27-32 18-15 15-11 11-15 28-32 19-24
28-24 2-28-24 12-16 19-24 27-31 White
23-18 32-28 28-32 32-28 15-19 wins.
3-a-24-28 1-24-20 16-19 24-27 31-26
a. 12-16 same as Var. I. at 5th move.
Var. I.
24-27 18-15 19-16 28-32 8-12 15-11
15-18 b 16-20 18-23 8-12 23-18 White
12-16 15-18 16-11 32-27 12-8 wins.
28-32 24-19 23-19 12-8 18-15
27-24 32-28 11-8 27-23 8-12
b. 24-28 same as Var. II. at 1st move.
Var. II. 12-16, 15-11, 16-19, 32-27, 28-32, 27-31, 32-28, 11-16,
19-23, 16-19. White wins.
Var. III. 24-19, 32-28, c 19-16, 28-24, 16-11, 24-20, 11-8, 18-15.
White wins.
c. 12-16, 28-32, 19-24 or 16-20, same as Var. II. at 5th and 9th moves
respectively. White wins.
Problem No. 2.
BLACK.
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | B | | | | B | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| B | | | | B | | B | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | W | | B | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| B | | W | | | | B | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | B | | W | | | | B |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| W | | W | | | | W | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | W | | W | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | W | | | | W | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
WHITE.
White to move and win.
Problem No. 2 is a fine example of another class of problems, namely,
"strokes." It is formed from the "Paisley" opening, thus:--
11-16 22-17 11-16 26-19 9-13 15-10
24-19 9-13 25-21 4-8 25-22 a 2-7
8-11 17-14 6-9 29-25 7-11
28-24 10-17 23-18 13-17 19-15
16-20 21-14 16-23 31-26 12-16
a. This forms the position on the diagram. The solution is as
follows:--
27-23 7-14 18-9 14-23 26-3
20-27 9-6 5-14 21-7 27-31
14-9 1-10 23-18 3-10 3-7
White wins. Jacques and Campbell.
_Other Varieties._--The forms of draughts practised on the European
continent differ in some respects from the English variety, chiefly in
respect of the power assigned to a man after "crowning." The game of
_Polish Draughts_ is played in France, Holland, Belgium and Poland,
where it has entirely superseded _Le Jeu de dames a la francaise_. It
is played on a board of 100 squares with 20 men a side. The men move
and capture as in English draughts, except that in capturing they move
either forward or backward. A crowned man becomes a queen, and can
move any number of squares along the diagonal. In her capture she
takes any unguarded man or queen in any diagonal she commands, leaping
over the captured man or queen and remaining on any unoccupied square
she chooses of the same diagonal, beyond the piece taken. But if there
is another unguarded man she is bound to choose the diagonal on which
it can be taken. For example (using an English draught-board) place a
queen on square 29 and adverse men at squares 22, 16, 24, 14. The
queen is bound to move from 29 to 11, 20, 27, and having made the
captures to remain at 9 or 5, whichever she prefers. The capturing
queen or man must take all the adverse pieces that are _en prise_, or
that become so by the uncovering of any square from which a piece has
been removed during the capture, e.g. white queen at square 7, black
at squares 10, 18, 19, 22 and 27, the queen captures at 10, 22, 27 and
19, and the piece at 22 being now removed, she must go to 15, take the
man at 18, and stay at 22, 25 or 29. In consequence of the intricacy
of some of these moves, it is customary to remove every captured piece
as it is taken. If a man arrives at a crowning square when taking, and
he can still continue to take, he must do so, and not stay on the
crowning square as at draughts. Passing a crowning square in taking
does not entitle him to be made a queen. In capturing, the player must
choose the direction by which he can take the greatest number of men
or queens, or he may be huffed. Numerical power is the criterion, e.g.
three men must be taken in preference to two queens. If the numbers
are equal and one force comprises more queens than the other, the
player may take whichever lot he chooses. This form of draughts,
played on a board of 144 squares with 30 men a side, is extensively
practised by British soldiers in India.
The German _Damenspiel_ is Polish draughts played on a board of the
same size and with the same number of men as in the English game. It
is sometimes called Minor Polish draughts, and is practised in Germany
and Russia.
The _Italian game_ differs from the English in two important
particulars--a man may not take a king, and when a player has the
option of capturing pieces in more than one way he must take in the
manner which captures most pieces. There is a difference too in the
placing of the board, the black square in the corner of the board
being at the player's right hand, but until a king is obtained the
differences from the English system are unimportant in practice.
In _Spanish draughts_ the board is set as for the Italian game. The
men move as in English draughts, but, in capturing, the largest
possible number of pieces must be taken, and the king has the same
powers as in the Polish game. The game does not differ essentially
from the English game until a king is obtained, and many games from
Spanish works will be found incorporated in English books. Sometimes
the game is played with 11 men and a king, or 10 men and 2 kings a
side, instead of the regulation 12 men.
_Turkish draughts_ differs widely from all other modern varieties of
the game. It is played on a board of 64 squares, all of which are used
in play. Each player has 16 pieces, which are not placed on the two
back rows of squares, as in chess, but on the second and third back
rows. The pieces do not move diagonally as in other forms of the game,
but straight forward or to the right or left horizontally. The king
has the same command of a horizontal or vertical row of squares that
the queen in Polish draughts has over a diagonal. Capturing is
compulsory, and the greatest possible number of pieces must be taken,
captured pieces being removed one at a time as taken.
AUTHORITIES.--Falkener's _Games Ancient and Oriental_; Lees' _Guide to
the Game of Draughts_; Drummond's _Scottish Draught Players_ (Kear's
reprint); Gould's _Memorable Matches_ and _Book of Problems_, &c. The
_Draughts World_ is the principal magazine devoted to the game. In
Dunne's _Draught Players' Guide and Companion_ a section is devoted to
the non-English varieties. (J. M. M. D.; R. J.)
DRAUPADI, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada, king of Panchala,
and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is an important character in
the _Mahabharata_.
DRAVE, or DRAVA (Ger. _Drau_, Hung. _Drava_, Lat. _Dravus_), one of the
principal right-bank affluents of the Danube, flowing through Austria
and Hungary. It rises below the Innichner Eck, near the Toblacher Feld
in Tirol, at an altitude of a little over 4000 ft., runs eastward, and
forms the longest longitudinal valley of the Alps. The Drave has a total
length of 450 m., while the length of its Alpine valley to Marburg is
150 m., and to its junction with the Mur 250 m. Owing to its great
extent and easy accessibility the valley of the Drave was the principal
road through which the invading peoples of the East, as the Huns, the
Slavs and the Turks, penetrated the Alpine countries. The Drave flows
through Carinthia and Styria, and enters Hungary near Friedau, where up
to its confluence with the Danube, at Almas, 14 m. E. of Esseg, it forms
the boundary between that country and Croatia-Slavonia. At its mouth the
Drave attains a breadth of 1055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The Drave is
navigable for rafts only from Villach, and for steamers from Barcs, a
distance of 95 m. The principal affluents of the Drave are: on the left
the Isel, the Gurk, the Lavant, and the largest of all, the Mur; and on
the right the Gail and the Drann.
DRAVIDIAN (Sanskrit _Dravida_), the name given to a collection of Indian
peoples, and their family of languages[1] comprising all the principal
forms of speech of Southern India. Their territory, which also includes
the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards up to an irregular line
drawn from a point on the Arabian Sea about 100 m. below Goa along the
Western Ghats as far as Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad,
and farther eastwards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north we find
Dravidian dialects spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces and
Chota Nagpur, and even up to the banks of the Ganges in the Rajmahal
hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s
of Baluchistan in the far north-west. The various Dravidian languages,
with the number of speakers returned at the census of 1901, are as
follows:--
Tamil 17,494,901
Malay[=a]lam 6,022,131
Kanarese 10,368,515
Tulu 535,210
Kodagu 39,191
Toda 805
K[=o]ta 1,300
Kuru[chi] 609,721
Malto 60,777
G[=o]nd[=i] 1,125,479
Kui 494,099
Telugu 20,697,264
Br[=a]h[=u][=i] 48,589
----------
Total 57,497,982
Of these Tamil and Malay[=a]lam can be considered as two dialects of one
and the same language, which is, in its turn, closely related to
Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and K[=o]ta can be described as lying
between Tamil-Malay[=a]lam and Kanarese, though they are more nearly
related to the latter than to the former. The same is the case with
Kuru[chi] and Malto, while Kui and G[=o]nd[=i] gradually approach
Telugu, which latter language seems to have branched off from the common
stock at an early date. Finally, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i] dialect of
Baluchistan has been so much influenced by other languages that it is no
longer a pure Dravidian form of speech.
The Dravidian languages have for ages been restricted to the territory
they occupy at the present day. Moreover, they are gradually losing
ground in the north, where they meet with Aryan forms of speech. If we
compare the caste tables and the language tables in the Indian census of
1901 we find that only 1,125,479 out of the 2,286,913 G[=o]nds returned
were stated to speak the Dravidian G[=o]nd[=i]. Similarly only 1505 out
of 17,187 K[=o]l[=a]ms entered their language as K[=o]l[=a]m[=i]. Such
tribes are gradually becoming Hinduized. Their language adopts an
ever-increasing Aryan element till it is quite superseded by Aryan
speech. In the north-eastern part of the Dravidian territory, to the
east of Chanda and Bhandara, the usual state of affairs is that
Dravidian dialects are spoken in the hills while Aryan forms of speech
prevail in the plains. The Dravidian Kui thus stands out as an isolated
island in the sea of Aryan speech.
This process has been going on from time immemorial. The Dravidians were
already settled in India when the Aryans arrived from the north-west.
The fair Aryans were at once struck by their dark hue, and named them
accordingly _krisna tvac_, the black skin. In the course of time,
however, the two races began to mix, and it is still possible to trace a
Dravidian element in the Aryan languages of North India.
The teaching of anthropology is to the same effect. Most speakers of
Dravidian languages belong to a distinct anthropological type which is
known as the Dravidian. "The Dravidian race," says Sir H. Risley, "the
most primitive of the Indian types, occupies the oldest geological
formation in India, the medley of forest-clad ranges, terraced plateaus,
and undulating plains which stretches, roughly speaking, from the
Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. On the east and west of the peninsular area
the domain of the Dravidian is conterminous with the Ghats, while
farther north it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and on the other
to the Rajmahal hills."
This territory is the proper home of the race. A strong Dravidian
element can, however, also be traced in the population of northern
India. In Kashmir and Punjab, where the Aryans had already settled in
those prehistoric times when the Vedic hymns were composed, the
prevailing type is the Aryan one. The same is the case in Rajputana.
From the eastern frontier of the Punjab, on the other hand, and
eastwards, a Dravidian element can be traced. This is the case in the
valleys of the Ganges and the Jumna, where the Aryans only settled at a
later period. Anthropologists also state that there is a Dravidian
element in the population of western India, from Gujarat to Coorg.
It is thus probable that Dravidian languages have once been spoken in
many tracts which are now occupied by Aryan forms of speech. The
existence of a Dravidian dialect in Baluchistan seems to show that
Dravidian settlers have once lived in those parts. The tribe in
question, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s, are, however, now Eranians and not
Dravidians by race, and it is not probable that there has ever been a
numerous Dravidian population in Baluchistan. The Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s are
most likely the descendants of settlers from the south.
There is no indication that the Dravidians have entered India from
outside or superseded an older population. For all practical purposes
they can accordingly be considered as the aborigines of the Deccan,
whence they appear to have spread over part of northern India. Their
languages form an isolated group, and it has not been possible to prove
a connexion with any other family of languages. Such attempts have been
made with reference to the Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages,
and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian continent.
The arguments adduced have not, however, proved to be sufficient, and
only the Australian hypothesis can still lay claim to some probability.
Till it has been more closely tested we must therefore consider the
Dravidian family as an isolated group of languages, with several
characteristic features of its own.
The pronunciation is described as soft and mellifluous. Abruptness and
hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is, for example, a
distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant at the end of
a word, a very short vowel being often added after it. Thus the
pronoun of the third person singular, which is _avan_, "he," in Tamil,
is pronounced _avanu_ in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word _v[=a]k_,
"speech," is borrowed in the form _v[=a]ku_ in Tamil; the word
_gurram_, "horse," is commonly pronounced _gurramu_ in Telugu, and so
on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many cases where
speakers of other languages do not experience any difficulty in
pronouncing them. This tendency is well illustrated by the changes
undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the Sanskrit word
_br[=a]hmana_, "a Brahmin," becomes _bar[=a]mana_ in Kanarese and
_pir[=a]mana_ in Tamil; the Sanskrit _Dramida_, "Dravidian," is
borrowed by Tamil under the form _Tir[=a]mida_. _Dramida_, which also
occurs as _Dravida_, is in its turn developed from an older _Damila_,
which is identical with the word _Tamir_, Tamil.
The forms _pir[=a]mana_ and _Tir[=a]mida_ in Tamil illustrate another
feature of Dravidian enunciation. There is a tendency in all of them,
and in Tamil and Malay[=a]lam it has become a law, against any word
being permitted to begin with a stopped voiced consonant (g, j, [d.],
d, b), the corresponding voiceless sounds (k, c, t, [t.], p,
respectively) being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound,
on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the Sanskrit
word _danta_, "tooth," has been borrowed by Tamil in the form
_tandam_, and the Telugu _anna_, "elder brother," _tammulu_, "younger
brother," become when compounded _annadammulu_, "elder and younger
brothers."
There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though there
is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this
equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompanied by a
tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in consecutive
syllables. This tendency, which has been called the "law of harmonic
sequence," is most apparent in Telugu, where the short _u_ of certain
suffixes is replaced by _i_ when the preceding syllable contains one
of the vowels _i_ (short and long) and _ei_. Compare the dative suffix
_ku_, _ki_, in _gurramu-ku_, "to a horse"; but _tammuni-ki_, "to a
younger brother." This tendency does not, however, play a prominent
role in the Dravidian languages.
Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixed formative
additions. The root itself generally remains unchanged throughout.
Thus from the Tamil base _per_, "great," we can form adjectives such
as _per-iya_ and _per-um_, "great"; verbs such as _per-u-gu_, "to
become increased"; _per-u-kku_, "to cause to increase," and so on.
Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as verbs.
Thus the Tamil _kadu_ can mean "sharpness," "sharp," and "to be
sharp." Other bases are of course more restricted in their respective
spheres.
The inflection of words is effected by agglutination, i.e. various
additions are suffixed to the base in order to form what we would call
cases and tenses. Such additions have probably once been separate
words. Most of them are, however, now only used as suffixes. Thus from
the Tamil base _k[=o]n_, "king," we can form an accusative
_k[=o]n-ei_, a verb _k[=o]n-en_, "I am king," and so on.
Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil grammarians
called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former includes
those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason, the latter all
others. Gender is only distinguished in the former class, while all
casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals (which are
irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using different words
for the male and the female, or else by adding words meaning male,
female, respectively, to the name of the animal--processes which do
not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of grammar.
There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter is
formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked in the
case of casteless nouns.
Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually to a
modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique base.
Thus we have the Tamil _maram_, "tree"; _maratt-[=a]l_, "from a tree";
_maratt-u-kku_, "to a tree"; _v[=i]du_, "a house"; _v[=i]t[t.]-[=a]l_,
"from a house." The case terminations are the same in the singular and
in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun, is
often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding
suffixes.
The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in tens;
thus Tamil _pattu_, "ten"; _iru-badu_, "two tens," "twenty."
The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a double
form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the person
addressed. Thus, Tamil _n[=a]m_, "we," i.e. I and you; _n[=a]ngal_,
"we," i.e. I and they.
There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by using
relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence "the book which you
gave to me" must be translated _m[=i]ru n[=a]ku iccina pus-takamu_,
i.e. "you me-to given book." There are several such participles in
use. Thus from the Telugu verb _kot[t.]a_, "to strike," are formed
_kot[t.]-ut-unna_, "that strikes," _kot[t.]-i-na_, "that struck,"
_kot[t.][=e]_, "that would strike," "that usually strikes." By adding
pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are
derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus from
Telugu _kot[t.][=e]_ and _v[=a]du_, "he," is formed
_kot[t.][=e]-v[=a]du_, "one who usually strikes." Such forms are used
as ordinary verbs, and the usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages
can broadly be described as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu,
_kot[t.]in[=a]du_, "he struck," can be translated literally "a striker
in the past."
Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject by
adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in Kanarese we
have _m[=a]did-enu_, "I did"; _m[=a]did-i_, "thou didst";
_m[=a]did-evu_, "we did"; _m[=a]did-aru_, "they did."
One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb is the
existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has only one
tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations to a negative
base. Thus, Kanarese _m[=a]d-enu_, "I did not"; _m[=a]d-evu_, "we did
not"; _m[=a]d-aru_, "they did not."
The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This was a
necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior Aryan
civilization.
The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans
though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malay[=a]lam,
Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The language
of literature in all of them differs considerably from the colloquial.
The oldest known specimen of a Dravidian language occurs in a Greek
play which is preserved in a papyrus of the 2nd century A.D. The exact
period to which the indigenous literature can be traced back, on the
other hand, has not been fixed with certainty.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Bishop R. Caldwell, _A Comparative Grammar of the
Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages_ (London, 1856; 2nd
edition, 1875); Dr Friedrich Muller, _Reise der usterreichischen
Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter den
Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wullerstorff-Urbair: Linguistischer
Theil._ (Wien, 1867, pp. 73 and ff.); Dr Friedrich Muller, _Grundriss
der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and ff.; G.
A. Grierson, _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. iv. "Munda and
Dravidian Languages" (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff. by Sten Konow.
(S. K.)