Once part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras
became an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decades
of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came
to power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven for
anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Government
and an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftist
guerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,
which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billion
in damage.
Hong Kong
Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded
by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later
in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and
the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China on 1
July 1997. In this agreement, China promised that, under its "one
country, two systems" formula, China's socialist economic system
would not be imposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong would enjoy a
high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense
affairs for the next 50 years.
Hungary
Hungary became a Christian kingdom in A.D. 1000 and for many
centuries served as a bulwark against Ottoman Turkish expansion in
Europe. The kingdom eventually became part of the polyglot
Austro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed during World War I. The
country fell under Communist rule following World War II. In 1956, a
revolt and an announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met
with a massive military intervention by Moscow. Under the leadership
of Janos KADAR in 1968, Hungary began liberalizing its economy,
introducing so-called "Goulash Communism." Hungary held its first
multiparty elections in 1990 and initiated a free market economy. It
joined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.
Iceland
Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)
immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Iceland
boasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, the
Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland
was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askja
volcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and caused
widespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of the
island's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limited
home rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independence
attained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, and social cohesion are
first-rate by world standards.
India
The Indus Valley civilization, one of the world's oldest,
flourished during the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. and extended into
northwestern India. Aryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated onto
the Indian subcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the
earlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture.
The Maurya Empire of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. - which reached
its zenith under ASHOKA - united much of South Asia. The Golden Age
ushered in by the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) saw a
flowering of Indian science, art, and culture. Arab incursions
starting in the 8th century and Turkic in the 12th were followed by
those of European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. By
the 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually
all Indian lands. Indian armed forces in the British army played a
vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistance to British
colonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU brought
independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular
state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war
between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming
the separate nation of Bangladesh. India's nuclear weapons testing
in 1998 caused Pakistan to conduct its own tests that same year.
Despite impressive gains in economic investment and output, India
faces pressing problems such as significant overpopulation,
environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and widespread
corruption.
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's
five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger
than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important
access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of
Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the International
Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth
ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean
south of 60 degrees south latitude.
Indonesia
The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th
century; Japan occupied the islands from 1942 to 1945. Indonesia
declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it required
four years of intermittent negotiations, recurring hostilities, and
UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to transfer sovereignty
in 1949. Indonesia's first free parliamentary election after decades
of repressive rule took place in 1999. Indonesia is now the world's
third-largest democracy, the world's largest archipelagic state, and
home to the world's largest Muslim population. Current issues
include: alleviating poverty, improving education, preventing
terrorism, consolidating democracy after four decades of
authoritarianism, implementing economic and financial reforms,
stemming corruption, holding the military and police accountable for
past human rights violations, addressing climate change, and
controlling avian influenza. In 2005, Indonesia reached a historic
peace agreement with armed separatists in Aceh, which led to
democratic elections in December 2006. Indonesia continues to face a
low intensity separatist movement in Papua.
Iran
Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in
1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and Shah Mohammad Reza
PAHLAVI was forced into exile. Conservative clerical forces
established a theocratic system of government with ultimate
political authority vested in a learned religious scholar referred
to commonly as the Supreme Leader who, according to the
constitution, is accountable only to the Assembly of Experts.
US-Iranian relations have been strained since a group of Iranian
students seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held
it until 20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody,
indecisive war with Iraq that eventually expanded into the Persian
Gulf and led to clashes between US Navy and Iranian military forces
between 1987 and 1988. Iran has been designated a state sponsor of
terrorism for its activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world
and remains subject to US, UN, and EU economic sanctions and export
controls because of its continued involvement in terrorism and its
nuclear weapons ambitions. Following the election of reformer Hojjat
ol-Eslam Mohammad KHATAMI as president in 1997 and similarly a
reformer Majles (parliament) in 2000, a campaign to foster political
reform in response to popular dissatisfaction was initiated. The
movement floundered as conservative politicians, through the control
of unelected institutions, prevented reform measures from being
enacted and increased repressive measures. Starting with nationwide
municipal elections in 2003 and continuing through Majles elections
in 2004, conservatives reestablished control over Iran's elected
government institutions, which culminated with the August 2005
inauguration of hardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president. The UN
Security Council has passed a number of resolutions (1696 in July
2006, 1737 in December 2006, 1747 in March 2007, 1803 in March 2008,
and 1835 in September 2008) calling for Iran to suspend its uranium
enrichment and reprocessing activities and comply with its IAEA
obligations and responsibilities. Resolutions 1737, 1477, and 1803
subject a number of Iranian individuals and entities involved in
Iran's nuclear and ballistic missile programs to sanctions.
Additionally, several Iranian entities are subject to US sanctions
under Executive Order 13382 designations for proliferation
activities and EO 13224 designations for support of terrorism.
Iraq
Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by
Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a
League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over
the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in
1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series
of strongmen ruled the country until 2003. The last was SADDAM
Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and
costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait
but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War
of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN
Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass
destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification
inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions
over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of Iraq in
March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. US forces
remained in Iraq under a UNSC mandate until 31 December 2008 and
under a bilateral Security Agreement thereafter, helping to provide
security and to support the freely elected government. In October
2005, Iraqis approved a constitution in a national referendum and,
pursuant to this document, elected a 275-member Council of
Representatives (CoR) in December 2005. After the election, Ibrahim
al-JAAFARI was selected as prime minister; he was replaced by Nuri
al-MALIKI in May 2006. The CoR approved most cabinet ministers in
May 2006, marking the transition to Iraq's first constitutional
government in nearly a half century. On 31 January 2009, Iraq held
elections for provincial councils in all provinces except for the
three provinces comprising the Kurdistan Regional Government and
at-Ta'mim (Kirkuk) province.
Ireland
Celtic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.
Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were
finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.
English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than
seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions
and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched
off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in
independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern
(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1949, Ireland withdrew
from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in
1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of
Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A
peace settlement for Northern Ireland is gradually being implemented
despite some difficulties. In 2006, the Irish and British
governments developed and began to implement the St. Andrews
Agreement, building on the Good Friday Agreement approved in 1998.
Isle of Man
Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the
13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the
British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almost
extinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government
remains constitutionally responsible for its defense and
international representation.
Israel
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israel
occupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew
from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. In
keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in
October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel
and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanent
settlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September
1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords")
guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding
territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26
October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May
2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it
had occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working
in conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - took
the lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the
conflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties
leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However,
progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined by
Israeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February
2005. An Israeli-Palestinian agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh in
February 2005, along with an internally-brokered Palestinian
cease-fire, significantly reduced the violence. In the summer of
2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, evacuating
settlers and its military while retaining control over most points
of entry into the Gaza Strip. The election of HAMAS in January 2006
to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relations between
Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERT became prime
minister in March 2006; he shelved plans to unilaterally evacuate
from most of the West Bank following an Israeli military operation
in Gaza in June-July 2006 and a 34-day conflict with Hizballah in
Lebanon in June-August 2006. OLMERT in June 2007 resumed talks with
the PA after HAMAS seized control of the Gaza Strip and PA President
Mahmoud ABBAS formed a new government without HAMAS. OLMERT in
September 2008 resigned in the wake of several corruption
allegations, but remained prime minister until the new coalition
government under former Prime Minister Binyamin NETANYAHU was
completed in late March 2009, following the February general
election.
Italy
Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states
of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under
King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to
a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a
Fascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy's
defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchy
in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member of
NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at the
forefront of European economic and political unification, joining
the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems include
illegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment,
sluggish economic growth, and the low incomes and technical
standards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.
Jamaica
The island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -
was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The native
Taino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, were
gradually exterminated and replaced by African slaves. England
seized the island in 1655 and established a plantation economy based
on sugar, cocoa, and coffee. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freed
a quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaica
gradually obtained increasing independence from Britain. In 1958 it
joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the Federation of
the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when it withdrew
from the Federation in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions
during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangs affiliated
with the major political parties evolved into powerful organized
crime networks involved in international drug smuggling and money
laundering. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and poverty pose
significant challenges to the government today. Nonetheless, many
rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contribute
substantially to the economy.
Jan Mayen
This desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named after
a Dutch whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614
(earlier claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal
hunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island came
under Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VII
Toppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; the most recent
eruption occurred in 1985. It is the northernmost active volcano on
earth.
Japan
In 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) ushered
in a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order to
secure its power. For more than two centuries this policy enabled
Japan to enjoy stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture.
Following the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan opened
its ports and began to intensively modernize and industrialize.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a
regional power that was able to defeat the forces of both China and
Russia. It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin
Island. In 1931-32 Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched
a full-scale invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 -
triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupied
much of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II,
Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of
the US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national
unity, elected politicians - with heavy input from bureaucrats and
business executives - wield actual decisionmaking power. The economy
experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three
decades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major
economic power, both in Asia and globally. In January 2009, Japan
assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the
2009-10 term.
Jersey
Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last
remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both
France and England. These islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government is
constitutionally responsible for its defense and international
representation.
Jordan
Following World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman
Empire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.
Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan from
Palestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independence
in 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country's
long-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, he
successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers
(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large
internal Palestinian population. Jordan lost the West Bank to Israel
in the 1967 war and barely managed to defeat Palestinian rebels who
threatened to overthrow the monarchy in 1970. King HUSSEIN in 1988
permanently relinquished Jordanian claims to the West Bank. In 1989,
he reinstituted parliamentary elections and initiated a gradual
political liberalization; political parties were legalized in 1992.
In 1994, he signed a peace treaty with Israel. King ABDALLAH II, the
son of King HUSSEIN, assumed the throne following his father's death
in February 1999. Since then, he has consolidated his power and
undertaken an aggressive economic reform program. Jordan acceded to
the World Trade Organization in 2000, and began to participate in
the European Free Trade Association in 2001. In 2003, Jordan
staunchly supported the Coalition ouster of Saddam in Iraq and
following the outbreak of insurgent violence in Iraq, absorbed
thousands of displaced Iraqis. Municipal elections were held in July
2007 under a system in which 20% of seats in all municipal councils
were reserved by quota for women. Parliamentary elections were held
in November 2007 and saw independent pro-government candidates win
the vast majority of seats. In November 2007, King ABDALLAH
instructed his new prime minister to focus on socioeconomic reform,
developing a healthcare and housing network for civilians and
military personnel, and improving the educational system.
Kazakhstan
Native Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes
who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely united
as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18th
century, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the
1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizens
were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.
This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some other
deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled
non-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused many
of these newcomers to emigrate. Kazakhstan's economy is larger than
those of all the other Central Asian states combined, largely due to
the country's vast natural resources and a recent history of
political stability. Current issues include: developing a cohesive
national identity; expanding the development of the country's vast
energy resources and exporting them to world markets; achieving a
sustainable economic growth; diversifying the economy outside the
oil, gas, and mining sectors; enhancing Kazakhstan's
competitiveness; and strengthening relations with neighboring states
and other foreign powers.
Kenya
Founding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTA
led Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, when
President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional
succession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969
until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made
itself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and
external pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. The
ethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from power
in elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence and
fraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of the
Kenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 following
fair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidate
of the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National Rainbow
Coalition (NARC), defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed
the presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruption
platform. KIBAKI's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over the
constitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANU
to form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement,
which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popular
referendum in November 2005. KIBAKI's reelection in December 2007
brought charges of vote rigging from ODM candidate Raila ODINGA and
unleashed two months of violence in which as many as 1,500 people
died. UN-sponsored talks in late February produced a powersharing
accord bringing ODINGA into the government in the restored position
of prime minister.