acted as messenger for common

swains, and brought a present of cacao to the bride's parents, which was

consumed at the preliminary feast. The girl was then delivered to the

old woman, together with a return present of cacao to serve for two

feasts, one taking place at the house of the bridegroom, the other at

the bride's. Relationship was no impediment to marriage, and widows were

received among the wives of the late husband's brother. Immorality

ruled, and the most lascivious performances prevailed at their

festivals. On the islands in the gulf of Honduras and on the Belize

coast, the suitor had to undergo a preliminary examination by the

proposed father-in-law as to his ability to perform the duties of

husband; if satisfactory, a bow and arrow were handed him, and he at

once presented himself before the object of his affection with a garland

of leaves and flowers, which she placed upon her head instead of the

wreath always worn by a virgin. Friends thereupon met at the home of the

bride to discuss the prospects of the couple, and to witness the act of

giving her to the bridegroom, partaking, meanwhile, of some cheering

liquid. The next day the bride appeared before the mother, and tore off

her garland with much lamentation. Among the Sambos the betrothed suitor

must give presents of food and other articles to the parents of his

intended, as payment for their care of her until she attains the

marriageable age, when he comes to claim her. Should the parents then

refuse to give up the girl, they are bound to refund the value of the

presents twice or thrice told. The usual price paid for a wife is a cow

or its equivalent, which is also exacted from any man infringing on the

marital right, while the female for such offence is merely beaten.

Esquemelin adds that when the young man came to claim his bride, he was

questioned as to his ability to make nets and arrows, and if all went

well, the daughter was summoned to bring a calabash of wine, which the

three drained between them in token of the new relationship. The widow

was bound to supply the grave of her husband with provisions for a year,

after which she took up the bones and carried them with her for another

year, at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and then only was

she allowed to marry again. The Carib must provide a separate house and

field for each of his wives, where she not only supports herself, her

children, and her husband, but can, if she pleases, accumulate property.

The husband is expected to spend his time equally between his wives, but

not to assist in providing necessities after the marriage day; should

his help be required, the wife must pay him the customary rate of wages.

The several wives compete jealously with each other to provide the best

for their husband, and are comparatively well-behaved, owing, perhaps,

to the severe punishment of infidelity. Among the Smoos, wives of one

husband generally live together, each wife bringing her share to make up

her lord's dinner. Widows are the property of the relatives of the

husband, to whom 'widow-money' must be paid before they are allowed to

marry again. The method of courtship among the Woolwas is to place a

deer's carcass and some firewood at the door of the intended; if

accepted, marriage ensues. Each wife has usually a separate

establishment. The Towkas, who are more inclined to monogamy, have an

interesting marriage ceremony, of which Squier gives a long account. On

the betrothal of children a corresponding cotton band is fastened above

the elbow or below the knee of each. These bands are selected by the old

men so as to be distinct from others in color, and are renewed when worn

out. They also wear necklaces to which a shell or bead is added every

year, and when the boy has ten added to his string, he is called

_muhasal_, or ten, signifying half a man; when the twentieth and final

shell is added, he is considered a full man, and is called _all_,

meaning twenty. If his intended has by this time attained her fifteenth

year, preparations are at once made for the marriage. A general holiday

is taken by the villagers, who clear from grass a circular piece of

ground, which is defined by a ring of stones, and trampled smooth; a

little hut is then erected in the centre having a small opening at the

top, and another at the side facing the east. Within the hut, the

entrance of which is covered with a mat, is a heap of copal-twigs, and

without, at the edge of the circle, a canoe filled with palm-wine is

placed, having a large pile of white calabashes by its side. At noon the

villagers proceed to the home of the bridegroom, who is addressed in

turn by the old men; they then start with the youth for the house of the

bride where the young man seats himself before the closed entrance on a

bundle of presents intended for the bride. The father raps at the door

which is partly opened by an old woman who asks his business, but the

reply does not seem satisfactory, for the door is slammed in his face.

The old men try their power of persuasion with the same result, and at

last determine to call Orpheus to their aid. Music hath charms! the door

is seen to open, and a female peeps timidly out: louder swells the

music, and the bridegroom hastens to unroll his bundle containing beads

and other articles. The door opens wider and wider as each present is

handed in by the father, until it is entirely thrown back, revealing the

bride arrayed in her prettiest, seated on a crickery, in the remotest

corner. While all are absorbed in examining the presents, the bridegroom

dashes in, shoulders the girl like a sack, and trots off for the mystic

circle, which, urged on by the frantic cries of the women, he reaches

before the crowd can rescue her. The females, who cannot pass the ring,

stand outside giving vent to their despairing shrieks, while the men

squat within the circle in rows, facing outward. The old men alone

remain standing, and one of them hands a lighted stick to the couple

inside the hut, with a short speech. Soon an aromatic smoke curls up

from the copal pile, whereat the women grow silent, but when it

subsides, a sudden gayety takes possession of them, and the music is

again heard. The reason for this is that the bridegroom, if he has any

objections to the girl, may expel her while the gum is burning, but if

it burns out quietly, the groom is supposed to be satisfied and the

marriage complete. The women now pass filled calabashes to the men, who

soon become excited and start a dance which increases in wildness with

each additional cup, and does not end till most of them have bitten the

dust. After dark the crowd proceeds with lighted torches to the hut,

which is torn down, disclosing the married pair sitting demurely side by

side. The husband shoulders his new baggage and is escorted to his home.

The following day everybody presents a gift of some kind, so as to place

the couple on an equal footing with the rest of the villagers.[996]

The position of a wife is not an enviable one, as the care of the

household, the farm, and all hard and degrading work fall to her share,

while her liege lord spends most of his time in idling. When about to be

confined, she proceeds to a hut erected for this purpose in the forest,

a short distance from the village, where she remains from a week to two

months, according to the custom of the tribe, attended by female friends

who supply all her wants, since she is not allowed to handle food

herself. No one must pass to the windward of the hut, because an

obstruction of the air might cause the death of the mother and child,

and for thus offending the guilty party must pay the damages. In such

seclusion it is easy to dispose of deformed children, and it is believed

that this is done to avoid the disgrace of a nickname, which might

otherwise attach to the family. At the expiration of the period of

purification, the mother returns to the village carrying the infant tied

to her back in a cloth. The village witch has in the meantime fastened

round its neck, a _pew_ or charm, consisting of a bag of small seeds

with which to pay old Charon for ferriage across the river, in case of

an early death. The child is suckled for about two years; yucca-root pap

also forms a great part of its food in some parts, but otherwise it

receives little care. The mother delivers herself, cutting the

navel-string with her own hand; she also washes the infant's clothes,

for it is believed that the child will die if this is done by another;

after washing herself and suckling the child she returns to the village.

Formerly all children born within the year were taken to the temple by

the parents, wrapped in a net and painted cloth, and laid to sleep under

a cake made of honey and iguana-flesh. Notice was taken of dreams, and

if the child appeared well and happy, they augured riches and long life

for it, if weak and sorrowful, it would be poor and unfortunate; if no

dreams occurred, it betokened an early death. Acting on this

superstition, parents often became careless about the future of their

children, and suffered them to grow up without attention. Priests were

not allowed to marry, and the care and education of the sons of

prominent men were entrusted to them.[997]

[Sidenote: MOSQUITO DIVERSIONS.]