_CHILI._
1535-1550.
The authentic history of _Chili_, according to the _Abbé_ Molina, does
not go further back than to about the fifteenth century. The earliest
accounts of the Chilians are contained in the Peruvian annals. The
_Incas_ had extended their empire from the equator to the tropic of
Capricorn and thence to the desirable land of _Chili_, which extends for
twelve hundred and sixty miles along the Pacific Ocean. The chain of the
_Cordilleras_, which bounds it to the east, supplies it with an
abundance of streams, moderating its climate and fertilizing its soil.
At the time when the devastating presence of the Spaniards first
appeared upon the land, the population is supposed to have been
numerous. It had not been without severe fighting that the ascendancy of
the Peruvians over this region was obtained; and, in like manner, the
early Spaniards had to feel the force of the arm of the native tribes.
_Chili_, indeed, had become divided into two parts; the one free, the
other subject to Peruvian domination.
According to the author above quoted, the Chilians at the date of the
Spaniards’ arrival were by no means so rude in manners as is usually
supposed. They had long since passed from the state of the hunter, which
is that of the Patagonian of to-day, to the more advanced state of the
shepherd. This second stage in civilization, too, they had surmounted,
and were now a race of husbandmen; they had not attained to the more
advanced condition of merchants. In a country where game was not
abundant, and where domestic animals were likewise rare, the transition
to the condition of cultivators of the soil was probably of necessity
rapid. It will be remembered that when Hernando Pizarro proceeded to
Spain after the capture of the _Inca_ Atahualpa, the territory for two
hundred leagues to the south of his brother’s government had been
assigned to Almagro, who had undertaken the march across the _Andes_ to
_Chili_.
When the difficulties of this terrible passage had been surmounted,
Almagro and his men found themselves in a country supplied with
abundance of provisions. The Chilians in fact, we are told, possessed
maize, pulse of various kinds, the potato, the pumpkin, the pepper
plant, the strawberry, and numerous other elements of vegetable food. Of
animals they possessed the rabbit and the Araucanian camel, and, as
tradition relates, the hog and the domestic fowl. The country may be
assumed to have been well peopled, from the fact that one language
prevailed throughout it, rather than the various dialects of several
separate tribes. It possessed, in many parts, skilfully constructed
aqueducts for watering the fields. Of these one remains in the vicinity
of the capital, remarkable alike for its extent and solidity. The
Chilians ate their grain cooked, either using earthen pots for the
purpose of cooking it, or roasting it in hot sand. They likewise made of
it two distinct kinds of meal,--the parched, which was used for gruel;
and the raw, from which bread and cakes were baked in small holes formed
like ovens. They made use of a kind of sieve, and they were so far
civilized as to employ leaven. They were also in possession of several
kinds of spirituous liquors derived from grain or berries.
The Chilians, having adopted a settled mode of life, collected
themselves into families in the districts best adapted for agriculture,
where they established themselves in large villages. These settlements
consisted of a number of huts irregularly distributed. In each village
there was a chief called _Ulmen_, subject to the supreme ruler of the
tribe. This dignity was hereditary, which argues a certain antiquity and
likewise a peaceful rather than a warlike mode of living, since in the
latter state military ascendancy is apt to overrule the hereditary
principle. The right of private property was fully recognized. Each man
was absolute proprietor of the field which he cultivated and of the
product of his industry, which he could transmit to his children. The
houses, which were quadrangular and roofed with rushes, were enclosed by
walls of wood plastered with clay, and sometimes with walls of bricks,
the art of making which they had acquired from _Peru_. From the wool of
the camel they manufactured cloth for garments, using the distaff and
spindle. They were familiar with the use of the needle, and were so far
advanced in taste as to admire embroidery.
The clay of the country lent itself to arts of another description,--to
the production of plates, cups, jars, &c., for varnishing which a
certain mineral earth was employed. The Chilians likewise possessed
vessels of hard wood and of marble. The earth yielded gold, silver,
copper, tin, and lead. From their bell-metal they constructed axes,
hatchets, and other edged tools; and they alone of all the races or
nations of America possessed a word for iron, although it is to be added
that no iron implements have as yet been discovered in _Chili_. The
natives likewise were familiar with the art of extracting salt. They
possessed dyes of all colours, not only from plants but likewise from
minerals; whilst in lieu of soap they employed the bark of the
_quillai_, and obtained oil from the seeds of the _madi_. From various
vegetables they manufactured baskets and mats, and from others thread
for ropes and fishing-nets. In fishing they employed baskets and hooks,
and on the sea-coast used floats of wood or of inflated seal-skins.
Hunting was to them, as to us, an amusement. In this pursuit they
employed the arrow, the sling, and the noose, together with snares of
several kinds. It is a singular fact that two races, living so far apart
as those inhabiting China and Chili, should have employed the same
artifice for entrapping wild-fowl on the water, namely, for a man to
glide amongst them, his head being concealed in a perforated gourd. They
were familiar with the use of numbers, their language possessing the
words signifying ten, a hundred, and a thousand respectively, and, like
that of the Romans, stopping at that number. Their transactions were
noted by skeins of thread of various colours, with a number of knots.
They had not attained to the art of writing, although their language
contains a word signifying to sketch or to paint. In the latter art,
however, they were exceedingly primitive. But their chief progress was
in the sciences of physic and astronomy. Such was the people who had
been handed over by Charles V. to the tender mercies of Almagro and his
followers, whose presence came on them and their promising civilization
as the frost on the blossoms of spring.
[Sidenote: 1535.]
The history of _Chili_, in so far as the connection of that country with
Europe is concerned, begins at the close of the year 1535, when Almagro
set out from _Peru_ with a force composed of five hundred and seventy
Spaniards and some fifteen thousand Peruvians, the latter being under
the command of the brother of the _Inca_ Manco. His march has been
already briefly described in the preceding chapter. His army, after many
conflicts with the natives, became entangled in the _Cordilleras_ at the
beginning of winter, being destitute of provisions and ill-supplied with
clothing. The few mountain paths were obliterated by the snow. With
their accustomed intrepidity, the Spaniards surmounted the perilous
heights; but a hundred and fifty of their number, and, it is said, some
ten thousand Peruvians, perished from the cold. It is, indeed, computed
that none would have escaped but for the energy of Almagro, who, pushing
on with a few horsemen, sent back to his followers a timely supply of
provisions, which he found in abundance at _Copiapo_. The survivors of
his army reached the plains of that fertile province, where they were
well received by the inhabitants.
The _Inca’s_ brother, Paullu, who seems to have had the Spaniards’
interests at heart as being identical with his own, was the first to
point out to them the importance of their conquest. He obliged the
peasants to deliver up to him all the gold in their possession, by which
means he collected a sum equivalent to 500,000 _ducats_, which he
presented to Almagro. The Spanish leader, imagining he had another
_Peru_ before him, made over this sum to his followers. He was naturally
of a generous disposition, and has been lauded for his action on this
occasion;[L] but if we reflect on the source from which his _largesse_
sprung, we are reminded of the old saying respecting generosity at the
expense of others. As, in addition to the plunder with which he was
already gorged, he had the prospect of ample riches before him, his
conduct may be compared to that of the chief of a foreign force which we
may imagine to be in possession of London, and who, having shared in the
spoil of the Bank of England, should liberally make over the treasure at
Messrs. Coutts’ to his followers, with the intention of emptying the
tills of Messrs. Drummond’s and other banks into their own coffers.
At _Copiapo_ Almagro imitated the conduct of Pizarro in _Peru_ in
assuming the office of umpire between contending native authorities. The
reigning _Ulmen_, it appears, had usurped the government of his nephew.
Shocked at this instance of high-handed conduct, the worthy Spanish
freebooter caused the guilty chief to be arrested; and the natives were
simple enough to impute the re-settlement of their hereditary ruler to
a sense of abstract justice on the part of the heaven-sent newcomer.
Almagro’s followers soon recovered from their fatigues amongst the
beautiful villages of _Copiapo_, and being strengthened by
reinforcements brought up by Orgoñez, were soon in a condition to resume
their march towards the south. Meanwhile an incident occurred which
showed the confiding people that there were two sides to the character
of the liberal and just Almagro.
Two soldiers having left the army had proceeded to _Goasco_, where they
were at first well received by the inhabitants, but where they
afterwards met their death, which they had in all probability provoked,
if they had not richly deserved it. Their fate, however, showed the
Chilians that the invaders were mortal, and therefore caused concern to
the latter’s chief. Almagro, on learning it, proceeded to _Coquimbo_,
where he summoned before him the _Ulmen_ of the district, as well as his
brother and twenty of the principal inhabitants, and the ex-usurping
_Ulmen_ of Copiapo. It was no doubt right and reasonable on his part to
institute an inquiry into the circumstances attending the death of his
two soldiers, and no one could blame him for exacting due punishment on
any persons who should be shown to have deserved it in the matter; but
it would be hopeless to look for any considerations of justice in one so
above all law as Almagro. The twenty-three innocent men, who had had
nothing whatsoever to do with the soldiers’ death, were one and all
committed to the flames. Such was the Chilians’ first experience of the
gratitude of their Christian invaders for the hospitable reception they
had met with. It is right to add that the greater part of his army
openly disapproved of this savage proceeding on the part of their chief
Almagro, who in his subsequent fate must be held to be beyond the pale
of sympathy.
[Sidenote: 1537.]
In 1537 Almagro received a further reinforcement under Juan de Rada, and
he was at the same time urged by letters from his friends in _Peru_ to
return to that country and to take possession of _Cuzco_. He, however,
pursued his march and passed the river _Cachapoal_, notwithstanding the
remonstrances of his Peruvian followers, who dreaded to enter the
country of the warlike _Promaucians_. As usually happened, the aspect of
the Spaniards, with their horses and firearms, struck terror into their
opponents. These, however, recovering from their surprise, regained at
the same time their wonted intrepidity. A battle took place on the
_Rio-Claro_. The Peruvians, who were in the front, were soon routed; and
although the Spaniards, after a furious struggle, which lasted until
nightfall, remained masters of the field, the enemy were in no degree
dismayed. They were prepared to renew the attack next morning; but the
Spaniards had had enough of fighting for the present, and resolved by
common consent to retreat rather than face a campaign before so warlike
a people. A portion of Almagro’s force would have formed a settlement in
northern _Chili_; but it was their leader’s object not to lessen his
strength, and he accordingly retreated with his whole band towards
_Cuzco_.
[Sidenote: 1540.]
Three years after the above-mentioned occurrences, when the Pizarros, by
the death of Almagro, were undisputed lords of _Peru_, Francisco
determined to renew an attempt on _Chili_. The enterprise had been
confided by the court of Spain to two adventurers, named respectively
Hoz and Carmargo. The former was to undertake the conquest of the
country to the north of the river _Maule_; the latter was to reduce the
territory southward of that stream as far as to the archipelago of
_Chiloë_. But Pizarro, for some undivulged reason, declined to confirm
the royal nomination, and appointed in his own name to the expedition
Pedro de Valdivia, an able and well-tried officer, and one devoted to
his party. Valdivia, however, was directed to take Hoz with him, and to
satisfy him with a liberal distribution of land.
Valdivia determined to establish a permanent settlement in the country
to which he was to proceed, and made preparation accordingly, taking
with him not only two hundred Spanish fighting-men and a large body of
Peruvians, but likewise several women, some monks, and a great number of
European quadrupeds. Instructed by the experience of Almagro in the
_Cordilleras_, although he pursued the same route, he took care to
choose the summer for his passage. He thus incurred no loss on his way;
but he met with a very different reception from that which had been
accorded to his precursor. The inhabitants of northern _Chili_ were by
this time aware that the empire of the _Incas_ was no more, and they
accordingly no longer owed subjection to their Peruvian conquerors. They
attacked the invaders on all sides, but with more valour than method.
The Spaniards were accordingly enabled to overcome them in detail, and
traversed the provinces of _Copiapo_, _Coquimbo_, _Quillota_, and
_Melipilla_, and arrived with but little loss at that of _Mapocho_, now
named _Santiago_.
[Sidenote: 1541.]
In this fertile province, which lies upon the confines of the _Andes_,
Valdivia determined to make a settlement, and with this view he laid the
foundations of the fair city of _Santiago_ on the 24th of February 1541.
He laid out the city on the general Spanish colonial plan of dividing it
into squares of uniform size; and in order to protect the settlement
from attack, he constructed a fort upon a hill in the centre, which has
since received the name of _S. Lucia_. His proceedings were watched by
the natives with a jealous eye, and measures were concerted for getting
rid of the unwelcome intruders. Valdivia, however, discovered the plot
against him in time, and imprisoned the chief conspirators in his
fortress, whilst he repaired with sixty horsemen to the river
_Cachapoal_ in order to watch the _Promaucians_, whom he suspected of
being in league with the conspirators.
The natives of _Mapocho_, taking advantage of the absence of Valdivia,
fell upon the colony with inconceivable fury, burning the half-built
houses and assailing the citadel wherein the inhabitants had taken
refuge. Whilst these defended themselves bravely, a woman named Iñez
Suarez, taking an axe, beat out the brains of the captive chiefs, who
had attempted to escape. The battle, which began at daybreak, lasted
until night, fresh assailants constantly filling the places of those who
fell. Meanwhile a messenger had been despatched to inform Valdivia of
what had occurred. He lost no time in hastening back, when he found the
ditch filled with dead bodies, and the enemy preparing to renew the
attack. Joining the besieged, he at once advanced upon the main force of
the Chilians, who were posted upon the bank of the river _Mapocho_.
There the struggle was renewed with equal fury and valour on either
side, but with the advantage of skill and arms on that of the Spaniards.
The natives, having at length lost the flower of their youth, dispersed
over the plain.
Notwithstanding this defeat and others which followed, this brave people
never ceased during six years (by which time they were almost utterly
annihilated) to attack the Spaniards upon every occasion that presented
itself, cutting off their provisions and compelling them to subsist on
unwholesome food and on the small amount of grain which they could raise
under the fire from the walls of _Santiago_. The once fertile plains in
the neighbourhood were now a desert, such inhabitants as survived having
retired to the mountains.
This prolonged and profitless fighting naturally disgusted the Spanish
soldiery, and at length a conspiracy was organized amongst them against
the life of Valdivia. That officer, however, having obtained information
of what was passing, took his measures accordingly. Some of the
conspirators were punished with death, and the soldiers in general were
diverted by an expedition to the valley of _Quillota_, which was said to
abound in mines of gold. The result surpassed their most sanguine
expectations. Past sufferings and present dangers were forgotten, and
the longing to return to _Peru_ no longer existed. All were anxious to
remain in the new _El Dorado_, and the governor lost no time in
constructing a frigate at the mouth of the river _Chile_, which was to
bear to _Peru_ the news of his discovery, and to bring him the necessary
aid to enable him to prosecute it with success.
Meanwhile, however, the state of his affairs being urgent, Valdivia
likewise despatched to _Peru_ two of his officers by land, who should
take with them six companions, whose spurs, bits, and stirrups he
directed to be made of gold, which he knew would speak more eloquently
than any words with a view to gaining him recruits. These messengers,
although escorted by thirty horsemen, were attacked by the archers of
_Copiapo_, and of the whole band only two escaped with life. These were
the two officers Monroy and Miranda, who were brought before the
_Ulmen_, covered with wounds. That prince resolved to put them to death,
but was dissuaded from doing so by his wife, who pitied their deplorable
condition. Several of the horses had been taken alive, and the _Ulmena_
who had saved the Spaniards requested from them in return the slight
favour of teaching her son to ride. This naturally suggested the idea of
escape, which no one could blame the prisoners for attempting. But it
would not have been in harmony with all Spanish conduct towards natives
of the New World had they simply contented themselves with escaping. One
day whilst the young prince was riding, escorted by his archers, and
preceded by an officer armed with a lance, Monroy suddenly attacked him
with a poniard, inflicting mortal wounds, whilst Miranda at the same
time wrested the lance from the officer. The pair having thus rewarded
the kindness of the _Ulmena_, put spurs to their horses and made their
escape, in due time reaching _Cuzco_.
Vaca de Castro, who on the death of Pizarro was now governor of _Peru_,
on being informed of the critical situation of his countrymen in
_Chili_, at once despatched to their aid a considerable detachment of
troops under Monroy, who on his return had the good fortune to escape
the notice of the _Copiapins_. At the same time De Castro despatched by
sea a still greater reinforcement under Juan Pastene, a Genoese. Both
reinforcements reached Valdivia about the same time, thus enabling him
to carry his vast designs into execution. Taking advantage of Pastene’s
nautical acquirements, he ordered him to make a complete survey of the
sea-coast as far as to the Straits of _Magellan_. On his return from
this service Pastene was despatched to _Peru_ for further recruits,
which were more than ever wanted, for since the successful affair in
_Copiapo_ the natives had become even more aggressive than before.
[Sidenote: 1544.]
The inhabitants of the valley of _Quillota_ had, by means of a
stratagem, massacred all the Spanish soldiers employed at the mines. One
of the neighbouring natives had brought to the commander a vessel filled
with gold, telling him that he had found a large quantity of the
precious metal in a neighbouring district. On this, all were impatient
to proceed thither to secure their share of the treasure, and falling
into an ambuscade were all cut off, with the exception of the commander
and a negro, who owed their safety to their horses. At the same time the
frigate, which had now been completed, was destroyed. On receiving news
of this disaster, Valdivia hastened to _Quillota_ with his troops, and
there built a fort for the protection of the miners. Being reinforced
with three hundred men, he thought fit to establish a settlement in the
north of _Chili_ to serve as a depôt and a protection for convoys. For
this purpose he selected _Coquimbo_, which was founded by him in 1544.
[Sidenote: 1547.]
Two years later, Valdivia, having passed the _Maule_, proceeded to the
river _Itata_. Whilst there encamped at night, at a place called
_Quilacura_, he was attacked by the natives, who inflicted on him such a
loss that he thought it prudent to renounce his intended expedition and
to return to _Santiago_. Being disappointed by the non-arrival of the
succours which he expected from _Peru_, he now resolved to proceed
thither in person. As he was on the point of starting [1547], Pastene
returned, but alone, and bringing news of the civil war. This did not
deter Valdivia from his purpose, and the two set sail together for
_Peru_. The part which was played in the final struggle in that country
by the conqueror of _Chili_ is detailed elsewhere. As a reward, he was
confirmed by the President Gasca in the office of governor of _Chili_,
and was furnished with an abundance of military stores. The president
further put at his disposal two ships, in which he might take away with
him many of the turbulent spirits who could be well spared from _Peru_.
During the absence of Valdivia, affairs in the south were by no means at
a standstill. In the first place, Pedro de Hoz, who, it will be
remembered, had been designated by the court of Spain for the conquest
of _Chili_, was accused, rightly or wrongly, of endeavouring to supplant
Valdivia, and was accordingly beheaded by order of the acting governor.
In the next place, the inhabitants of _Copiapo_, eager to avenge the
treacherous murder of their prince’s son, cut off some forty Spaniards
who were proceeding from _Peru_ to _Chili_, whilst, at their
instigation, the people of _Coquimbo_ massacred the whole colony which
had been recently founded in their territory, razing the city to its
foundation. Aguirre was immediately sent thither, and after various
encounters rebuilt the settlement on a more advantageous situation.
Aguirre is considered by the inhabitants of _Coquimbo_ as the founder of
their city, and many of the patricians of the place claim him as their
ancestor.
[Sidenote: 1550.]
After a toilsome contest of nine years, Valdivia considered himself to
be so firmly established in that part of _Chili_ which had been under
the dominion of the Peruvians as to warrant his partitioning the land
amongst his soldiers. Having by these means satisfied the ambition of
his companions, he set out anew for the southern provinces with a
respectable army of Spaniards and of Promaucian allies. After a march of
eighty leagues he at length arrived at the bay of _Panco_--already
reached by Pastene--where, on the 5th of October 1550, he founded the
city of _Conception_. This place, the situation of which is so
advantageous for commerce on account of its excellent harbour, is
exposed to earthquakes, by which, and by the simultaneous inundations of
the sea, it has been twice destroyed.[M] Its occupation by the Spaniards
excited alarm amongst the neighbouring warlike Araucanians, who,
foreseeing that their turn would come next, resolved to succour the
tribes near _Conception_. Thus was produced a fresh war, the details of
which may be preceded in a future chapter by some account of the
remarkable people who have hitherto, even to the present day, by their
obstinate valour, alone amongst the native inhabitants of South America,
withstood the tide of Spanish invasion, and maintained themselves
independent in their mountain strongholds.