_ESTABLISHMENT OF THE JESUITS IN_ PARAGUAY.
1608-1648.
The town of _Buenos Ayres_, once permanently established, soon became a
considerable place; and that notwithstanding its incommodious and unsafe
harbour. Forty years after its foundation (1620) it was declared a
separate colony, which was to comprise all the regions in _La Plata_
below the confluence of the _Paraguay_ and the _Paraná_. It likewise
became the seat of a bishop, and in fifty years from its foundation
numbered as many inhabitants as _Asuncion_. The colony of _Tucuman_ had
been founded in 1564, but it did not, like _Paraguay_, have the
advantage of river communication with the ocean, nor did it benefit by
the direction of a master mind such as that of Irala. Notwithstanding
this, the jurisdiction of the governor of _Tucuman_ was in 1596 extended
over _Paraguay_. The governor deputed a very able substitute to
administer the latter province in the person of Hernando Saavedra, whose
capacity for administration is considered to have been only surpassed by
that of Irala.
[Sidenote: 1608.]
Saavedra, after much exploration in the territories inhabited by the
native tribes, deemed that it would be better to attach rather than to
weaken or exterminate them, and that for this purpose it would be
advisable to use every means for converting them to Christianity. For
this end he appealed to the court of Spain, and in 1608 Philip III. took
the memorable decision of issuing the royal letters-patent to the Order
of Jesus for the conversion of the Indians of the province of _Guayrá_,
which district comprised both banks of the upper _Paraná_ to the east of
_Asuncion_. In this region the towns of _Onteveros_, _Ciudad Real_, and
_Villa Rica_ had been founded as early as 1554 by _Don_ Ruy Diaz de
Melgarejo.
[Sidenote: 1610.]
Two Jesuit priests reached _Asuncion_ in 1610, the modest vanguard of a
formidable army. From the very date of their arrival they displayed the
usual zeal of their order, and the first _reduction_ was established on
the upper _Paraná_. It was called _Loreto_, and the neighbouring natives
were invited to resort thither, to receive instruction and to become
members of the community, which was entirely under Jesuit control. As
others of the order arrived, other _reductions_ were formed. On reaching
_Asuncion_ the earliest Jesuit Fathers found the colony distracted by
rivalries and controversies between the secular and the religious
authorities. The first bishop of _Paraguay_ was a Franciscan.
The policy which had been initiated and pursued by Irala of
incorporating the natives with the governing body had fallen into at
least partial disuse. Although the natives of _Paraguay_ had not to
complain of the same harsh treatment from their Spanish conquerors as
had the Peruvians, their condition still left much to desire. They were
not slaves in name, nor could they be purchased or sold, but they were
nevertheless compelled to labour in the interest of others who had no
responsibility for their care or support. The priests, as befitting
their character, were willing and anxious to better their condition; but
the colonists were loth to permit their interference in secular matters.
Still their presence was not without its result, if only in its leading
to its being considered more respectable to treat the natives as human
beings rather than as the lower animals. Such being the state of society
on the arrival of the Jesuits, whose professed object was the redemption
of the natives, their coming was by no means welcomed by the colonists.
_Asuncion_ was, however, for the meantime spared, for the scene of
action of the first Jesuit Fathers was at some three hundred miles’
distance in the three settlements above mentioned. Of these settlements,
and of the _reduction_ of _Loreto_, scarcely a vestige now remains. The
early settlers suffered so much from the natives and from the hostile
Portuguese, that the province was abandoned. Twice was the site of
_Villa Rica_ changed, and the present town of that name dates from 1678.
The Fathers then descending the river, established themselves in the
district of _Misiones_, on the left bank of the _Paraná_, a district
which is at the present day, and has long been, in dispute between
_Brazil_ and her neighbour. The early success of the Jesuits in
converting the natives was very remarkable; but it may be as well to
remember that it is the Jesuits themselves, and not independent writers,
who have chronicled the fact. The Paraguayans, they say, not only
embraced the faith, but voluntarily entered the _reductions_, and
accepted the rule of the spiritual teachers. Before their coming the
name of the foreigner had been terrible. The Spaniards, disappointed in
finding gold, had taken possession of the territory, forcing the
Paraguayans to a lot of unrequited drudgery. The Jesuits, however, had
come to live and to die amongst them, seeking nothing for themselves but
to be allowed to teach the arts of civilization and to show the way to
paradise. It is not surprising that the contrast between their ways and
those of their secular countrymen should have won the natives’
confidence. Indeed, as one of the conditions granted by the crown to the
founders of the _reductions_ was that these were to be free from all
colonial control, the Paraguayans would at first sight seem to be the
gainers by entering them. It was one of the principles of the order that
the natives should not be subjected to unrecompensed labour.
It is somewhat remarkable that whilst the system and labours of the
Jesuits in _Paraguay_ are spoken of by most Protestant writers with
almost unqualified praise, they are denounced in unmeasured terms by
their Catholic rivals the Franciscans. It is not to be questioned that
the early members of the order--the immediate disciples of Loyola--were
actuated in their mission by no other motive than the most
self-sacrificing and disinterested zeal; but these men were succeeded by
others of a different stamp, and as time wore on the Jesuit rulers of
_Paraguay_ might enjoy a life of indolence and luxury. During the first
twenty-five years of their mission they founded no less than ten towns;
but the historian Azara points out that these twenty-five years
precisely coincides with the time when the Portuguese furiously
persecuted the natives in order to sell them into slavery. The
frightened fugitives took refuge in the region between the _Uruguay_ and
the _Paraná_, and crowded into the Jesuit towns. During the following
hundred years or more only one other town was established. Thus it
appears that Portuguese rapacity had not a little to do with the
establishment of Jesuit rule at _Paraguay_.
The career of the Jesuits, however, was not destined to run on with
uniform smoothness. A governor of _Paraguay_ was appointed whose policy
and interest were not in unison with theirs. Cespedes was married to a
Portuguese lady, whose sympathies were rather with her man-stealing
countrymen than with the people ruled over by her husband. During his
visit at _Rio de Janeiro_ on his way to his government, Cespedes, it is
said, so far fell into the hands of the Brazilians as to make a bargain
with them by which he was to assist them in kidnapping those whom he had
been sent to govern and protect. He resolved to pass by land to
_Asuncion_. The first point he reached within Spanish territory was
_Loreto_, on the banks of a tributary of the _Paraná_. There the Jesuits
awaited his coming with joyful anticipation, which was soon to be
changed to dismay. The estates of the _Señora_ Cespedes in _Brazil_ were
in need of labourers, and the conscientious governor made a pact with
the slave-hunters to facilitate their operations on condition of
receiving six hundred of their captives. Under these circumstances it is
not surprising that the missionary establishments of _Guayrá_ should
have fallen an easy prey. The early neophytes were carried off by
thousands and sold into slavery. Having no protection to look for at
_Asuncion_, the remainder fled, to the number of twelve thousand. The
Fathers accompanied them until they were, as they thought, at a safe
distance in the region now known as _Misiones_. In their new
_reductions_ the Jesuits continued their work of proselytizing, and,
after the dismissal of Cespedes, tried various means of acquiring
influence at _Asuncion_. Nor were they unsuccessful. The natives not
unnaturally preferred their rule to that of the civil authorities, and
consequently the _reductions_ grew powerful. The result was that the
government became jealous, and that the Franciscans, headed by the
bishop, took means to rid themselves of their successful neighbours and
rivals.
The Jesuits appealed to Spain and likewise to the Pope, with the result
that their representative obtained for them a royal grant, which
rendered the missions independent of the government of _Paraguay_. They
were likewise permitted to provide the natives with firearms, to be used
in self-defence. When the next raid was made by the slave-hunters, they
were so well received that, though they were a thousand in number, few
escaped to tell of their surprise and defeat. The missions were no more
troubled by men-stealers from _Brazil_.
[Sidenote: 1644.]
But the Jesuits had still to contend with the rival ecclesiastics of
_Asuncion_. The Bishop of _Paraguay_, Cardenas, was at this time a
prominent figure. He is said to have hated the Jesuits with a fervour
which is seldom more evoked than in religious animosities; but he by no
means confined his attention to them. It was an age when all men dreaded
the curse of Rome, and Cardenas was nothing loth to use this terrible
weapon. Amongst others who fell under his ban was Hinostrosa, the
governor of the colony, who had ventured to differ from him upon some
matter which does not appear. The people were scandalized at the
governor’s disgrace; and in fear of a tumult the bishop withdrew from
the capital. He was followed by the penitent governor, who sought and
obtained the removal of the anathema. The bishop having now the civil as
well as the spiritual power virtually in his hands, lost no time in
making it felt by the Jesuits. They were prohibited from preaching
within _Asuncion_, and their schools were closed. But if the governor
was subdued by the ecclesiastical authority, the Viceroy of _Charcas_
and his council were not. The governor of _Paraguay_ was severely
reprimanded for having submitted himself to an arrogant prelate, who was
in turn denounced, and was compelled to retire for some years from
_Asuncion_.
[Sidenote: 1648.]
On his return to that city, the governor died; and as in this emergency
the choice of a successor lay with the people, the Bishop Cardenas was
now elected to rule in his stead. Once more he was in possession of full
power, and once more he lost no time in proclaiming his determination to
use it for the expulsion of the Jesuits. Having, under threats of
excommunication, collected a large crowd of people capable of bearing
arms, he demanded the surrender of the Jesuits’ College. In vain its
rector protested that his order exercised their rights under a royal
grant. The doors were forced open, and the priests and neophytes were
driven out. These having been brought to the river, were placed in boats
and cast adrift without sail or oar. The college was then sacked, and
the statues of Loyola and Xavier dragged from their pedestals. This
violence was the natural prelude of the bishop’s own fall. He was
summoned for trial before the Grand Council of _Peru_, and finally
deposed from all authority.
The deposition of Cardenas was the signal for the recall of the Jesuits,
and for some time to come they were masters of the situation. There
still existed, however, continual jealousy and discord between them and
the Franciscans; and the civil authorities were disposed to side with
the latter. The Jesuits nevertheless applied themselves with
undiminished earnestness to acquire power in _Asuncion_. By establishing
and controlling the schools, they obtained the direction of the rising
generation; and the missions were by this time rich and nourishing.
Outside the _reductions_ the natives preferred the Jesuit rule to that
of the civil authorities, as the former repudiated slavery; whilst
within the _reductions_ the servitude to which they were subjected was
disguised under another name. It was labour for the common benefit.
The systems of the Spanish governors and of the Jesuit Fathers,
respectively, were widely different, and require some explanation. From
the first advent of the former a mixed race gradually sprung up. The
Spaniards brought with them few if any women, and if a certain
proportion of Spanish ladies arrived later they were not in sufficient
numbers to affect the general rule, which was that the Spanish settlers
were allied to _Guaraní_ wives. Thus was formed the modern mixed
Paraguayan race. In a very short time, therefore, by means of the ties
of relationship, a strong sympathy grew up between the Spaniards and the
_Guaranís_ or those of _Guaraní_ blood, and a recognition of this fact
formed the basis of the plan of government founded by the great Irala.
The lot of the natives of _Paraguay_, as compared with the natives of
the other Spanish dominions in the New World, was far from being a hard
one. There were no mines to work. The Spaniards came there to settle,
rather than to amass fortunes with which to return to Europe. The
country was abundantly fertile, and such wealth as the Spaniards might
amass consisted in the produce of their fields or the increase of their
herds, which were amply sufficient to support them. Consequently all
they required of the natives, for the most part, was a moderate amount
of service as labourers or as herdsmen, whilst in return they were in a
position to impart to the Paraguayans many of the arts of civilization.
The Jesuits, on the other hand, admitted no other Europeans within the
bounds of their _reductions_, and having themselves no ties of kindred
by marriage or otherwise with those around them, remained a distinct
class apart. Their disciples were not even instructed in the Spanish or
any other European tongue, save so much, perhaps, as was implied by
their being taught to patter certain prayers by rote. As to their
temporal concerns, they laboured, as it was said, for the common weal,
but they were, in fact, reduced to a condition of the most utter
servitude imaginable. Not only had they, like their native brethren
beyond the limits of the _reductions_, to give their labour in the
fields and in tending the herds, but when this was done the whole of
their produce--beyond that necessary for their own sustenance--went into
the common Jesuits’ fund,--that is to say, went towards building and
adorning splendid churches, many of which, with their carved ornaments
of the finest wood, remain to this day when the race that produced them
is no more. Nor was this the only labour that fell upon such of the
natives as were enticed into life-long servitude for “the greater glory
of God.” It was necessary to seclude them from the temptations of the
outer world, and for this purpose each _reduction_ was converted into a
fortress, so contrived as at the same time to preclude the entrance of
strangers from without and the exit of disciples from within. The
Paraguayans who had submitted themselves to the Jesuits’ absolute sway
were thus cunningly made the artificers of the chains that bound them.
It is going considerably in advance of the period now in question to
advert to the reigns of Francia and the second Lopez, but it may be
permitted here to point out that, in thus inducing a system of utter
mental and moral imbecility, the Jesuit Fathers are undoubtedly
responsible for the untold misery which was brought about under these
tyrants, and which at length resulted in the extinction of the
Paraguayan race.
The Jesuits have been their own historians; therefore the following
details, written by themselves, must be read with the reflection that
there was no contemporary critic to bequeath another side of the
picture. Quitting the lower banks of the _Plata_, already covered with
innumerable cattle on boundless plains which showed a perpetual verdure,
the Jesuits, on their way to their destination, were shocked, on
touching at the island of _S. Gabriel_, by beholding a tribe of
idolaters who inspired terror in their neighbourhood and probably still
more at home, since we learn that they put their women to death on
attaining the age of thirty. After traversing about a thousand miles of
river they reached the _Guaraní_ missions, comprising thirty
settlements. On the western coast, and further to the north, were the
_Chiquito_ missions, with which the others maintained a correspondence,
which until the early part of the eighteenth century could only be
effected by way of _Peru_, along a route of eight hundred leagues,
intersected by streams only fordable at certain seasons. The shorter way
from the _Plata_ to the _Chiquito_ missions was jealously closed by the
_Guaranís_.
The _Guaranís_ were of two classes--hunters and fishermen. The former
ignored the use of saddles, but passed their time for the most part on
the horses which had followed the Spaniards. The fishermen adored a
demon who manifested itself in the form of a large bird. It was at
length determined by the Jesuits to attempt to penetrate to the
_Chiquito_ settlements of their brethren by way of the _Uruguay_ river;
and two Fathers, accompanied by thirty Paraguayan disciples, set out
with this object from _Asuncion_. They had ascended about a hundred
leagues when they were met by a boat, carrying _Payaguas_, who, being
placed between two enemies, implored the aid of the Jesuits. To the west
were their sworn foes, the _Guaycurus_; to the east were the Brazilian
slave-hunters. This natural cry for help was interpreted as a prayer for
admission within the Church’s pale, and one of the Fathers remained with
his converts at the Lake of _Uberada_, while the other proceeded alone
towards _Peru_.
The sudden conversion of the natives, however, which had resulted from
terror, lasted only as long as the Jesuits and their party remained
sufficiently strong to overawe them. Left with one Father and fifteen
Paraguayans, they obtained leave to depart for the purpose of bringing
others to share the Father’s instruction. On their return in sufficient
numbers to overpower him, fourteen of his Paraguayans were put to death,
one being reserved as interpreter; one of the Spanish boatmen was
likewise spared to steer the _Payaguas_ to their former haunts. There
the interpreter was put to death in the defence of his master, who,
however, together with his brother Jesuit, was almost immediately
afterwards murdered by the _Guaycurus_.
About the same period there were in _Buenos Ayres_ some twenty thousand
Africans who could not speak Spanish. In order to be able to administer
spiritual food to these, Father Chomé studied the tongue of _Angola_, in
which in the course of three months he acquired such proficiency that he
was able to persuade himself that the Africans understood his attempts
to expound the doctrines of Christianity. His linguistic powers marked
him out for service in _Peru_, but his destination was changed to
_Paraguay_. He was conveyed thither in a covered cart, carrying with him
his own bedding and provisions. The neighbourhood of _Santa Fè_ was then
infested by the _Guaycurus_, who were even daring enough to attack that
town. They gave no quarter, and carried as trophies the scalps of their
victims. Their weapons were bows and arrows, lances and darts, which
rebounded by means of a string fastened to the projector’s thumb.
Issuing from their ambuscades, and giving utterance to wild cries, they
inspired still further terror by their aspect, being enclosed in a suit
composed of feathers. They had already attained perfection in
horsemanship, now falling flat on the animals’ necks, now swinging their
persons beneath their girths and holding on by their feet, or throwing
themselves from one side to the other as occasion might require. If it
seemed desirable to abandon their steeds and take to the river or
thicket, they were as fishes in the former, and could defy the thorns of
the latter.
Beset by these savages, Father Chomé was indebted to his escort for his
arriving without accident at _Santa Fè_, where he was still two hundred
and twenty leagues from the nearest of the _reductions_. The carts in
use were but little suited to a country intersected by streams, and
where bridges were unknown. On reaching a stream the waggon was unloaded
and attached to the tails of horses, who struggled as best they could to
the opposite shore. Such travellers as could not swim were committed to
small boats formed of a single ox-hide, with the almost unnecessary
injunction to sit still in them. In the _pelotas_, too, the loads were
transported. From _Santa Fè_ Father Chomé proceeded towards his
destination on horseback.
* * * * *
After the greater part of the _Guaranís_ had embraced Christianity, a
section still refused to listen to the voice of the missionaries, and
sought an asylum in the adjoining mountains. Their grieved would-be
converters for a while consoled themselves with the reflection that the
sudden change from the burning _pampas_ plains to the snows of the
_Andes_ would suffice to exterminate the heathen; but when they were
disappointed in this pious wish, and when the tribesmen, who had, on the
contrary, increased in numbers, ventured to murder some Dominicans, the
vengeance of the authorities was roused, and their mountains were
invaded, with the result that many hundreds of them were made prisoners
or slain.
* * * * *
The Jesuit missions, where were renewed the innocence and piety of the
early Christians, numbered towards the close of the seventeenth century
forty large establishments, the most considerable of which included from
fifteen to twenty thousand souls. The chief of each mission and the
judge were chosen year by year. The fruits of the land were placed in
public magazines, from which each family received its allotted share. So
remarkable was the innocence of the _Guaraní_ converts that the Fathers
own that their pupils’ confessions seldom or never revealed anything to
call for absolution. They denied to the Paraguayans any share of
inventive genius, but claimed for them on the other hand the greatest
powers of imitation. They could make tables, print or copy books,
imitate the finest writing, construct musical instruments and watches,
draw plans and engrave maps. It was not without labour that their
conversion was brought about; but once effected, it was sincere and
lasting, and there were no bounds to the attachment they evinced towards
their spiritual fathers.
The following extract, translated from _Azara_, may give some further
idea of the system pursued by the Jesuits. The historian’s knowledge is
derived from eye-witnesses, and his statements of fact, though not his
conclusions, agree with those of the Fathers:--
“The thirty-three Jesuit missions were ruled in the following manner:
Two Jesuits resided in each _pueblo_. The one called the _cura_ had
either been provincial or rector in their colleges, or was at least a
grave _padre_. He did not exercise any of the functions of a _cura_, and
frequently did not know the language of the Indians. He occupied himself
only with the temporal administration of all the property of the
_pueblo_, of which he was the absolute director. The spiritual
department was confided to another Jesuit, called _compañero_, or
_vice-cura_, subordinate to the first. The Jesuits of all the _pueblos_
were under the superintendence and vigilance of another, named the
_superior_ of the missions, who had, moreover, the power to confirm from
the Pope. To control these _pueblos_ they had no laws, either civil or
criminal; the only rule was the will of the Jesuits. Though in each
_pueblo_ there was an Indian called a _corregidor_, and others called
_alcaldes_ and _rejidores_ (mayor and aldermen), that formed a municipal
body like that which they have in Spanish colonies, no one of them
exercised the least jurisdiction, and they were only instruments that
served to execute the will of the _curas_, even in criminal cases. The
_curas_ who inflicted the punishments were never cited before the king
nor before any of the ordinary tribunals. They compelled the Indians of
both sexes and of every age to labour for the community, without
permitting any person to labour at all for himself. All must obey the
orders of the _cura_, who stored up the produce of the labour, and who
had the charge of supplying food and clothing to all. From this it is
seen that the Jesuits were absolutely masters of everything; that they
completely disposed of the surplus stock of the whole community; and
that all the Indians were equal, without distinction, and unable to
possess any private property. There could be no motive of emulation to
induce them to exercise their talents or their reason, since the most
able, the most virtuous, the most active, was not better fed or clothed
than the others, nor would he obtain any enjoyment that was not common
to all. The Jesuits have persuaded the world that this kind of
government was the only one suitable for the Indians, and had rendered
happy those who were like children, and incapable of taking care of
themselves. They add, that they direct them as a father governs his
family, and that they collect and keep in the storehouses the products
of the harvests, not for private use, but to make a proper distribution
to their children, who, incapable of provision, do not know how to
preserve anything for the sustenance of their families. This manner of
government had appeared in Europe worthy of such great encomiums, that
the lot of these Indians has almost come to be envied. But this is done
without reflecting that these same Indians in a savage state did know
how to support their families, and that individuals of the same Indians
that had been subjugated in _Paraguay_ lived an age before in a state of
liberty, without knowing of such community of goods, without the
necessity of being directed by any person, nor of being incited or
forced to labour, and without a public storehouse or distribution of the
harvest; and that, too, notwithstanding they had to support the charge
of the commanderies that took the sixth part of their annual labour. It
seems, then, they were not such children, nor were they so incapable as
the Fathers tried to make them appear. But were such incapacity certain,
from their not having sufficient time in a century and a half to correct
such defects, one of the two following causes appears reasonable,--either
the administration of the Jesuits was contrary to the civilization of
the Indians, or they were such a people as were incapable of emerging
from their primitive state of infancy.”
Previously to the foundation of the Jesuit _reductions_, posts had been
established in various parts by the Spaniards for purposes of trade and
local government. Several of these were in the neighbourhood of the
Jesuits’ settlements. But the order would not tolerate the presence of
Europeans near them. They complained in pathetic tones of the hardships
endured by the natives at the hands of the avaricious Spanish
superintendents, who not only exacted from them one-sixth part of their
produce, but showed them a pernicious example in the way of morality,
and thus interfered with the Jesuits’ religious teaching. These
complaints having been forwarded to the court of Spain, the
superintendents were withdrawn and their posts abolished, thus leaving
the Jesuits in sole control of the territory of _Misiones_. This
decision is the more remarkable, inasmuch as the Jesuits were not only
not under Spanish rule, but were not even for the most part of the
nation which had produced their founder. Nor did they pay tax or tribute
to the crown.
But the exercise of absolute power within their own territory did not
satisfy the ambitious order. They sought to make their influence felt
and visible everywhere, and in so seeking paved the way for their
downfall. Their first idea was to gain control over the rising
generation by giving gratuitous instruction to the youth of wealthy
families; and, warned by their previous experience, they prepared
themselves against future reverses by raising from amongst their
neophytes a very considerable standing army. They could at a very early
period of their reign bring into the field a force of some seven
thousand men.