The Gilbert Islands became a British protectorate in 1892
and a colony in 1915; they were captured by the Japanese in the
Pacific War in 1941. The islands of Makin and Tarawa were the sites
of major US amphibious victories over entrenched Japanese garrisons
in 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in
1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of
Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited
Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with
Kiribati.
Korea, North
An independent kingdom for much of its long history,
Korea was occupied by Japan beginning in 1905 following the
Russo-Japanese War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed the
entire peninsula. Following World War II, Korea was split with the
northern half coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist control. After
failing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed
Republic of Korea (ROK) in the southern portion by force, North
Korea (DPRK), under its founder President KIM Il Sung, adopted a
policy of ostensible diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a
check against outside influence. The DPRK demonized the US as the
ultimate threat to its social system through state-funded
propaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policies
around the core ideological objective of eventual unification of
Korea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIM
Jong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in
1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until the
elder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagement
and resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has relied
heavily on international aid to feed its population. North Korea's
history of regional military provocations, proliferation of
military-related items, long-range missile development, WMD programs
including nuclear weapons test in 2006 and 2009, and massive
conventional armed forces are of major concern to the international
community.
Korea, South
An independent Korean state or collection of states has
existed almost continuously for several millennia. Between its
initial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessor
Korean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a single
independent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,
Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it was
annexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence following
Japan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,
a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of the
Korean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed in
the north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops and
UN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend South
Korea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. An
armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along a
demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South
Korea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income rising
to roughly 14 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Young-sam
became South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years of
military rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning modern
democracy. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit took
place between the South's President KIM Dae-jung and the North's
leader KIM Jong Il. In October 2007, a second North-South summit
took place between the South's President ROH Moo-hyun and the North
Korean leader. Harsh rhetoric and unwillingness by North Korea to
engage with President LEE Myung-bak following his February 2008
inauguration has strained inter-Korean relations.
Kosovo
Ethnic Serbs migrated to the territories of modern Kosovo in
the 7th century but did not fully incorporate them into the Serbian
realm until the early 13th century. The defeat of the Serbian empire
at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 led to five centuries of Ottoman
rule during which large numbers of Turks and Albanians moved to
Kosovo. By the end of the 19th century, Albanians replaced the Serbs
as the dominant ethnic group in Kosovo. Serbia reacquired control
over Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War of
1912. Kosovo became an autonomous province of Serbia with status
almost equivalent to that of a republic under the 1974 Constitution
of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Despite legislative
concessions, Albanian nationalism increased in the 1980s, which led
to riots and calls for Kosovo's independence. At the same time, Serb
nationalist leaders, such as Slobodan MILOSEVIC, exploited Kosovo
Serb claims of maltreatment to secure votes from supporters, many of
whom viewed Kosovo as their cultural heartland. Under MILOSEVIC's
leadership, Serbia instituted a new constitution in 1989 that
revoked Kosovo's status as an autonomous province of Serbia. Kosovo
Albanian leaders responded in 1991 by organizing a referendum that
declared Kosovo independent. Under MILOSEVIC, Serbia carried out
repressive measures against the Albanians in the early 1990s as the
unofficial Kosovo government, led by Ibrahim RUGOVA, used passive
resistance in an attempt to try to gain international assistance and
recognition of an independent Kosovo. Albanians dissatisfied with
RUGOVA's passive strategy in the 1990s created the Kosovo Liberation
Army and launched an insurgency. Starting in 1998, Serbian military,
police, and paramilitary forces conducted a counterinsurgency
campaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic
Albanians. International attempts to mediate the conflict failed,
and MILOSEVIC's rejection of a proposed settlement led to a
three-month NATO bombing campaign against Serbia beginning in March
1999 that forced Serbia to agree to withdraw its military and police
forces from Kosovo. UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999)
placed Kosovo under a transitional administration, the UN Interim
Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), pending a determination of
Kosovo's future status. A UN-led process began in late 2005 to
determine Kosovo's final status. The negotiations ran in stages
between 2006 and 2007, but ended without agreement between Belgrade
and Pristina. On 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Assembly declared
Kosovo independent. Since then, over fifty countries have recognized
Kosovo. Serbia continues to reject Kosovo's independence and
subsequently has sought an advisory opinion with the backing of the
General Assembly from the International Court of Justice on the
legality under international law of Kosovo's independence
declaration.
Kuwait
Britain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the ruling
Kuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.
Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Following
several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began a
ground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in four
days. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure
damaged during 1990-91. The AL-SABAH family has ruled since
returning to power in 1991 and reestablished an elected legislature
that in recent years has become increasingly assertive. The country
witnessed the historic election in May 2009 of four women to its
National Assembly.
Kyrgyzstan
A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty and
proud nomadic traditions, most of Kyrgyzstan was formally annexed to
Russia in 1876. The Kyrgyz staged a major revolt against the Tsarist
Empire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the Kyrgyz population
was killed. Kyrgyzstan became a Soviet republic in 1936 and achieved
independence in 1991 when the USSR dissolved. Nationwide
demonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster of
President Askar AKAEV, who had run the country since 1990.
Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were won
overwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIEV. The
political opposition organized demonstrations in Bishkek in April,
May, and November 2006 resulting in the adoption of a new
constitution that transferred some of the president's powers to
parliament and the government. In December 2006, the Kyrgyzstani
parliament voted to adopt new amendments, restoring some of the
presidential powers lost in the November 2006 constitutional change.
By late-September 2007, both previous versions of the constitution
were declared illegal, and the country reverted to the AKAEV-era
2003 constitution, which was subsequently modified in a flawed
referendum initiated by BAKIEV. The president then dissolved
parliament, called for early elections, and gained control of the
new parliament through his newly-created political party, Ak Jol, in
December 2007 elections. Current concerns include: privatization of
state-owned enterprises, negative trends in democracy and political
freedoms, endemic corruption, improving interethnic relations,
electricity generation, rising food prices, and combating terrorism.
Laos
Modern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of Lan
Xang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For 300
years Lan Xang had influence reaching into present-day Cambodia and
Thailand, as well as over all of what is now Laos. After centuries
of gradual decline, Laos came under the domination of Siam
(Thailand) from the late 18th century until the late 19th century
when it became part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty
of 1907 defined the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the
Communist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending a
six-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regime
closely aligned to Vietnam. A gradual return to private enterprise
and the liberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1986.
Laos became a member of ASEAN in 1997.
Latvia
The name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, one
of four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of the
Latvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.). The region
subsequently came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, and
finally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I,
but it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized
by the US and many other countries. Latvia reestablished its
independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the
Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to
Moscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Lebanon
Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the
northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The
French separated out the region of Lebanon in 1920, and granted this
area independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war (1975-1990)
devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made progress toward
rebuilding its political institutions. Under the Ta'if Accord - the
blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese established a
more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a
greater voice in the political process while institutionalizing
sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war,
Lebanon has conducted several successful elections. Most militias
have been disbanded, with the exception of Hizballah, designated by
the US State Department as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, and
Palestinian militant groups. During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab
League legitimized in the Ta'if Accord Syria's troop deployment,
numbering about 16,000 based mainly east of Beirut and in the Bekaa
Valley. Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000 and
the passage in September 2004 of UNSCR 1559 - a resolution calling
for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in
Lebanese affairs - encouraged some Lebanese groups to demand that
Syria withdraw its forces as well. The assassination of former Prime
Minister Rafiq HARIRI and 22 others in February 2005 led to massive
demonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the Cedar
Revolution"), and Syria withdrew the remainder of its military
forces in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon held its first
legislative elections since the end of the civil war free of foreign
interference, handing a majority to the bloc led by Saad HARIRI, the
slain prime minister's son. In July 2006, Hizballah kidnapped two
Israeli soldiers leading to a 34-day conflict with Israel in which
approximately 1,200 Lebanese civilians were killed. UNSCR 1701 ended
the war in August 2006, and Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) deployed
throughout the country for the first time in decades, charged with
securing Lebanon's borders against weapons smuggling and maintaining
a weapons-free zone in south Lebanon with the help of the UN Interim
Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). The LAF in May-September 2007 battled
Sunni extremist group Fatah al-Islam in the Nahr al-Barid
Palestinian refugee camp, winning a decisive victory, but destroying
the camp and displacing 30,000 Palestinian residents. Lebanese
politicians in November 2007 were unable to agree on a successor to
Emile LAHUD when he stepped down as president, creating a political
vacuum until the election of Army Commander Michel SULAYMAN in May
2008 and the formation of a new unity government in July 2008.
Lesotho
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon
independence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruled
for the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, but
returned to Lesotho in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.
Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years of
military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutiny
following a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody
intervention by South African and Botswanan military forces under
the aegis of the Southern African Development Community. Subsequent
constitutional reforms restored relative political stability.
Peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002, but the National
Assembly elections of February 2007 were hotly contested and
aggrieved parties continue to periodically demonstrate their
distrust of the results.
Liberia
Settlement of freed slaves from the US in what is today
Liberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able to
establish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, did
much to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,
social, and political gaps between the descendents of the original
settlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a military
coup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. In
December 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE's
regime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself was
killed. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for elections
that brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. An
August 2003 peace agreement ended the war and prompted the
resignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who faces war crimes
charges in The Hague related to his involvement in Sierra Leone's
civil war. After two years of rule by a transitional government,
democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSON
SIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) maintains a
strong presence throughout the country, but the security situation
is still fragile and the process of rebuilding the social and
economic structure of this war-torn country will take many years.
Libya
The Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area around
Tripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 when
defeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration and
achieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.
Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own political
system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination of
socialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and is
supposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in a
unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himself
as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds during
the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,
supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end of
Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engaged
in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gain
access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadian
politics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992
isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight
103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began to
rebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspended
in April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libya
accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003,
Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs to
develop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism.
QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations with
Western nations since then. He has received various Western European
leaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations,
and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he
traveled to Brussels in April 2004. The US rescinded Libya's
designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In January
2008, Libya assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council
for the 2008-09 term. In August 2008, the US and Libya signed a
bilateral comprehensive claims settlement agreement to compensate
claimants in both countries who allege injury or death at the hands
of the other country, including the Lockerbie bombing, the LaBelle
disco bombing, and the UTA 772 bombing. In October 2008, the US
Government received $1.5 billion pursuant to the agreement to
distribute to US national claimants, and as a result effectively
normalized its bilateral relationship with Libya. The two countries
then exchanged ambassadors for the first time since 1973 in January
2009.
Liechtenstein
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. Occupied by both French and
Russian troops during the Napoleanic wars, it became a sovereign
state in 1806 and joined the Germanic Confederation in 1815.
Liechtenstein became fully independent in 1866 when the
Confederation dissolved. Until the end of World War I, it was
closely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by that
conflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary
union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein
remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding
economic growth. In 2000, shortcomings in banking regulatory
oversight resulted in concerns about the use of financial
institutions for money laundering. However, Liechtenstein
implemented anti-money-laundering legislation and a Mutual Legal
Assistance Treaty with the US that went into effect in 2003.
Lithuania
Lithuanian lands were united under MINDAUGAS in 1236; over
the next century, through alliances and conquest, Lithuania extended
its territory to include most of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. By
the end of the 14th century Lithuania was the largest state in
Europe. An alliance with Poland in 1386 led the two countries into a
union through the person of a common ruler. In 1569, Lithuania and
Poland formally united into a single dual state, the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This entity survived until 1795,
when its remnants were partitioned by surrounding countries.
Lithuania regained its independence following World War I but was
annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US
and many other countries. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the
first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but
Moscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991
(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops
withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy
for integration into Western European institutions; it joined both
NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Luxembourg
Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815
and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than
half of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a larger
measure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun
by Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when
it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO
the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six
founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the
European Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
Macau
Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the
first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreement
signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became the
Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic
of China on 20 December 1999. In this agreement, China promised
that, under its "one country, two systems" formula, China's
socialist economic system would not be practiced in Macau, and that
Macau would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except
foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
Macedonia
Macedonia gained its independence peacefully from
Yugoslavia in 1991, but Greece's objection to the new state's use of
what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed international
recognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of
"the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifted
a 20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalize
relations. The United States began referring to Macedonia by its
constitutional name, Republic of Macedonia, in 2004 and negotiations
continue between Greece and Macedonia to resolve the name issue.
Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economic
inequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won the
support of the majority of Macedonia's Albanian population and led
to the internationally-brokered Framework Agreement, which ended the
fighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing the rights of
minorities. Fully implementing the Framework Agreement and
stimulating economic growth and development continue to be
challenges for Macedonia, although progress has been made on both
fronts over the past several years.
Madagascar
Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a
French colony in 1896 but regained independence in 1960. During
1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were held
ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the second
presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and
1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidential
election was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA and
Marc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.
In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANA
the winner. RAVALOMANANA achieved a second term following a
landslide victory in the generally free and fair presidential
elections of 2006. In early 2009, protests due to increasing
restrictions on opposition press and activities resulted in
RAVALOMANANA stepping down and the presidency was conferred to the
mayor of Antananarivo, Andry RAJOELINA. Following negotiations in
July and August of 2009, a power-sharing agreement with a 15-month
transitional period was established. Elections are expected in the
fall of 2010.