[1] _Gallicanus_, part ii.; _Sapientia_.
[2] _Gallicanus_, part i.; _Callimachus_; _Abraham_; _Paphnutius_.
[3] The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present
artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special
circumstances in the days of the Thirty Years' War (1634). Various
reasons account for its having been allowed to survive.
[4] To the earliest group belong _The Castle of Perseverance_;
_Wisdom who is Christ_; _Mankind_; to the second, or early Tudor
group, Medwell, _Nature_; _The World and the Child_; _Hycke-Scorner_,
&c.
[5] _Magnyfycence_.
[6] _New Custome_; N. Woodes, _The Conflict of Conscience_, &c.
[7] _Albyon Knight_.
[8] Rastell, _Nature of the Four Elements_; Redford, _Wit and
Science_; _The Trial of Treasure_; _The Marriage of Wit and Science_.
[9] _The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom_; _The Contention between
Liberality and Prodigality_.
[10] _Jack Juggler_; _Tom Tiler and his Wife_, &c.
[11] _The Four P's_, &c.
[12] _The Disobedient Child_ (c. 1560).
[13] The [Greek: Christos paschon], an artificial Byzantine product,
probably of the 11th century, glorifying the Virgin in Euripidean
verse, was not known to the Western world till 1542.
[14] Of G. Manzini della Motta's Latin tragedy on the fall of Antonio
della Scala only a chorus remains. He died after 1389. Probably to
the earlier half of the century belongs the Latin prose drama
_Columpnarium_, the story of which, though it ends happily, resembles
that of _The Cenci_. Later plays in Latin of the historic type are
the extant Landivio de' Nobili's _De captivitate Ducis Jacobi_ (the
_condottiere_ Jacopo Piccinino, d. 1464); C. Verardi's _Historia
Baetica_ (the expulsion of the Moors from Granada) (1492), and the
game author's _Ferdinandus_ (of Aragon) _Servatus_, which is called a
tragi-comedy because it is neither tragic nor comic. The Florentine L.
Dali's _Hiempsal_ (1441-1442) remains in MS. A few tragedies on
sacred subjects were produced in Italy during the last quarter of the
15th century, and a little later. Such were the religious dramas
written for his pupils by P. Domizio, on which Politian cast
contempt; and the tragedies, following ancient models, of T. da Prato
of Treviso, B. Campagna of Verona, _De passione Redemptoris_; and G.
F. Conti, author of _Theandrothanatos_ and numerous vanished plays.
[15] _Imber aureus_ (Danae), &c.
[16] L. Bruni's _Poliscena_ (c. 1395); Sicco Polentone's (1370-1463)
jovial _Lusus ebriorum_ s. _De lege bibia_; the papal secretary P.
Candido Decembrio's (1399-1477) non-extant _Aphrodisia_; L. B.
Alberti's _Philodoxios_ (1424); Ugolino Pisani of Parma's (d. before
1462) _Philogenia_ and _Confutatio coquinaria_ (a merry students'
play); the _Fraudiphila_ of A. Tridentino, also of Parma, who died
after 1470 and perhaps served Pius II.; Eneo Silvio de' Piccolomini's
own verse comedy, _Chrisis_, likewise in MS., written in 1444; P.
Domizio's _Lucinia_, acted in the palace of Lorenzo de' Medici in
1478, &c.
[17] Mondella, _Isifile_ (1582); Fuligni, _Bragadino_ (1589).
[18] Home, _Douglas_.
[19] Lazzaroni, _Ulisse il giovane_ (1719).
[20] _Didone abbandonata_, _Siroe_, _Semiramide_, _Artaserse_,
_Demetris_, &c.
[21] _Cleopatra_, _Antigone_, _Octavia_, _Mirope_, &c.
[22] e.g. _Bruto I._ and _II._
[23] _Filippo_; _Maria Stuarda_.
[24] Pellico, _Francesca da Rimini_; Niccolini, _Giovanni da
Procida_; _Beatrice Cenci_; Giacometti, _Cola di Rienzi_
(Giacometti's masterpiece was _La Marte civile_).
[25] Pyrogopolinices in the _Miles Gloriosus_.
[26] The masked characters, each of which spoke the dialect of the
place he represented, were (according to Baretti) _Pantalone_, a
Venetian merchant; _Dottore_, a Bolognese physician; _Spaviento_, a
Neapolitan braggadocio; _Pullicinella_, a wag of Apulia;
_Giangurgulo_ and _Coviello_, clowns of Calabria; _Gelfomino_, a
Roman beau; _Brighella_, a Ferrarese pimp; and _Arlecchino_, a
blundering servant of Bergamo. Besides these and a few other such
personages (of whom four at least appeared in each play), there were
the _Amorosos_ or _Innamoratos_, men or women (the latter not before
1560, up to which time actresses were unknown in Italy) with serious
parts, and _Smeraldina_, _Colombina_, _Spilletta_, and other
_servettas_ or waiting-maids. All these spoke Tuscan or Roman, and
wore no masks.
[27] _Pasitea_.
[28] _Amicizia_.
[29] _Milesia_.
[30] _La Lena_; _Il Negromante_.
[31] _La Cassaria_; _I Suppositi_.
[32] Of Machiavelli's other comedies, two are prose adaptations from
Plautus and Terence, _La Clizia_ (Casina) and _Andria_; of the two
others, simply called _Commedie_, and in verse, his authorship seems
doubtful.
[33] _La Cortigiana_, _La Talanta_, _Il Ipocrito_, _Il Filosofo_.
[34] _Momolo Cortesan_ (_Jerome the Accomplished Man_); _La Bottega
del caffe_, &c.
[35] _La Vedova scaltra_ (_The Cunning Widow_); _La Putta onorata_
(_The Respectable Girl_); _La Buona Figlia_; _La B. Sposa_; _La B.
Famiglia_; _La B. Madre_ (the last of which was unsuccessful;
"goodness," says Goldoni, "never displeases, but the public weary of
every thing"), &c.; and _Il Burbero benefico_, called in its original
French version _Le Bourru bienfaisant_.
[36] _Moliere_; _Terenzio_; _Tasso_.
[37] _Pamela_; _Pamela Maritata_; _Il Filosofo Inglese_ (_Mr
Spectator_).
[38] _L' Amore delle tre melarancie_ (_The Three Lemons_); _Il
Corvo_.
[39] _Turandot_; _Zobeide_.
[40] _L' Amore delle tre m._ (against Goldoni); _L' Angellino
Belverde_ (_The Small Green Bird_), (against Helvetius, Rousseau and
Voltaire).
[41] _Aspasia_; _Polyxena_.
[42] _Ephemeridophobos_.
[43] _Timoleon_; _Konstantinos Palaeologos_; _Rhigas of Pherae_.
[44] _The Three Hundred_, or _The Character of the Ancient Hellene_
(Leonidas); _The Death of the Orator_ (Demosthenes); _A Scion of
Timoleon_, &c.
[45] The term is the same as that used in the old French collective
mysteries (_journees_).
[46] In some of his plays (_Comedia Serafina_; _C. Tinelaria_) there
is a mixture of languages even stranger than that of dialects in the
Italian masked comedy.
[47] _Necromanticus_, _Lena_, _Decepti_, _Suppositi_.
[48] _Los Enganos_ (_Gli Ingannati_).
[49] _Cornelia_ (_Il Negromante_).
[50] Lope, _Armelina_ (Medea and Neptune as _deus ex machina_--si
modo machina adfuisset).
[51] _Menennos_.
[52] _El Azero de Madrid_ (_The Steel Water of Madrid_); _Dineros son
Calidad_ (= _The Dog in the Manger_), &c.
[53] _La Estrella de Sevilla_ (_The Star of Seville_, i.e. Sancho the
Brave); _El Nuevo Mundo_ (Columbus), &c.
[54] _Roma Abrasada_ (_R. in Ashes_--Nero).
[55] _Arauco domado_ (_The Conquest of Arauco_, 1560).
[56] _La Moza de cantaro_ (_The Water-maid_).
[57] _Las Mocedades_ (_The Youthful Adventures_) _del Cid_.
[58] _Don Gil de las calzas verdes_ (_D. G. in the Green Breeches_).
[59] _El Burlador de Sevilla y Convivado de piedra_ (_The Deceiver of
Seville_, i.e. Don Juan, _and the Stone Guest_).
[60] _El Divino Orfeo_, &c.
[61] _El Magico prodigioso_; _El Purgatorio de San Patricio_; _La
Devocion de la Cruz_.
[62] _El Principe constante_ (Don Ferdinand of Portugal).
[63] _La Dama duende_ (_The Fairy Lady_).
[64] _Vida es sueno_ (_Life is a Dream_).
[65] _El Lindo Don Diego_ (_Pretty Don Diego_).
[66] _Desden con el desden_ (_Disdain against Disdain_).
[67] Luzan, _La Razon contra la mode_ (La Chaussee, _Le Prejuge a la
mode_).
[68] _El Delinquente honrado (The Honoured Culprit)._
[69] _El Si de las ninas (The Young Maidens' Consent)._
[70] _O cioso_ (_The Jealous Man_), &c. His _Inez de Castro_ is a
tragedy with choruses, partly founded on the Spanish play of J.
Bermudez.
[71] _Don Duardos_, _Amadis_, &c.
[72] _Auto das Regateiras_ (_The Market-women_), _Pratica de
compadres_ (_The Gossips_), &c.
[73] _Emphatri[)o]es_, _Filodemo_, _Seleuco_.
[74] _Os Estrangeiros_, _Os Vilhalpandos_ (_The Impostors_).
[75] _Eufrosina_, _Ulyssipo_ (Lisbon), _Aulegrafia_.
[76] _Astarte_, _Hermione_, _Megara_.
[77] These assumptions of names remind us that we are in the period
of the "_Arcadias_."
[78] _Cat[=a]o_.
[79] _Manoel de Sousa_, &c.
[80] _Antigone_ and _Electra_; _Hecuba_; and _Iphigenia in Aulis_.
The _Andria_ was also translated, and in 1540 Ronsard translated the
_Plutus_ of Aristophanes.
[81] Trissino, _Sofonisba_, by de Saint-Gelais.
[82] _La Soltane_ (1561).
[83] _Daire (Darius)._
[84] _La Mort de Cesar._
[85] _Achille_ (1563).
[86] _Les Lacenes_; _Marie Stuart or L'Ecossaise_.
[87] _La Juive_, &c.
[88] _Les Corivaux_ (1573).
[89] _La Reconnue_ (Le Capitaine Rodomont).
[90] _Les Esbahis._
[91] _Les Contens_ (S. Parabosco, _I Contenti_).
[92] _Les Neapolitaines_; _Les Desesperades de l'amour_.
[93] _Le Laquais (Il Ragazzo)._
[94] _Les Tromperies (Gli Inganni)._
[95] "L. du Peschier" (de Barry), _La Comedie des comedies_.
[96] _L'Amour tyrannique._
[97] _Agrippine_, _Le Pedant joue_.
[98] _Marianne._
[99] _Sophonisbe._
[100] _Les Bergeries._
[101] _Melite_; _Clitandre_, &c.
[102] _Le Veritable Saint Genest_; _Venceslas_.
[103] Steele, _The Lying Lover_; Foote, _The Liar_; Goldoni, _Il
Bugiardo_.
[104] Ruiz de Alarcon, _La Verdad sospechosa._
[105] _L'Illusion comique_ is antithetically mixed.
[106] _Andromaque_; _Phedre_; _Berenice_, &c.
[107] _Esther_; _Athalie_.
[108] _Le Cid_; _Polyeucte_.
[109] _Esther_; _Athalie_.
[110] Corneille, _Rodogune_; Racine, _Phedre_.
[111] _Brutus_; _La Mort de Cesar_; _Semiramis_.
[112] _OEdipe_; _Le Fanatisme_ (_Mahomet_).
[113] _Adelaide du Guesclin_.
[114] _L'Orphelin de la Chine_.
[115] _Tanis et Zelide_.
[116] _Les Guebres_.
[117] _Olimpie_.
[118] _Tancrede_.
[119] _La Mort de Cesar_; _Zaire_ (_Othello_).
[120] _Hamlet_; _Le Roi Lear_, &c.
[121] The lectures delivered by the late Professor A. Beljame at
Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1905-1906 may be mentioned as valuable
contributions to our knowledge of the growth of Shakespeare's
influence in France.
[122] Quinault, _L'Amour indiscret_ (Newcastle and Dryden's _Sir
Martin Mar-all_).
[123] _Le Mercure galant_; _Esope a la ville_; _Esope a la cour_
(Vanbrugh, _Aesop_).
[124] _Le Bal_ (_M. de Pourceaugnac_); Geronte in _Le Legataire
universel_ (Argan in _Le Malade imaginaire_); _La Critique du L._
(_La C. de l'ecole des femmes_).
[125] _Le Joueur_; _Le Legataire universel_.
[126] _Crispin rival de son maitre_; _Turcaret_.
[127] _Le Mechant_.
[128] _La Metromanie_.
[129] _Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard_; _Le Legs_; _La Surprise de
l'amour_; _Les Fausses Confidences_; _L'Epreuve_.
[130] _Le Philosophe marie_; _Le Glorieux_; _Le Dissipateur_.
[131] _La Fausse Antipathie_; _Le Prejuge a la mode_; _L'Ecole des
amis_; _Meluside_; _Pamela_. _L'Ecole des meres_ was the play which
Frederick the Great described as turning the stage into a _bureau
general de la fadeur_.
[132] See especially _Nanine_, founded on the original _Pamela_.
[133] _Le Philosophe sans le savoir_; _La Gageure imprevue_.
[134] e.g. _Eugenie_ (the original of Goethe's _Clavigo_) and _Les
Deux Amis_, or _Le Negociant de Lyon_.
[135] _Richard Coeur de Lion_, &c.
[136] _Zemire et Azor_; _Jeannot et Jeannette_.
[137] _Les Muses galantes_; _Le Devin du village_.
[138] _Pygmalion_.
[139] _Charles IX, ou l'ecole des rois_.
[140] _Hernani_ (1839); _Le Roi s'amuse_; _Ruy Blas_; _Les
Burgraves_, &c. Even in _Torquemada_, the fruit of its author's old
age, and full of bombast, the original power has not altogether gone
out.
[141] _Chatterton_.
[142] _Francois le champi_; _Claudie_.
[143] _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_.
[144] _On ne badine pas avec l'amour_, as interpreted by Delaunay,
must always remain the most exquisite type of this inimitable
_genre_.
[145] _Theatre de Clara Gazul_. _La Famille Carvajal_, one of these
pieces, treats the same story as that of _The Cenci_.
[146] _Lucrece_ (1843); _L'Honneur et l'argent_; _Charlotte Corday_.
[147] _La Cigue_; _L'Aventuriere_; _Gabrielle_; _Le Fils de Giboyer_,
&c.
[148] _Valerie_; _Bertrand et Raton_; _Le Verre d'eau_, &c.
[149] _Louis XI._
[150] _Adrienne Lecouvreur_.
[151] _La Dame aux camelias_; _Le Demi-monde_; _Le Supplice d'une
femme_; _Les Idees de Mme Aubray_; _L'Etrangere_; _Francillon_.
[152] _Les Pattes de mouche_; _Nos bons villageois_; _Patrie_.
[153] _Le Monde ou l'on s'ennuie_.
[154] _Frou-frou_.
[155] As has been already seen, Sir David Lyndsay's celebrated
_Satyre of the Three Estaits_, a dramatic manifesto in favour of the
Reformation, is in form a morality pure and simple.
[156] _Tom Tiler and his Wife_ (1578); _A Knack to know a Knave_ (c.
1594); _Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes_ (misattributed to G. Peele),
(printed 1599).
[157] An earlier drama by him, _Christus redivivus_, is said to have
been printed at Cologne.
[158] _Oedipus_; _Dido_; _Ulysses redux_.
[159] By A. Guarna.
[160] _Pax_; _Troas_; _Menaechmi_; _Oedipus_; _Mostellaria_;
_Hecuba_; _Amphytruo_; _Medea_. These fall between 1546 and 1560. The
date and place of the production of William Goldingham of Trinity
Hall's _Herodes_, some time after 1567, are unknown.
[161] The date and place of performance of the Latin _Fatum
Vortigerni_ are unknown; but it was not improbably produced at a
later time than Shakespeare's _Richard II._, which it seems in
certain points to resemble.
[162] Latin "academical" plays directly imitated from Seneca, but of
unknown date, are _Solymannidae_ (or the story of Solyman II. and his
son Mustapha), and _Tomumbeius_ (Tuman Bey, sultan of Egypt, 1516);
yet others exhibit his influence.
[163] _"Supposes" and "Jocasta,"_ ed. J. W. Cunliffe.
[164] His _Palamon and Arcyte_ (produced in Christ Church hall,
Oxford, in 1566) is not preserved; or we should be able to compare
with _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ this early dramatic treatment of a
singularly fine theme.
[165] _The History of the Collier._
[166] _A Historie of Error_ (1577), one of the many imitations of the
_Menaechmi_, may have been the foundation of the _Comedy of Errors_.
In the previous year was printed the old _Taming of a Shrew_, founded
on a novel of G. F. Straparola. Part of the plot of Shakespeare's
_Taming of the Shrew_ may have been suggested by _The Supposes_.
[167] _Treatise wherein Dicing, Dauncing, Vaine Playes or Enterluds
... are reproved_, &c. (1577).
[168] _The School of Abuse._
[169] _The Anatomy of Abuses._
[170] H. Denham, G. Whetstone (the author of _Promos and Cassandra_),
W. Rankine.
[171] It may be mentioned that the practice of companies of players,
of one kind or another, being taken into the service of members of
the royal family, or of great nobles, dates from much earlier times
than the reign of Elizabeth. So far back as 1400/1 the corporation of
Shrewsbury paid rewards to the _histriones_ of Prince Henry and of
the earl of Stafford, and in 1408/9 reference is made to the players
of the earl and countess of Arundel, of Lord Powys, of Lord Talbot
and of Lord Furnival.
[172] _The Woman in the Moone_; _Sapho and Phao_.
[173] _Alexander and Campaspe._
[174] _Endimion_; _Mydas_.
[175] _Gallathea._
[176] _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay._
[177] _The Wounds of Civil War._ With Greene he wrote _A
Looking-Glass for London_.
[178] _Summer's Last Will and Testament_ is his sole entire extant
play. _Dido, Queen of Carthage_, is by him and Marlowe.
[179] _Patient Grissil_ (with Dekker and Haughton).
[180] _Hoffman, or A Revenge for a Father._
[181] _Henry VIII._
[182] Ford, _Perkin Warbeck_.
[183] _Edward IV._; _If You Know Not Me_, &c.
[184] _Henry VIII._
[185] _The Merry Wives of Windsor._
[186] Massinger, _The Virgin Martyr_; Shirley, _St Patrick for
Ireland_.
[187] _Cleopatra_; _Philotas_.
[188] _Darius_; _Croesus_; _Julius Caesar_; _The Alexandraean
Tragedy_.
[189] _The Sad Shepherd_.
[190] _The Faithful Shepherdess._
[191] _The Queen's Arcadia._
[192] _Sejanus his Fall_; _Catiline his Conspiracy_.
[193] _Bussy d'Ambois_; _The Revenge of B. d'A._; _The Conspiracy of
Byron_; _The Tragedy of B._; _Chabot, Admiral of France_ (with
Shirley).
[194] _Arden of Faversham_; _A Yorkshire Tragedy_.
[195] _A Woman killed with Kindness_; _The English Traveller_.
[196] _Vittoria Coromboni_; _The Duchess of Malfi_.
[197] _'Tis Pity She's a Whore_; _The Broken Heart_.
[198] _Every Man in his Humour_; _Every Man out of his Humour_.
[199] Shadwell, _The Humorists_.
[200] It is impossible in a summary survey to seek to discriminate by
any kind of evidence the respective shares in many Elizabethan plays,
and the respective credit due to them, of the joint writers. Yet some
such inquiry is necessary before judging the claims to remembrance of
highly-gifted dramatists such as William Rowley, his namesake Samuel,
John Day, and not a few others.
[201] The Latin comedy _Victoria_ by Abraham Fraunce of St John's was
written some time before 1583, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney;
but there is no evidence to show that it was ever acted.
[202] (Bishop) Hacket's _Loyola_ was acted at Trinity in 1623.
[203] _Naufragium joculare--The Guardian_ (rewritten later as _The
Cutter of Coleman Street_).
[204] Chapman, Marston (and Jonson), _Eastward Hoe_ (1605);
Middleton, _A Game at Chess_ (1624); Shirley and Chapman, _The Ball_
(1632); Massinger(?), _The Spanish Viceroy_ (1634).
[205] _Twelfth Night._
[206] _The Puritan, or the Widow of Watling Street_, by "W. S."
(Wentworth Smith?).
[207] _The Alchemist_; _Bartholomew Fair_.
[208] Chapman, _An Humorous Day's Mirth_; Marston, _The Dutch
Courtesan_; Middleton, _The Family of Love_.
[209] Among these was Sir Richard Fanshawe's English version of the
_Pastor fido_ (1646); after his death were published his translations
of two plays by A. de Mendoza.
[210] _A Short View of Tragedy_ (1693).
[211] _The Black Prince_; _Tryphon_; _Herod the Great_; _Altemira._
[212] _The Indian Queen._
[213] _The Indian Emperor_; _Tyrannic Love_; _The Conquest of
Granada._
[214] _Essay of Dramatic Poesy._
[215] _Essay of Heroic Plays._
[216] A direct satirical invective against rhymed tragedy of the
"heroic" type is to be found in Arrowsmith's comedy _Reformation_
(1673).
[217] _The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy._
[218] _All for Love (Antony and Cleopatra)._
[219] _Don Sebastian._
[220] _The Rival Queens_; _Lucius Junius Brutus_; _The Massacre of
Paris._
[221] _Don Carlos_; _The Orphan_; _Venice Preserved._
[222] _Oroonoko_; _The Fatal Marriage._
[223] _The Mourning Bride._
[224] _The Fair Penitent_; _Jane Shore._
[225] A notable influence was exercised upon English comedy as well
as upon other branches of literature by C. de Saint-Evremond, a
soldier and man of fashion who was possessed of great intellectual
ability and of a charming style. Though during his long exile in
England--from 1670 to his death--he never learned English, his
critical works included _Remarks on English Comedy_ (1677), and one
of his own comedies, the celebrated _Sir Politick Would-be_,
professed to be composed "_a la maniere angloise_."
[226] _Epsom Wells_; _The Squire of Alsatia_; _The Volunteers._
[227] A dramatic curiosity of a rare kind would be _The Female
Rebellion_ (1682), which has been, on evidence rather striking at
first sight, attributed to Sir Thomas Browne. It is more likely to
have been by his son.
[228] _The Country Wife_; _The Plain-Dealer._
[229] _The Double Dealer._
[230] _The Recruiting Officer_; _The Beaux' Stratagem._
[231] _A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English
Stage._
[232] Sir Novelty Fashion (Lord Foppington), &c.
[233] _The Lying Lover_; _The Tender Husband._
[234] _The Conscious Lovers._
[235] _The Absolute Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments fully
Demonstrated_; _The Stage defended_, &c. (1726).
[236] _The Siege of Damascus._
[237] _Mariamne._
[238] _The Double Falsehood._
[239] _The Revenge (Othello)._
[240] _Fatal Curiosity._
[241] _Irene_ (1749); _The Patriot_ attributed to Johnson, is by
Joseph Simpson.
[242] _Elfrida_; _Caractacus_.
[243] _Rosamunda._
[244] _Love in a Village_, &c.
[245] _The Waterman_, &c.
[246] _Pasquin_; _The Historical Register for 1736._
[247] _The Golden Rump._
[248] The first dramatic performance licensed by the lord chamberlain
after the passing of the act was appropriately entitled _The Nest of
Plays_, and consisted of three comedies named respectively _The
Prodigal Reformed_, _In Happy Constancy_ and _The Trial of Conjugal
Love_. It is a curious fact that in the first decade of the reign of
George III. a severe control of the theatre was very actively exerted
after a positive as well as a negative fashion--objectionable
passages being ruthlessly suppressed and plays actually written and
licensed for the purpose of upholding the existing regime.
[249] J. Townley, _High Life Below Stairs_ (1759).
[250] _The Minor_; _Taste_; _The Author_, &c.
[251] This celebrated play was at first persistently attributed to
Miss Elizabeth Carter.
[252] _The School for Lovers._
[253] _False Delicacy._
[254] _The Jealous Wife_; _The Clandestine Marriage._
[255] _The Heiress._
[256] _The West Indian_; _The Jew._
[257] _The Belle's Stratagem_; _A Bold Stroke for a Husband_, &c.
[258] _The Road to Ruin_, &c.
[259] _John Bull_; _The Heir at Law_, &c.
[260] _Midas_; _The Golden Pippin._
[261] _Bertram._
[262] _Ion._
[263] _Fazio._
[264] _Philip van Artevelde._
[265] _The Death of Marlowe._
[266] _Becket_; _The Cup._
[267] _Merope._
[268] _The Golden Legend._
[269] _Love is Enough._
[270] _Strafford_; _The Blot on the Scutcheon._
[271] _Atalanta in Calydon_; _Bothwell_; _Chastelard_; _Mary Stuart._
[272] _Virginius_; _The Hunchback._
[273] A drama entitled _Speculum vitae humanae_ is mentioned as
produced by Archduke Ferdinand of the Tirol in 1584.
[274] _Susanna_ (_Geistliches Spiel_) (1536), &c. Sixt Birk also
brought out a play on the story of _Susanna_, which he had previously
treated in a Latin form, in the vernacular (1552).
[275] _Siegfried_; _Eulenspiegel_, &c.
[276] _Susanna_; _Vincentius Ladislaus_, &c.
[277] _Mahomet_; _Edward III._; _Hamlet_; _Romeo and Juliet_, &c.
[278] _The Tempest_ (Ayrer, _Comedia v. d. schonen Sidea_).
[279] _Herr Peter Squenz_ (_Pyramus and Thisbe_);
_Horribilicribrifax_ (Pistol?).
[280] His son, Christian Gryphius, was author of a curious dramatic
summary (or _revue_) of German history, both literary and political;
but the title of this school-drama is far too long for quotation.
[281] One of his _aliases_ was _Pickelharnig_. In 1702 the electress
Sophia is found requesting Leibniz to see whether a more satisfactory
specimen of this class cannot be procured from Berlin than is at
present to be found at Hanover.
[282] Deschamps and Addison.
[283] _Richard III._; _Romeo and Juliet_.
[284] _Die Zwillinge_ (_The Twins_); _Die Soldaten_, &c.
[285] _Julius von Tarent._
[286] _Der Hofmeister_ (_The Governor_), &c.
[287] _Genoveva_, &c.
[288] Iffland's best play is _Die Jager_ (1785), which recently still
held the stage. From Mannheim he in 1796 passed to Berlin by desire
of King Frederick William II., who thus atoned for the hardships
which he had allowed the pietistic tyranny of his minister Wollner to
inflict upon the Prussian stage as a whole.
[289] _Die deutschen Kleinstadter_ is his most celebrated comedy and
_Menschenhass und Reue_ one of the most successful of his sentimental
dramas. According to one classification he wrote 163 plays with a
moral tendency, 5 with an immoral, and 48 doubtful.
[290] _Der Groosskophta_ (Cagliostro); _Der Burgergeneral_.
[291] A. W. von Schlegel and Tieck's (1797-1833).
[292] A. W. von Schlegel, _Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature_,
&c.
[293] _Zriny_, &c.
[294] _Ion._
[295] _Alarcos._
[296] _Kaiser Octavianus_; _Der gestiefelte Kater_ (_Puss in Boots_),
&c.
[297] _Der 24. Februar_ (produced on the Weimar stage with Goethe's
sanction).
[298] _Der 29. Februar_; _Die Schuld_ (_Guilt_).
[299] _Das Bild_ (_The Picture_); _Der Leuchtthurm_ (_The
Lighthouse_).
[300] _Die Ahnfrau_ (_The Ancestress_).
[301] _Das Kathchen_ (_Kate_) _von Heilbronn_.
[302] _Der zerbrochene Krug_ (_The Broken Pitcher_).
[303] _Prinz Friedrich von Homburg._
[304] _Sappho_, _Medea_, &c.
[305] _Konig Ottokar's Gluck und Ende_ (_Fortune and Fall_); _Der
Bruderzwist_ (_Fraternal Feud_) _in Habsburg_.
[306] _Die verhangnissvolle Gabel_ (_The Fatal Fork_); _Der
romantische Oedipus_.
[307] _Die Nibelungen_; _Judith_, &c.
[308] _Der Erbforster._
[309] _Uriel Acosta_; _Der Kunigslieutenant._
[310] _Die Valentine._
[311] _Die Karlsschuler._
[312] _Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_; _Der Meineidbauer_; _Die
Kreuzelschreiber_; _Das vierte Gebot_.
[313] _The Robbers_ (Franz Moor). His next most famous part was Lear.
[314] In connexion with the production in 1855 of "F. Halm's"
_Fechter von Ravenna_, of which the authorship was claimed by a
half-demented schoolmaster.
[315] As to more recent developments of German theatrical literature
see the article GERMAN LITERATURE, and the remarks on the influence
of foreign works in the section on _Recent English Drama_ above.
[316] _Aluta_; _Asotus_; _Hecastus_, &c.
[317] _Gysbrecht van Aemstel_; _Lucifer_.
[318] _Ulysses of Ithaca._
[319] _The Politician-Tinman_; _Jean de France or Hans Franzen; The
Lying-In_, &c.
[320] _Aladdin_; _Corregio._
[321] _Maria Stuart_; _A Bankruptcy_; _Leonarda._
[322] _Brand_; _Peer Gynt._
[323] _Samfundets Stuttere_; _Et Dukkehjem_; _Gengangere._
[324] _Pan Jowialski_; _Oludki i Poeta_ (_The Misanthrope and the
Poet_).
DRAMBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Drage, a
tributary of the Oder, 50 m. E. of Stettin, on the railway
Ruhnow-Neustettin. Pop. 5800. It contains an Evangelical church, a
gymnasium, a hospital and various administrative offices, and carries on
cotton and woollen weaving, tanning, brewing and distilling.
DRAMMEN, a seaport of Norway, in Buskerud and Jarlsberg-Laurvik _amter_
(counties), at the head of Drammen Fjord, a western arm of Christiania
Fjord, 33 m. by rail S. W. from Christiania. Pop. (1900) 23,093. Its
situation, at the mouth of the broad Drammen river, between lofty hills,
is very beautiful. It is the junction of railways from Christiania to
Haugsund, Kongsberg and Hunefos, and to Laurvik and Skien. The town is
modern, having suffered from fires in 1866, 1870 and 1880. It consists
of three parts: Bragernaes on the north, divided by the river from
Strumsu and the port, Tangen, on the south. The prosperity of Drammen
depends mainly on the timber trade; and saw-milling is an active
industry, the logs being floated down the river from the upland
forests. Timber and wood-pulp are exported (over half of each to Great
Britain), with paper, ice and some cobalt and nickel ore. The chief
imports are British coal and German machinery. Salmon are taken in the
upper reaches of the Drammen.
DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA (1823-1894), English writer, was born at
Bromley, near Bow, on the 29th of December 1823. Brought up in the
Anglican creed, she fell under the influence of Tractarian teaching at
Torquay, and joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1850. She wrote, and
published anonymously, an essay questioning the _Morality of
Tractarianism_, which was attributed to John Henry Newman. In 1852,
after a prolonged stay in Rome, she joined the third order of St
Dominic, to which she belonged for over forty years. She was prioress
(1872-1881) of the Stone convent in Staffordshire, where she died on the
29th of April 1894. Her chief works in prose and verse are: _The History
of Saint Dominic_ (1857; enlarged edition, 1891); _The Life of St
Catherine of Siena_ (1880; 2nd ed., 1899); _Christian Schools and
Scholars_ (1867); _The Knights of St John_ (1858); _Songs in the Night_
(1876); and the _Three Chancellors_ (1859), a sketch of the lives of
William of Wykeham, William of Waynflete and Sir Thomas More.
A complete list of her writings is given in the _Memoir of Mother
Francis Raphael, O.S.D., Augusta Theodosia Drane_, edited by B.
Wilberforce, O.P. (London, 1895).
DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1882), American scientist, was born at St
Helen's, near Liverpool, on the 5th of May 1811. He studied at Woodhouse
Grove, at the University of London, and, after removing to America in
1832, at the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania in
1835-1836. In 1837 he was elected professor of chemistry in the
University of the City of New York, and was a professor in its school of
medicine in 1840-1850, president of that school in 1850-1873, and
professor of chemistry until 1881. He died at Hastings, New York, on the
4th of January 1882. He made important researches in photo-chemistry,
made portrait photography possible by his improvements (1839) on
Daguerre's process, and published a _Text-book on Chemistry_ (1846),
_Text-book on Natural Philosophy_ (1847), _Text-book on Physiology_
(1866), and _Scientific Memoirs_ (1878) on radiant energy. He is well
known also as the author of _The History of the Intellectual Development
of Europe_ (1862), applying the methods of physical science to history,
a _History of the American Civil War_ (3 vols., 1867-1870), and a
_History of the Conflict between Religion and Science_ (1874).
His son, HENRY DRAPER (1837-1882), graduated at the University of New
York in 1858, became professor of natural science there in 1860, and was
professor of physiology (in the medical school) and dean of the faculty
in 1866-1873. He succeeded his father as professor of chemistry, but
only for a year, dying in New York on the 20th of November 1882. Henry
Draper's most important contributions to science were made in
spectroscopy; he ruled metal gratings in 1869-1870, made valuable
spectrum photographs after 1871, and proved the presence of oxygen in
the sun in a monograph of 1877. Edward C. Pickering carried on his study
of stellar spectra with the funds of the Henry Draper Memorial at
Harvard, endowed by his widow (_nee_ Mary Anna Palmer).
See accounts by George F. Barker in _Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Science_, vols. 2 and 3 (Washington, 1886, 1888).
DRAPER, one who deals in cloth or textiles generally. The Fr. _drap_,
cloth, from which _drapier_ and Eng. "draper" are derived, is of obscure
origin. It is possible that the Low Lat. _drappus_ or _trappus_ (the
last form giving the Eng. "trappings") may be connected with words such
as "drub," Ger. _treffen_, beat; the original sense would be fulled
cloth. "Drab," dull, pale, brown, is also connected, its first meaning
being a cloth of a natural undyed colour. The Drapers' Company is one of
the great livery companies of the city of London. The fraternity is of
very early origin. Henry Fitz-Alwyn (d. 1212?), the first mayor of
London, is said to have been a draper. The first charter was granted in
1364. The Drapers' Gild was one of the numerous subdivisions of the
clothing trade, and appeared to have been confined to the retailing of
woollen cloths, the linen-drapers forming in the 15th century a separate
fraternity, which disappeared or was merged in the greater company. It
is usual for drapers to combine the sale of "drapery," i.e. of textiles
generally, with that of millinery, hosiery, &c. In _Wills_ v. _Adams_
(reported in _The Times_, London, Nov. 20, 1908), the term "drapery" in
a restrictive covenant was held not to include all goods that a draper
might sell, such as furs or fur-lined goods.
DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word "to draw"; cf. Ger. _Tracht_,
load; the pronunciation led to the variant form "draft," now confined to
certain specific meanings), the act or action of drawing, extending,
pulling, &c. It is thus applied to animals used for drawing vehicles or
loads, "draught oxen," &c., to the quantity of fish taken by one "drag"
of a net, to a quantity of liquid taken or "drawn in" to the mouth, and
to a current of air in a chimney, a room or other confined space. In
furnaces the "draught" is "natural" when not increased artificially, or
"forced" when increased by mechanical methods (see BOILER). The water a
ship "draws," or her "draught," is the depth to which she sinks in the
water as measured from her keel. The word was formerly used of a "move"
in chess or similar games, and is thus, in the plural, the general
English name of the game known also as "checkers" (see DRAUGHTS). The
spelling "draft" is generally employed in the following usages. It is a
common term for a written order "drawn on" a banker or other holder of
funds for the payment of money to a third person; thus a cheque (q.v.)
is a draft. A special form of draft is a "banker's draft," an
instruction by one bank to another bank, or to a branch of the bank
making the instruction, to pay a sum of money to the order of a certain
specified person. Other meanings of "draft" are an outline, plan or
sketch, or a preliminary drawing up of an instrument, measure, document,
&c., which, after alteration and amendment, will be embodied in a final
or formal shape; an allowance made by merchants or importers to those
who sell by retail, to make up a loss incurred in weighing or measuring;
and a detachment or body of troops "drawn off" for a specific purpose,
usually a reinforcement from the depot or reserve units to those abroad
or in the field. For the use of the term "draft" or "draught" in masonry
and architecture see DRAFTED MASONRY.
DRAUGHTS (from A.S. _dragan_, to draw), a game played with pieces (or
"men") called draughtsmen on a board marked in squares of two alternate
colours. The game is called Checkers in America, and is known to the
French as _Les Dames_ and to the Germans as _Damenspiel_. Though the
game is not mentioned in the _Complete Gamester_, nor the _Academie de
jeux_, and is styled a "modern invention" by Strutt, yet a somewhat
similar game was known to the Egyptians, some of the pieces used having
been found in tombs at least as old as 1600 B.C., and part of Anect
Hat-Shepsa's board and some of her men are to be seen in the Egyptian
gallery of the British Museum. An Egyptian vase also shows a lion and an
antelope playing at draughts, with five men each, the lion making the
winning move and seizing the bag or purse that contains the stakes.
Plato ascribes the invention of the game of [Greek: pessoi], or
draughts, to Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Homer
represents Penelope's suitors as playing it (_Odyss._ i. 107). In one
form of the game as played by the Greeks there were 25 squares, and each
player had 5 men which were probably moved along the lines. In another
there were 4 men and 16 squares with a "sacred enclosure," a square of
the same size as the others, marked in the exact centre and bisected by
one of the horizontal lines, which was known as the "sacred line." From
the incident in the game of a piece hemmed in on this line by a rival
piece having to be pushed forward as a last resort, arose the phrase "to
move the man from the sacred line" as synonymous with being hard
pressed. This and other phrases based on incidents in the game testify
to the vogue the game enjoyed in ancient Greece. The Roman game of
_Latrunculi_ was similar, but there were officers (kings in modern
draughts) as well as men. When a player's pieces were all hemmed in he
was stale-mated, to use a chess phrase (_ad incitas redactus est_), and
lost the game. Other explanations of this phrase are, however, given
(see _Les Jeux des anciens_, by Becq de Fouquieres). The fullest account
of the Roman game is to be found in the _De laude Pisonis_, written by
an anonymous contemporary of Nero (see CALPURNIUS, TITUS). Unfortunately
the texts are full of obscurities, so that it is difficult to make any
definite statements as to how the game was played.
As early as the 11th century some form of the game was practised by the
Norsemen, for in the Icelandic saga of Grettir the Strong the board and
men are mentioned more than once.
The history of the modern forms of the game starts with _El Ingenio o
juego de marro, de punto o damas_, published by Torquemada at Valencia
in 1547. Another Spaniard, Juan Garcia Canalejas, is said to have
published in 1610 the first edition of his work, a better-known edition
of which appeared in 1650. The third Spanish classic, that of Joseph
Carlos Garcez, was printed in Madrid in 1684. It is noteworthy that in
an illustration in Garcez's book the pieces depicted resemble somewhat
some of those used by the Egyptians, and are not unlike the pawns used
in chess.
In 1668 Pierre Mallet had published the first French work on the game,
and elementary though his knowledge of the game seems to have been, even
in comparison with that of Canalejas or Garcez, the historical notes,
rules and instructions which he gave, served as a basis for many later
works. Mallet wrote on _Le Jeu de dames a la francaise_, which was
almost identical with the modern English game. The old French game is,
however, no longer practised in France, having been superseded by _Le
Jeu de dames a la polonaise_. Manoury gives reasons for believing that
the latter game originated in Paris about 1727.
About 1736 a famous player named Laclef published the first book on
Polish draughts, but the first important book on the game is Manoury's
_Jeu de dames a la polonaise_, in the production of which it is said
that the author had the assistance of Diderot and other
_encyclopedistes_. This book, which appeared in 1787, was to the new
game all that Mallet's was to the old French game, and until the
appearance of Poirson Prugneaux's _Encyclopedie du jeu de dames_ in 1855
it remained the standard authority on so-called Polish draughts. The
Polish game early attained popularity in Holland, and in 1785 the
standard Dutch work, Ephraim van Embden's _Verhandeling over het
Damspel_, was produced. In German-speaking countries the progress of the
new game was slower, and the works produced in the first half of the
19th century generally treat of the older game as well as the Polish
game. This is also the case with Petroff's book published in St
Petersburg in 1827; and similarly Zongono's, which dates from 1832,
deals with the new game and with the older Italian game.
In 1694 Hyde wrote _Historia dami ludi seu latrinculorum_, in which he
tried to prove the identity of draughts with _ludus latrinculorum_. This
work is historical and descriptive, but contains nothing concerning the
game as played in Great Britain. The authentic history of draughts in
England commences with William Payne's _Introduction to the Game of
Draughts_, the dedication of which was written by Samuel Johnson.
Payne's games and problems were incorporated in a much more important
work, namely Sturges's _Guide to the Game of Draughts_, which appeared
in 1800 and has gone through a score of editions. About this time the
game was much practised in both England and Scotland, but the first
important production of the Scottish school was Drummond's _Scottish
Draught Player_, the first part of which dates from 1838, additional
volumes appearing in 1851-1853 and 1861. In 1852 Andrew Anderson
published his _Game of Draughts Simplified_. A first edition had
appeared in 1848, but the later print is the important one, as it
standardized the laws of the game, fixed the nomenclature of the
openings, introduced a better arrangement of the play, and, since
Anderson was one of the finest players of the game, excelled in
accuracy. In Anderson's time little was known about the openings
commencing with any move other than 11-15, and it was not until more
than thirty years later that the other openings received more adequate
recognition. This was done in Robertson's _Guide to the Game of
Draughts_, and perhaps better in Lees' _Guide_ (1892).
Andrew Anderson was the first recognized British champion player of the
game. He and Wyllie, better known as "the herd laddie," contested five
matches for the honour, Anderson winning four to Wyllie's one. After his
victory in 1847 Anderson retired from match play and the title fell to
Wyllie, who made the game his profession and travelled all over the
English-speaking world to play it. In 1872 he successfully defended his
position against Martins, the English champion, and in 1874 against W.
R. Barker, the American champion, but two years later he was beaten by
Yates, a young American. On the latter's retirement from the game, the
championship lapsed to Wyllie, who held it successfully until his defeat
by Ferrie, the Scottish champion, in 1894. Two years later Ferrie was
beaten in his turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh, who had just gained
the Scottish championship; and the new holder defeated Stewart, who
challenged him in 1897, and successfully defended his title against C.
F. Barker, the American champion, to meet whom he visited Boston in 1900
and played a drawn match.
In 1884 the first international match between England and Scotland took
place, and resulted in so decisive a victory for the northerners that
the contest was not renewed for ten years. The matches played in 1894
and 1899 also went strongly in favour of the Scots, but in 1903 the
Englishmen gained their first victory.
In 1905 a British team visited America and defeated a side representing
the United States.
The tournament for the Scottish championship has been held annually in
Glasgow since 1893. The number and skill of the Scottish players have
given this tournament its pre-eminence; but if the levelling up of the
standards of play in Scotland and England continues, the competition
which is held biennially by the English Draughts Association is likely
to rank as a serious rival to the Glasgow tourney.
_The English Game._--Draughts as played now in English-speaking
countries is a game for two persons with a board and twenty-four
men--twelve white and twelve black--which at starting are placed as
follows: the black men on the squares numbered 1 to 12, and the white
men on the squares numbered 21 to 32 on the diagram below. In printed
diagrams the men are usually shown on the white squares for the sake of
clearness, but in actual play the black squares are generally used now.
In playing on the black squares the board must be placed with a black
square in the left-hand corner. The game is played by moving a man
forward, one square at a time except when making a capture, along the
diagonals to the right or left. Thus a white man placed on square 18 in
the diagram can move to 15 or 14. Each player moves alternately, black
always moving first. If a player touch a piece he must move that piece
and no other. If the piece cannot be moved, or if it is not the player's
turn to move, he forfeits the game. As soon as a man reaches one of the
squares farthest from his side of the board, he is "crowned" by having
one of the unused or captured men of his own colour placed on him, and
becomes a "king." A king has the power of moving and taking backwards as
well as forwards.
BLACK.
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | 1 | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| 5 | | 6 | | 7 | | 8 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | 9 | |10 | |11 | |12 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|13 | |14 | |15 | |16 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| |17 | |18 | |19 | |20 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|21 | |22 | |23 | |24 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| |25 | |26 | |27 | |28 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|29 | |30 | |31 | |32 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
WHITE.
If a man is on the square adjacent to an opponent's man, and there is an
unoccupied square beyond, the unprotected man must be captured and
removed from the board. Thus, if there is a white man on square 18, and
a black man on square 14, square 9 being vacant, and white having to
move, he jumps over 14 and remains on square 9, and the man on 14 is
taken up.
If two or more men are so placed that one square intervenes between
each they may all be taken at one move. Thus if white having to move has
a man on 28, and black men on 24, 16 and 8, the intermediate squares and
square 3 being vacant, white could move from 28 to 3, touching 19 and 12
en route, and take the men on 24, 16, and 8; but if there is a piece on
7 and square 10 is vacant, the piece on 7 cannot be captured, for
becoming a king ends the move.
It is compulsory to take if possible. If a player can take a man (or a
series of men) but makes a move that does not capture (or does not
capture all that is possible), his adversary may allow the move to
stand, or he may have the move retracted and compel the player to take,
or he may allow the move to stand and remove the piece, that neglected
to capture from the board (called "huffing"). "Huff and move" go
together, i.e. the player who huffs then makes his move. When one player
has lost all his pieces, or has all those left on the board blocked, he
loses the game.
The game is drawn when neither of the players has sufficient advantage
in force or position to enable him to win.
The losing game, or "first off the board," is a form of draughts not
much practised now by expert draught players. The player wins who gets
all his pieces taken first. There is no "huffing"; a player who can take
must do so.
_Draughts Openings._--As there are seven possible first moves, with
seven possible replies to each, or forty-nine in all, there is an
abundant variety of openings; but as two of these (9-14, 21-17 and
10-14, 21-17) are obviously unsound, the number is really reduced to
forty-seven. Much difference of opinion exists regarding the relative
strength of the various openings. It was at one time generally held
that for the black side 11-15 was the best opening move.
Towards the end of the 19th century this view became much modified,
and though 11-15 still remained the favourite, it was recognized that
10-15, 9-14 and 11-16 were little, if at all, inferior; 10-14 and
12-16 were rightly rated as weaker than the four moves named above,
whilst 9-13, the favourite of the "unscientific" player, was found to
be weakest of all.
The white replies to 11-15 have gone through many vicissitudes. The
seven possible moves have each at different times figured as the
general favourite. Thus 24-19, which analysis proved to be the weakest
of the seven, was at one period described by the title of "Wyllie's
Invincible." In course of time it came to be regarded as decidedly
weak, and its name was altered to the less pretentious title of
"Second Double Corner." In the Scottish Tournament of 1894 this
opening was played between Ferrie and Stewart, and the latter won the
game with white, introducing new play which has stood the test of
analysis, and so rehabilitating the opening in public favour. The
21-17 reply to 11-15 was introduced by Wyllie, who was so successful
with it that it became known as the "Switcher." This opening perhaps
lacks the solid strength of some of the others, but it so abounds in
traps as to be well worthy of its name. The other five replies to
11-15, namely 24-20, 23-19, 23-18, 22-18 and 22-17, are productive of
games which give equal chances to both sides.
The favourite replies to 10-15 are 23-18, 22-18 and 21-17, but they do
not appear to be appreciably stronger than the others, with the
possible exception of 24-20.
In response to 11-16, 23-18 is held to give white a trifling
advantage, but it is more apparent than real. With the exception of
23-19, which is weak, the other replies are of equal strength, and are
only slightly, if at all, inferior to the more popular 23-18. 9-14 is
most frequently encountered by 22-18, but all white's replies are
good, except of course 21-17 which loses a man, and 23-18 which
weakens the centre of white's position.
Against 10-14 the most popular move is 22-17, which gives white an
advantage. Next in strength come 22-18 and 24-19. 23-18 is weak.
The strongest reply to 12-16 is 24-20. The others, except 23-19, which
is weak, give no initial advantage to either side.
As already mentioned, 9-13 is black's weakest opening move, both 22-18
and 24-19 giving white a distinct advantage. Nevertheless 9-13 is a
favourite debut with certain expert players, especially when playing
with inferior opponents.
The term "opening" is frequently applied in a more restricted sense
than that used above. When practically all games started with 11-15 it
was convenient to assign names to the more popular lines of play. Thus
11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17, if followed by 11-16, was called the
"Glasgow"; if followed by 9-13, 17-14, the "Laird and Lady"; if by
3-8, the "Alma."
The variety possible in the opening is a fair reply to the objection
sometimes heard that the game does not afford sufficient scope for
variation. As a matter of fact a practically unlimited number of
different games might be played on any one opening.
The three following games are typical examples of the play arising
from three of the most frequently played openings:--
Game No. 1.--"Ayrshire Lassie" Opening.
a 11-15 25-18 10-15 22-17 b 15-18 24-6
a 24-20 3-8 23-19 13-22 24-20 2-9
8-11 26-22 6-10 26-17 18-27 17-10
c}
28-24 5-9 d} 27-23 11-16 31-24 8-11
9-13 30-26 9-14 20-11 16-23 Drawn.
22-18 1-5 18-9 7-16 20-16 R. Jordan.
15-22 32-28 5-14 29-25 12-19
a. 11-15, 24-20 forms the "Ayrshire Lassie" opening, so named by
Wyllie. It is generally held to admit of unusual scope for the display
of critical and brilliant combinations.
b. 16-20, 25-22, 20-27, 31-24, 8-11, 17-13, 2-6, 21-17, 14-21, 22-17,
21-25, 17-14, 10-17, 19-1. Drawn. R. Jordan.
(c)
26-23 28-19 20-16 7-11 14-10 15-10
9-14 2-6 6-10 19-24 26-23 23-18
18-9 20-11 16-11 11-18 10-7 10-15
5-14 8-24 10-15 24-27 4-8 20-16
29-25 27-20 11-7 18-15 7-3 15-22
11-16 10-15 14-18 27-31 8-12 16-7
20-11 31-26 7-3 22-18 3-7 Drawn.
7-16 15-19 18-23 31-27 27-24 A. B. Scott.
24-20 23-16 3-7 18-14 7-11 v.
15-24 12-19 23-30 30-26 24-20 R. Jordan.
(d)
19-16 7-10 23-19 11-15 16-11 25-30
12-19 6-1 15-24 27-24 18-25 20-16
22-17 9-14 28-19 22-25 17-14 Drawn.
15-22 26-23 8-11 29-22 10-17 R. Jordan.
24-6 11-15 19-16 14-18 21-14
Game No. 2.--"Kelso-Cross" Opening.
a 10-15 8-12 13-22 5-9 14-18 22-25
a 23-18 25-21 26-17 20-16 17-14 29-22
12-16 1-6 d 19-26 2-7 10-17 17-26
21-17 32-27 30-23 24-19 21-14 5-1
9-13 12-16 15-22 15-24 6-10 26-30
17-14 27-23 24-19 23-19 14-9 1-5
16-19 7-10 9-14 24-27 10-14 30-26
24-20 14-7 19-12 31-24 19-15 5-9
6-9 3-10 11-15 9-13 14-17 26-23
b 27-24 c 22-17 28-24 24-20 9-5 Drawn.
R. Jordan.
a. These two moves form the "Kelso-Cross" opening.
b. 27-23 is also a strong line for white to adopt.
c. 30-25, 4-8, 18-14, 9-27, 22-18, 15-22, 24-15, 11-18, 20-4, 27-32,
26-17, 13-22, 4-8, 22-26, and black appears to have a winning
advantage. R. Jordan.
d. Taking the piece on 18 first seems to lose, thus:--
15-22 e 9-13 13-17 6-9 5-14
24-8 17-14 23-18 14-10 10-7 White
4-11 10-17 17-21 9-14 2-6 wins.
31-27 21-14 28-24 18-9 7-2 Dallas.
e. 2-7, 27-24, 22-26, 23-18, 26-31, 18-15, 11-18, 20-2, 9-13, 2-9,
5-14, 24-19, 13-22, 30-26. White wins.
Game No. 3.--"Dundee" Opening.
12-16 11-15 c 8-12 4-8 9-14 1-26
24-20 20-11 17-13 18-15 26-22 31-22
8-12 7-16 5-9 2-7 14-17 19-23
28-24 24-20 22-18 30-26 21-14 13-9
9-14 b 16-19 15-22 10-14 18-23 12-19
22-17 23-16 25-18 29-25 27-18 9-6
3-8 12-19 14-23 14-18 6-10 7-11
a 26-22 20-16 27-18 32-27 15-6 Drawn.
R. Jordan.
a. This move is the favourite at this point on account of its
"trappiness," but 25-22 is probably stronger, thus: 25-22, 16-19,
24-15, 11-25, 29-22, 8-11, 17-13, 11-16, 20-11, 7-16, and white can
with advantage continue by 27-24, 22-17, 23-19 or 22-18.
b. 15-19, 20-11, 8-15, 23-16, 12-19, 17-13, 5-9, 30-26, 4-8, 27-23,
8-12, 23-16, 12-19, 31-27, 1-5, 27-23, 19-24, 32-27, 24-31, 22-17.
White wins. C. F. Barker.
c 8-11 27-18 15-18 14-10 24-27 7-10
16-7 15-22 14-10 19-24 31-24 27-31
2-11 25-18 6-15 10-7 16-20 10-26
22-18 10-15 17-14 18-23 3-7 31-22
14-23 18-14 11-16 7-3 20-27 30-25
Drawn. R. Stewart v. R. Jordan.
Problem No. 1 is the simplest form of that known to draughts-players
as the "First Position." It is of more frequent occurrence in actual
play than any other end-game, and is, besides, typical of a class of
draughts problems which may be described as analytical, in
contradistinction to "strokes."
Problem No. 1, by Wm. Payne.
BLACK.
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | | | | B |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | |WW | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | |WW | |BB |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
WHITE.
White to move and win.