Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland
became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades
of one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the country
held multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution
that came into full effect the following year. Current President
Bingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt by
the previous president to amend the constitution to permit another
term, struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor and
subsequently started his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party
(DPP) in 2005. As president, MUTHARIKA has overseen substantial
economic improvement but because of political deadlock in the
legislature, his minority party has been unable to pass significant
legislation, and anti-corruption measures have stalled. Population
growth, increasing pressure on agricultural lands, corruption, and
the spread of HIV/AIDS pose major problems for Malawi.
Malaysia
During the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britain
established colonies and protectorates in the area of current
Malaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,
the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed the
Federation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia was
formed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and the
East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast of
Borneo joined the Federation. The first several years of the
country's history were marred by a Communist insurgency, Indonesian
confrontation with Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and
Singapore's secession from the Federation in 1965. During the
22-year term of Prime Minister MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003),
Malaysia was successful in diversifying its economy from dependence
on exports of raw materials to expansion in manufacturing, services,
and tourism.
Maldives
The Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch and
then under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, three
years after independence. President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM dominated
the islands' political scene for 30 years, elected to six successive
terms by single-party referendums. Following riots in the capital
Male in August 2004, the president and his government pledged to
embark upon democratic reforms including a more representative
political system and expanded political freedoms. Progress was
sluggish, however, and many promised reforms were slow to be
realized. Nonetheless, political parties were legalized in 2005. In
June 2008, a constituent assembly - termed the "Special Majlis" -
finalized a new constitution, which was ratified by the president in
August. The first-ever presidential elections under a
multi-candidate, multi-party system were held in October 2008.
GAYOOM was defeated in a runoff poll by Mohamed NASHEED, a political
activist who had been jailed several years earlier by the former
regime. Challenges facing the new president include strengthening
democracy and combating poverty and drug abuse.
Mali
The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France
in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a
few months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamed
Mali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by a
military coup - led by the current president Amadou TOURE - enabling
Mali's emergence as one of the strongest democracies on the
continent. President Alpha KONARE won Mali's first democratic
presidential election in 1992 and was reelected in 1997. In keeping
with Mali's two-term constitutional limit, KONARE stepped down in
2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE, who was subsequently elected
to a second term in 2007. The elections were widely judged to be
free and fair.
Malta
Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.
The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars and
remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. A
decade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, the
island has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, a
financial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EU
member in May 2004 and began using the euro as currency in 2008.
Marshall Islands
After almost four decades under US administration
as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a
Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a
result of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and
1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)
Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missile
defense network.
Mauritania
Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed the
southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in
1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by the
Polisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.
Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984 and ruled
Mauritania with a heavy hand for more than two decades. A series of
presidential elections that he held were widely seen as flawed. A
bloodless coup in August 2005 deposed President TAYA and ushered in
a military council that oversaw a transition to democratic rule.
Independent candidate Sidi Ould Cheikh ABDALLAHI was inaugurated in
April 2007 as Mauritania's first freely and fairly elected
president. His term ended prematurely in August 2008 when a military
junta deposed him and ushered in a military council government.
Meanwhile, the country continues to experience ethnic tensions among
its black population (Afro-Mauritanians) and White and Black Moor
(Arab-Berber) communities.
Mauritius
Although known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the
10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in the
16th century and subsequently settled by the Dutch - who named it in
honor of Prince Maurits van NASSAU - in the 17th century. The French
assumed control in 1715, developing the island into an important
naval base overseeing Indian Ocean trade, and establishing a
plantation economy of sugar cane. The British captured the island in
1810, during the Napoleonic Wars. Mauritius remained a strategically
important British naval base, and later an air station, playing an
important role during World War II for anti-submarine and convoy
operations, as well as the collection of signals intelligence.
Independence from the UK was attained in 1968. A stable democracy
with regular free elections and a positive human rights record, the
country has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned
one of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather,
declining sugar prices, and declining textile and apparel
production, have slowed economic growth, leading to some protests
over standards of living in the Creole community.
Mayotte
Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands of
the Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelago
that voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and forego
independence.
Mexico
The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came
under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence
early in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994
threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession
in over half a century. The nation had been making an impressive
recovery until the global financial crisis hit in late 2008. Ongoing
economic and social concerns include low real wages, underemployment
for a large segment of the population, inequitable income
distribution, and few advancement opportunities for the largely
Amerindian population in the impoverished southern states. The
elections held in 2000 marked the first time since the 1910 Mexican
Revolution that an opposition candidate - Vicente FOX of the
National Action Party (PAN) - defeated the party in government, the
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). He was succeeded in 2006 by
another PAN candidate Felipe CALDERON. In January 2009, Mexico
assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the
2009-10 term.
Micronesia, Federated States of
In 1979 the Federated States of
Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a
constitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of
Free Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.
Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and
overdependence on US aid.
Moldova
Part of Romania during the interwar period, Moldova was
incorporated into the Soviet Union at the close of World War II.
Although independent from the USSR since 1991, Russian forces have
remained on Moldovan territory east of the Dniester River supporting
the Slavic majority population, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who
have proclaimed a "Transnistria" republic. One of the poorest
nations in Europe, Moldova became the first former Soviet state to
elect a Communist as its president in 2001.
Monaco
The Genoese built a fortress on the site of present-day
Monaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family secured control
in the late 13th century, and a principality was established in
1338. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with
a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since then,
the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gambling
facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreation
center.
Mongolia
The Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when under
Chinggis KHAN they established a huge Eurasian empire through
conquest. After his death the empire was divided into several
powerful Mongol states, but these broke apart in the 14th century.
The Mongols eventually retired to their original steppe homelands
and in the late 17th century came under Chinese rule. Mongolia won
its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing and a Communist regime
was installed in 1924. The modern country of Mongolia, however,
represents only part of the Mongols' historical homeland; more
Mongols live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in the People's
Republic of China than in Mongolia. Following a peaceful democratic
revolution, the ex-Communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
(MPRP) won elections in 1990 and 1992, but was defeated by the
Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) in the 1996 parliamentary election.
The MPRP won an overwhelming majority in the 2000 parliamentary
election, but the party lost seats in the 2004 election and shared
power with democratic coalition parties from 2004-08. The MPRP
regained a solid majority in the 2008 parliamentary elections but
nevertheless formed a coalition government with the Democratic
Party. The prime minister and most cabinet members are MPRP members.
Montenegro
The use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th century
when the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality of
Zeta; over subsequent centuries Montenegro was able to maintain its
independence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19th
centuries, Montenegro became a theocracy ruled by a series of bishop
princes; in 1852, it was transformed into a secular principality.
After World War I, Montenegro was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats, and Slovenes, which became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in
1929; at the conclusion of World War II, it became a constituent
republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. When the
latter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federated with Serbia, first as
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after 2003, in a looser
union of Serbia and Montenegro. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its
right under the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro to
hold a referendum on independence from the state union. The vote for
severing ties with Serbia exceeded 55% - the threshold set by the EU
- allowing Montenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June
2006.
Montserrat
English and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settled
on Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived three
decades later. The British and French fought for possession of the
island for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed as
a British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economy
was converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.
Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the population
fled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcano
that began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activity
since, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.
Morocco
In 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of North
Africa, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. In
the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad
AL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a
golden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered in
a half century of trade rivalry among European powers that saw
Morocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French imposed a
protectorate over the country. A protracted independence struggle
with France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized city
of Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the new
country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Sahara
during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of the
territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s
resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature, which
first met in 1997. The country has made improvements in human rights
under King MOHAMMED VI and its press is moderately free. Despite the
continuing reforms, ultimate authority remains in the hands of the
monarch.
Mozambique
Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a
close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration, economic
dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a prolonged civil
war hindered the country's development until the mid 1990's. The
ruling Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party
formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the
following year provided for multiparty elections and a free market
economy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel
Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in
1992. In December 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition
as Joaquim CHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. His
elected successor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, promised to continue the
sound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.
Mozambique has seen very strong economic growth since the end of the
civil war largely due to post-conflict reconstruction.
Namibia
South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa
during World War I and administered it as a mandate until after
World War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the Marxist
South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group
launched a war of independence for the area that became Namibia, but
it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end its
administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire
region. Namibia has been governed by SWAPO since the country won
independence in 1990. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president in
November 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who led
the country during its first 14 years of self rule.
Nauru
The exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear since their
language does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island was
annexed by Germany in 1888. Its phosphate deposits began to be mined
early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium. Nauru was
occupied by Australian forces in World War I and subsequently became
a League of Nations mandate. After the Second World War - and a
brutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UN trust territory. It
achieved independence in 1968 and joined the UN in 1999 as the
world's smallest independent republic.
Navassa Island
This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857
for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. The
lighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administration
of Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Department
of the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the island
described it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; the
following year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annual
scientific expeditions have continued.
Nepal
In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system of
rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of
government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy
within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. An insurgency led
by Maoist extremists broke out in 1996. The ensuing ten-year civil
war between insurgents and government forces witnessed the
dissolution of the cabinet and parliament and assumption of absolute
power by the king. Several weeks of mass protests in April 2006 were
followed by several months of peace negotiations between the Maoists
and government officials, and culminated in a November 2006 peace
accord and the promulgation of an interim constitution. Following a
nation-wide election in April 2008, the newly formed Constituent
Assembly declared Nepal a federal democratic republic and abolished
the monarchy at its first meeting the following month. The
Constituent Assembly elected the country's first president in July.
The Maoists, who received a plurality of votes in the Constituent
Assembly election, formed a coalition government in August 2008.
Netherlands
The Dutch United Provinces declared their independence
from Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leading
seafaring and commercial power, with settlements and colonies around
the world. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of the
Netherlands was formed in 1815. In 1830 Belgium seceded and formed a
separate kingdom. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I,
but suffered invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II. A
modern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a large
exporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding member
of NATO and the EEC (now the EU), and participated in the
introduction of the euro in 1999.
Netherlands Antilles
Once the center of the Caribbean slave trade,
the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in
1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored in
the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to
service newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island of Saint
Martin is shared with France; its southern portion is named Sint
Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles; its northern
portion, called Saint Martin, is an overseas collectivity of France.
New Caledonia
Settled by both Britain and France during the first
half of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in
1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.
Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s ended in
the 1998 Noumea Accord, which over a period of 15 to 20 years will
transfer an increasing amount of governing responsibility from
France to New Caledonia. The agreement also commits France to
conduct as many as three referenda between 2013 and 2018, to decide
whether New Caledonia should assume full sovereignty and
independence.
New Zealand
The Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.
800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,
the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to Queen
Victoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, the
British began the first organized colonial settlement. A series of
land wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the native
peoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independent
dominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.
New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense alliances
lapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought to
address longstanding Maori grievances.
Nicaragua
The Pacific coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanish
colony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence from
Spain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independent
republic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the first
half of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the region
in subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmental
manipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 and
resulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the Marxist
Sandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftist
rebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinista
contra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,
1996, and 2001, saw the Sandinistas defeated, but voting in 2006
announced the return of former Sandinista President Daniel ORTEGA
Saavedra. The 2008 municipal elections were characterized by
widespread irregularities. Nicaragua's infrastructure and economy -
hard hit by the earlier civil war and by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 -
are slowly being rebuilt, but democratic institutions face new
challenges under the ORTEGA administration.
Niger
Niger became independent from France in 1960 and experienced
single-party and military rule until 1991, when Gen. Ali SAIBOU was
forced by public pressure to allow multiparty elections, which
resulted in a democratic government in 1993. Political infighting
brought the government to a standstill and in 1996 led to a coup by
Col. Ibrahim BARE. In 1999, BARE was killed in a coup by military
officers who promptly restored democratic rule and held elections
that brought Mamadou TANDJA to power in December of that year.
TANDJA was reelected in 2004. Niger is one of the poorest countries
in the world with minimal government services and insufficient funds
to develop its resource base. The largely agrarian and
subsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted by extended
droughts common to the Sahel region of Africa. A predominately
Tuareg ethnic group emerged in February 2007, the Nigerien Movement
for Justice (MNJ), and attacked several military targets in Niger's
northern region throughout 2007 and 2008. Events have since evolved
into a fledging insurgency.
Nigeria
British influence and control over what would become Nigeria
and Africa's most populous country grew through the 19th century. A
series of constitutions after World War II granted Nigeria greater
autonomy; independence came in 1960. Following nearly 16 years of
military rule, a new constitution was adopted in 1999, and a
peaceful transition to civilian government was completed. The
government continues to face the daunting task of reforming a
petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered through
corruption and mismanagement, and institutionalizing democracy. In
addition, Nigeria continues to experience longstanding ethnic and
religious tensions. Although both the 2003 and 2007 presidential
elections were marred by significant irregularities and violence,
Nigeria is currently experiencing its longest period of civilian
rule since independence. The general elections of April 2007 marked
the first civilian-to-civilian transfer of power in the country's
history.
Niue
Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguistic
differences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the rest
of the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.
The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200
in 1966 to an estimated 1,398 in 2009) with substantial emigration
to New Zealand 2,400 km to the southwest.
Norfolk Island
Two British attempts at establishing the island as a
penal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In
1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants of
the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.