The War seems ended in Germany--Eck Revives the
Contest--Debate between Eck and Carlstadt--The Question of
the Pope--Luther Replies--Alarm of Luther's
Friends--Luther's courage--Truth triumphs
single-handed--Refusal of Duke George--Delight of Mosellanus
and Fears of Erasmus.
While the combat was only beginning beyond the limits of the empire it
seemed to him almost ceased within it. The most blustering soldiers of
Rome, the Franciscan monks of Jûterbock, after having imprudently
attacked Luther, had, after a vigorous rejoinder from the Reformer,
hastened to resume silence. The partisans of the pope were quiet; and
Tezel was unfit for service. Luther's friends conjured him not to
persist in the contest, and he had promised to comply. The theses were
beginning to be forgotten. By this perfidious peace the eloquent
tongue of the Reformer was completely paralysed; and the Reformation
seemed to be arrested. "But," says Luther afterwards, when speaking of
this period, "men were imagining vain things, for the Lord had arisen
to judge the nations."[38] "God," says he in another place, "does not
lead but urges and hurries me along. I am not my own master. I would
fain be at rest, but am precipitated into the midst of tumult and
revolution."[39]
[38] Dominus evigilavit et stat ad judicandos populos. (L. Op. Lat. in
l'ræf.)
[39] Deus rapit, pellit, nedum ducit me: non sum compos mei: volo esse
quietus et rapior in medios tumultus. (L. Ep. i, 231.)
[Sidenote: ECK. CARLSTADT.]
The person who renewed the contest was Eck the schoolman, Luther's old
friend, and the author of the Obelisks. He was sincerely attached to
the papacy, but seems to have been devoid of genuine religious
sentiment, and to have belonged to a class of men, at all times too
numerous, who value learning, and even theology and religion, merely
as a means of gaining a name in the world. Vain glory lurks under the
priest's cassock as well as the soldier's helmet. Eck had studied the
art of disputation according to the scholastic rules, and was an
acknowledged master in this species of warfare. While the knights of
the middle ages, and the warriors at the period of the Reformation,
sought glory in tournaments, the schoolmen sought it in the
syllogistic disputations, which were often exhibited in universities.
Eck, who was full of himself, stood high in his own opinion, and was
proud of his talents, of the popularity of his cause, and the trophies
which he had won in eight universities in Hungary, Lombardy, and
Germany, eagerly longed for an opportunity of displaying his power and
dexterity in debate with the Reformer. He had spared nothing to secure
the reputation of being one of the most celebrated scholars of the
age. He was ever seeking to stir up new discussions, to produce a
sensation, and by means of his exploits procure access to all the
enjoyments of life. A tour which he made in Italy had, by his own
account, been only a series of triumphs. The most learned of the
learned had been constrained to subscribe to his theses. A practised
bravado, he fixed his eyes on a new field of battle, where he thought
himself secure of victory. That little monk, who had grown up all at
once into a giant, that Luther, whom no one had hitherto been able to
vanquish, offended his pride, and excited his jealousy.[40] It might
be that Eck, in seeking his own glory, might destroy Rome ... but
scholastic vanity was not to be arrested by any such consideration.
Theologians, as well as princes, have repeatedly sacrificed the
general interest to their individual glory. Let us attend to the
circumstances which gave the doctor of Ingolstadt an opportunity of
entering the lists with his troublesome rival.
[40] Nihil cupiebat ardentius, quam sui specimen præbere in solemni
disputatione cum semulo. (Pallavicini, Tom. i, p. 55.)
[Sidenote: ECK'S THESES.]
The zealous but too ardent Carlstadt was still of one mind with
Luther--the special bond of union between them being their attachment
to the doctrine of grace, and their admiration of St. Augustine.
Carlstadt, who was of an enthusiastic temperament, and possessed
little prudence, was not a man to be arrested by the address and
policy of a Miltitz. In opposition to the Obelisks of Dr. Eck, he had
published theses in which he defended Luther and their common faith.
Eck had replied, and Carlstadt, determined not to leave him the last
word, had rejoined. The combat grew warm. Eck, eager to avail himself
of so favourable an opportunity, had thrown down the gauntlet; and the
impetuous Carlstadt had taken it up. God employed the passions of
these two men to accomplish his designs. Though Luther had taken no
part in these debates, he was destined to be the hero of the fight.
There are men whom the force of circumstances always brings upon the
scene. Leipsic was fixed upon, and hence the origin of the celebrated
discussion which bears its name.
Eck cared little about combating with Carlstadt, and even vanquishing
him. Luther was the opponent whom he had in view. He accordingly
employed every means to bring him into the field; and with this view
published thirteen theses,[41] directed against the leading doctrines
which had been espoused by the Reformer. The thirteenth was in these
terms:--"We deny that the Roman Church was not superior to other
Churches before the time of Pope Sylvester; and we acknowledge at all
times, that he who has occupied the see of St. Peter and professed his
faith,[42] is the successor of St. Peter and the vicar of Jesus
Christ." Sylvester lived in the time of Constantine the Great; and
hence Eck, in this thesis, denied that the primacy which Rome enjoyed
was conferred on her by that emperor.
[41] Defensio adversus Echii monomachiam.
[42] L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 242.
Luther, whose consent to remain silent had not been given without
reluctance, was strongly excited when he read these propositions. He
saw that he was the person aimed at, and felt that he could not, with
honour, evade the contest. "This man," said he, "names Carlstadt as
his antagonist, and at the same time makes his assault upon me. But
God reigns, and knows what result he designs to bring out of this
tragedy.[43] The question is not between Dr. Eck and me. God's purpose
will be accomplished. Thanks to Eck, this affair, which hitherto has
been mere sport, will at length become serious, and give a fatal blow
to the tyranny of Rome and the Roman Pontiff."
[43] Sed Deus in medio deorum; ipse novit quid ex ea tragoeœdia
deducere voluerit, (L. Ep. i, 230, 222.)
[Sidenote: LUTHER'S MODERATION AND COURAGE.]
Rome herself broke the agreement. She did more; when she renewed the
signal for battle, she directed it to a point which Luther had not
previously attacked. The subject which Dr. Eck singled out for his
antagonists was the primacy of the pope. In thus following the
dangerous example which Tezel had given,[44] Rome invited the blows of
the champion; and if she left her mangled members on the arena, she
had herself to blame for the punishment inflicted by his mighty arm.
[44] 1st vol. p. 402
The pontifical supremacy being once overthrown, the whole of the Roman
platform fell to pieces. Hence the papacy was in imminent peril; and
yet neither Miltitz nor Cajetan took any steps to prevent this new
contest. Did they imagine that the Reformation would be vanquished, or
were they smitten with that blindness by which the ruin of the mighty
is accomplished?
Luther, who, by his long silence, had given an example of rare
moderation, boldly met the challenge of his antagonist, whose theses
he immediately opposed by counter theses. The last was in these
terms:--"The primacy of the Church of Rome is defended by means of
miserable decretals of the Roman pontiffs, composed within the last
four hundred years; whereas this primacy is contradicted by the
authentic history of eleven centuries, the declarations of Holy
Scripture, and the canons of the Council of Nice, which is the purest
of all Councils."[45]
[45] L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 245.
At the same time Luther thus wrote to the Elector:--"God knows it was
my firm determination to be silent; and I rejoiced to see the game at
length brought to a close. So faithfully have I observed the paction
concluded with the pope's commissioner, that I did not reply to
Sylvester Prierias, notwithstanding of the taunts of adversaries and
the counsels of friends. But now Dr. Eck attacks me, and not only me,
but the whole University of Wittemberg besides. I cannot allow it to
be thus covered with obloquy."[46]
[46] L. Ep. i, p. 237.
At the same time Luther wrote to Carlstadt, "I am unwilling, excellent
Andrew, that you should engage in this quarrel, since I am the person
aimed at." "I will gladly lay aside my serious labours and enter into
the sports of these flatterers of the Roman pontiff."[47] Then
apostrophising his adversary with disdain, and calling from Wittemberg
to Ingolstadt, he exclaims--"Now, then, my dear Eck, be courageous,
and gird thy sword upon thy thigh, thou mighty man.[48] Having failed
to please you as mediator, perhaps I will please you better as
antagonist. Not that I have any thought of vanquishing you, but after
all the trophies which you have gained in Hungary, Lombardy, and
Bavaria, (at least if we are to take your account for it,) I will give
you an opportunity of acquiring the name of the conqueror of Saxony
and Misnia, so that you will be for ever saluted by the glorious title
of Augustus."[49]
[47] Gaudens et videns post-habeo istorum mea seria ludo. (Ibid. p.
251.)
[48] Esto vir fortis et accingere gladie tuo super femur tuum,
potentissime! (Ibid.)
[49] Ac si voles semper Augustus saluteris in æternum. (Ibid. p. 251)
[Sidenote: LUTHER'S CONFIDENCE.]
All Luther's friends did not share his courage, for up to this hour
none had been able to withstand the sophistry of Dr. Eck. But what
alarmed them most was the subject of dispute--the primacy of the
pope!... How does the poor monk of Wittemberg dare to encounter this
giant who for ages has crushed all his enemies? The courtiers of the
Elector begin to tremble. Spalatin the confidant of the prince, and
intimate friend of the Reformer, is full of anxiety. Frederick, too,
feels uneasy: even the sword of the Knight of the Holy Sepulchre, with
which he had been armed at Jerusalem, would be unequal to this
warfare. Luther alone feels no alarm. His thought is, "The Lord will
deliver him into my hands." The faith with which he is animated
enables him to strengthen his friends. "I beg of you, my dear
Spalatin," said he, "not to give yourself up to fear; you know well
that if Christ was not with me, all that I have done up to this hour
must have been my ruin. Was it not lately written from Italy, to the
chancellor of the Duke of Pomerania, that I had upset Rome, and that,
not knowing how to appease the tumult, they were purposing to attack
me not according to the forms of justice, but by Roman finesse, (the
very words used,) that is, I presume, by poison, ambush, and
assassination?"
"I restrain myself, and from love to the Elector, and the university,
keep back many things which I would employ against Babylon, were I
elsewhere. O! my poor Spalatin! it is impossible to speak of Scripture
and of the Church without irritating the beast. Never, therefore, hope
to see me at rest, at least, until I renounce theology. If this work
is of God, it will not be terminated before all my friends have
forsaken me, as Christ was forsaken by his disciples. Truth will
endure single-handed, and triumph in virtue of its own prowess, not
mine or yours, or any man's.[50] If I fall, the world will not perish
with me. But, wretch that I am, I fear I am not worthy to die in such
a cause." "Rome," he again wrote about this time, "Rome is burning
with eagerness to destroy me, while I sit quiet and hold her in
derision. I am informed that, in the field of Flora at Rome, one
Martin Luther has been publicly burned in effigy, after being loaded
with execrations. I abide their fury.[51] The whole world," continues
he, "is in agitation, heaving to and fro. What will happen? God knows.
For my part, I foresee wars and disasters. The Lord have mercy on
us."[52]
[50] Et sola sit veritas, quæ salvet se dexterâ suâ, non meâ, non tuâ,
non ullius hominis.... (L. Ep. i, 261.) And let truth stand alone; she
will save herself by her own right hand--not by yours or mine, or that
of any man.... (L. Ep. i, 261.)
[51] Expecto furorem illorum. (Ibid. 280, 30th May, 1519.)
[52] Totus orbis nutat et movetur, tam corpore quam animâ. (Ibid.) The
whole world nods and is shaken both in body and soul.
[Sidenote: DUKE GEORGE. ADOLPHUS OF MERSEBURG.]
Luther wrote letter after letter to Duke George,[53] in whose states
Leipsic is, entreating permission to repair thither and take part in
the debate, but received no answer. The grandson of the Bohemian king,
Podiebrad, alarmed at Luther's proposition concerning the pope, and
afraid of seeing Saxony involved in the wars of which Bohemia had so
long been the theatre, was unwilling to grant the doctor's request.
Luther, therefore, determined to publish explanations of his
thirteenth Thesis. But this treatise, far from persuading Duke George,
on the contrary, confirmed him in his resolution. Positively refusing
to give the Reformer authority to debate, he merely allowed him to be
present as a spectator.[54] This was a great disappointment to Luther.
Nevertheless, as he had only one wish, and that was to obey God--he
resolved to attend as a spectator, and await the result.
[53] Ternis literis, a duce Georgio non potui certum obtinere
responsum. (Ibid., p. 282.) After three letters, I could not obtain a
decided answer from Duke George.
[54] Ita ut non disputator, sed spectator futurus Lipsiam ingrederer.
(L. Op. in Præf.)
The prince at the same time did every thing in his power to forward
the discussion between Eck and Carlstadt. Duke George was devoted to
the ancient doctrine; but he was upright and sincere, and friendly to
free enquiry, and did not think that an opinion was to be charged with
heresy, merely because it displeased the court of Rome. The Elector,
moreover, urged his cousin to permit the discussion; and the duke,
confirmed by Frederick's statements, ordered it to take place.[55]
[55] Principis nostri verbo firmatus. (L. Ep. i, 255.)
Bishop Adolphus of Merseburg, in whose diocese Leipsic is situated,
was more alive than Miltitz and Cajetan, to the danger of trusting
such important questions to the chances of single combat. Rome could
not expose the fruit of the labours of so many ages to such hazard.
All the theologians of Leipsic were equally alarmed, and implored
their bishop to prevent the discussion. Adolphus accordingly presented
most energetic remonstrances to Duke George, who replied with much
good sense.[56] "I am surprised at seeing a bishop so terrified at the
ancient and laudable custom of our fathers in examining doubtful
questions as to matters of faith. If your theologians refuse to defend
their doctrines, the money given to them would be far better employed
in the maintenance of aged women and young children who would be able
at least to spin and sing."
[56] Scheinder, Lips. Chr. iv, 168.
[Sidenote: MOSELLANUS. ERASMUS.]
This letter had little effect on the bishop and his theologians. There
is in error a secret consciousness which makes it dread enquiry even
when making loud professions of being favourable to it. After an
imprudent advance it makes a cowardly retreat. Truth did not give the
challenge, but firmly stood its ground. Error gave it, and ran off.
Moreover, the prosperity of the university of Wittemberg, excited the
jealousy of that of Leipsic. The monks and priests inveighed from the
pulpits of that city, urging the people to shun the new heretics,
slandering Luther, and painting him, as well as his friends, in the
blackest colours, in order to stir up the fanaticism of the populace
against the Reformers.[57] Tezel, who was still alive, awoke to cry
from the depth of his retreat,--"It is the devil that is forcing on
this contest."[58]
[57] Theologi interim me proscindunt ... populum Lipsiæ inclamant. (L.
Ep. i, 255.) The theologians, in the meantime, inveigh against me, ...
and declaim to the people of Leipsic.
[58] Das walt der Teufel (L. Ep. i, 255.)
All the professors of Leipsic, however, did not participate in these
apprehensions. Some belonged to the indifferent class, consisting of
persons who are always ready to laugh at the faults of both parties.
Of this class was the Greek professor Peter Mosellanus, who cared very
little for John Eck, Carlstadt, and Martin Luther, but anticipated
great amusement from the strife. Writing to his friend Erasmus, he
says, "John Eck, who is the most illustrious of pen gladiators and
rhapsodists, and like the Socrates of Aristophanes, contemns even the
gods, is to have a turn in debate with Andrew Carlstadt. The battle
will end in uproar, and there will be laughter in it for ten
Democratuses."[59]
[59] Seckend., p. 201.
The timid Erasmus, on the contrary, was frightened at the idea of a
combat, and his prudence, ever ready to take alarm, would fain have
prevented this discussion. In a letter to Melancthon, he says, "If you
will be advised by Erasmus, you will be more anxious to promote the
advancement of sound literature than to attack the enemies of it.[60]
My belief is that, in this way, our progress will be greater. Above
all, while engaged in this struggle, let us not forget that victory
must be obtained, not only by eloquence, but also by moderation and
meekness." Neither the alarms of priests, nor the prudence of
pacificators, could now prevent the combat. The parties made ready
their weapons.
[60] Malim te plus operæ sumere in asserendis bonis literis, quam in
sectandis harum hostibus. (Corpus Ref. ed. Bretschneider, i, 78, 22nd
April, 1519.)