[1] These measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological
order, nor can it be decided which belong to his first, which to his
second tribuneship. See W. Warde Fowler in _Eng. Hist. Review_, 1905.
pp. 209 sqq., 417 sqq.
[2] It is suggested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed to add
a certain number of _equites_ to the senate, thereby increasing it to
900, but the plan was never carried out.
GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848- ), English cricketer, was born at
Downend, Gloucestershire, on the 18th of July 1848. He found himself in
an atmosphere charged with cricket, his father (Henry Mills Grace) and
his uncle (Alfred Pocock) being as enthusiastic over the game as his
elder brothers, Henry, Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace
the family name first became famous. A younger brother, George
Frederick, also added to the cricket reputation of the family. "W. G."
witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years old, the
occasion being a game between W. Clarke's All-England Eleven and
twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was endowed by nature with a
splendid physique as well as with powers of self-restraint and
determination. At the acme of his career he stood full 6 ft. 2 in.,
being powerfully proportioned, loose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker,
and very moderate in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the
year round, shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the
cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds. over 20
hurdles being his best distance; and it may be quoted as proof of his
stamina that on the 30th of July 1866 he scored 224 not out for England
_v._ Surrey, and two days later won a race in the National and Olympian
Association meeting at the Crystal Palace. The title of "champion" was
well earned by one who for thirty-six years (1865-1900 inclusive) was
actively engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was
invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the Players,
and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to play for the mother
country. As late as 1899 he played in the first of the five
international contests; in 1900 he played against the players at the
Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-three he scored nearly 1300 runs in
first-class cricket, made 100 runs and over on three different occasions
and could claim an average of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs
were achieved when only the very best cricket grounds received serious
attention; when, as some consider, bowling was maintained at a higher
standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two brothers,
E. M. and G. F., assisted by some fine amateurs, made Gloucestershire in
one season a first-class county; and it was he who first enabled the
amateurs of England to meet the paid players on equal terms and to beat
them. There was hardly a "record" connected with the game which did not
stand to his credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England,
in his earlier days generally taking long-leg and cover-point, in later
times generally standing point. He was, at his best, a fine thrower,
fast runner and safe "catch." As a bowler he was long in the first
flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times adopting a slower
and more tricky style, frequently very effective. By profession he was a
medical man. In later years he became secretary and manager of the
London County Cricket Club. He was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day,
and one of his sons played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was
the recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to
L1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a cheque at
Lord's ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd of July 1879; the
second, collected by the M.C.C., the county of Gloucestershire, the
_Daily Telegraph_ and the _Sportsman_, amounted to about L10,000, and
was presented to him in 1896. He visited Australia in 1873-1874
(captain), and in 1891-1892 with Lord Sheffield's Eleven (captain); the
United States and Canada in 1872, with R. A. Fitzgerald's team.
Dr Grace played his first great match in 1863, when, being only
fifteen years of age, he scored 32 against the All-England Eleven and
the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinley; but the scores which first
made his name prominent were made in 1864, viz. 170 and 56 not out for
the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen of Sussex. It was in 1865
that he first took an active part in first-class cricket, being then 6
ft. in height, and 11 stone in weight, and playing twice for the
Gentlemen _v._ the Players, but his selection was mainly due to his
bowling powers, the best exposition of which was his aggregate of 13
wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of the South _v._ the Players of
the South. His highest score was 400 not out, made in July 1876
against twenty-two of Grimsby; but on three occasions he was twice
dismissed without scoring in matches against odds, a fate that never
befell him in important cricket. In first-class matches his highest
score was 344, made for the M.C.C. v. Kent at Canterbury, in August
1876; two days later he made 177 for Gloucestershire _v._ Notts, and
two days after this 318 not out for Gloucestershire _v._ Yorkshire,
the two last-named opposing counties being possessed of exceptionally
strong bowling; thus in three consecutive innings Grace scored 839
runs, and was only got out twice. His 344 was the third highest
individual score made in a big match in England up to the end of 1901.
He also scored 301 for Gloucestershire _v._ Sussex at Bristol, in
August 1896. He made over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable
perhaps being in 1871, when he performed the feat twice, each time in
benefit matches, and each time in the second innings, having been each
time got out in the first over of the first innings. He scored over
100 runs on 121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at
Bristol for Gloucestershire _v._ Somersetshire in 1895. He made every
figure from 0 to 100, on one occasion "closing" the innings when he
had made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits. In
1871 he made ten "centuries," ranging from 268 to 116. In the matches
between the Gentlemen and Players he scored "three figures" fifteen
times, and at every place where these matches have been played. He
made over 100 in each of his "first appearances" at Oxford and
Cambridge. Three times he made over 100 in each innings of the same
match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v. North of the Thames,
130 and 102 not out; at Clifton, in 1887, for Gloucestershire _v._
Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton, in 1888, for
Gloucestershire _v._ Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869, playing at the
Oval for the Gentlemen of the South _v._ the Players of the South,
Grace and B. B. Cooper put on 283 runs for the first wicket, Grace
scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and Scotton put on 170 runs
for the first wicket of England _v._ Australia; this occurred at the
Oval in August, and Grace's total score was 170. In consecutive
innings against the Players from 1871 to 1873 he scored 217, 77 and
112, 117, 163, 158 and 70. He only twice scored over 100 in a big
match in Australia, nor did he ever make 200 at Lord's, his highest
being 196 for the M.C.C. _v._ Cambridge University in 1894. His
highest aggregates were 2739 (1871), 2622 (1876), 2346 (1895), 2139
(1873), 2135 (1896) and 2062 (1887). He scored three successive
centuries in first-class cricket in 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874 and 1876.
Playing against Kent at Gravesend in 1895, he was batting, bowling or
fielding during the whole time the game was in progress, his scores
being 257 and 73 not out. He scored over 1000 runs and took over 100
wickets in seven different seasons, viz. in 1874, 1665 runs and 129
wickets; in 1875, 1498 runs, 192 wickets; in 1876, 2622 runs, 124
wickets; in 1877, 1474 runs, 179 wickets; in 1878, 1151 runs, 153
wickets; in 1885, 1688 runs, 118 wickets; in 1886, 1846 runs, 122
wickets. He never captured 200 wickets in a season, his highest record
being 192 in 1875. Playing against Oxford University in 1886, he took
all the wickets in the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1895 he
not only made his hundredth century, but actually scored 1000 runs in
the month of May alone, his chief scores in that month being 103, 288,
256, 73 and 169, he being then forty-seven years old. He also made
during that year scores of 125, 119, 118, 104 and 103 not out, his
aggregate for the year being 2346 and his average 51; his innings of
118 was made against the Players (at Lord's), the chief bowlers being
Richardson, Mold, Peel and Attewell; he scored level with his partner,
A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen years), the pair making 151
before a wicket fell, Grace making in all 118 out of 241. This may
fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years. In 1898 the
match between Gentlemen _v._ Players was, as a special compliment,
arranged by the M.C.C. committee to take place on his birthday, and he
celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out, though handicapped
by lameness and an injured hand. In twenty-six different seasons he
scored over 1000 runs, in three of these years being the only man to
do so and five times being one out of two.
During the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored nearly
51,000 runs, with an average of 43; and in bowling he took more than
2800 wickets, at an average cost of about 20 runs per wicket. He made
his highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had his highest average (78) in
1871; his average for the decade 1868-1877 was 57 runs. His style as a
batsman was more commanding than graceful, but as to its soundness and
efficacy there were never two opinions; the severest criticism ever
passed upon his powers was to the effect that he did not play slow
bowling quite as well as fast. (W. J. F.)
GRACE (Fr. _grace_, Lat. _gratia_, from _gratus_, beloved, pleasing;
formed from the root _cra-_, Gr. [Greek: chas-] cf. [Greek: chairo,
charma, charis]), a word of many shades of meaning, but always connoting
the idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others or that
which one shows to others. The _New English Dictionary_ groups the
meanings of the word under three main heads: (1) Pleasing quality,
gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3) gratitude, thanks.
It is in the second general sense of "favour bestowed" that the word has
its most important connotations. In this sense it means something given
by superior authority as a concession made of favour and goodwill, not
as an obligation or of right. Thus, a concession may be made by a
sovereign or other public authority "by way of grace." Previous to the
Revolution of 1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known
in constitutional law as "Graces." "Letters of Grace" (_gratiae,
gratiosa rescripta_) is the name given to papal rescripts granting
special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the like. In the
language of the universities the word still survives in a shadow of this
sense. The word "grace" was originally a dispensation granted by the
congregation of the university, or by one of the faculties, from some
statutable conditions required for a degree. In the English universities
these conditions ceased to be enforced, and the "grace" thus became an
essential preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the
meaning of (_a_) the licence granted by congregation to take a degree,
(_b_) other decrees of the governing body (originally dispensations from
statutes), all such degrees being called "graces" at Cambridge, (_c_)
the permission which a candidate for a degree must obtain from his
college or hall.
To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses of the word
in such phrases as "do me this grace," "to be in some one's good graces"
and certain meanings of "the grace of God." The style "by the grace of
God," borne by the king of Great Britain and Ireland among other
sovereigns, though, as implying the principle of "legitimacy," it has
been since the Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the
addition of "and the will of the people," means in effect no more than
the "by Divine Providence," which is the style borne by archbishops. To
the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the phrases implying
the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling certain obligations,
e.g. "a fortnight's grace." In law the "days of grace" are the period
allowed for the payment of a bill of exchange, after the term for which
it has been drawn (in England three days), or for the payment of an
insurance premium, &c. In religious language the "Day of Grace" is the
period still open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of
clemency or mercy, too, "grace" is still, though rarely used: "an Act of
Grace" is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted by act of
parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative of the great,
"Your Grace," "His Grace," &c., became dutiful paraphrases for the
simple "you" and "he." Formerly used in the royal address ("the King's
Grace," &c.), the style is in England now confined to dukes and
archbishops, though the style of "his most gracious majesty" is still
used. In Germany the equivalent, _Euer Gnaden_, is the style of princes
who are not _Durchlaucht_ (i.e. Serene Highness), and is often used as a
polite address to any superior.
In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the word is
used in several of the above senses, "grace" (Gr. [Greek: charis]) has
special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous, unmerited
activity of the Divine Love in the salvation of sinners, and the Divine
influence operating in man for his regeneration and sanctification.
Those thus regenerated and sanctified are said to be in a "state of
grace." In the New Testament grace is the forgiving mercy of God, as
opposed to any human merit (Rom. xi. 6; Eph. ii. 5; Col. i. 6, &c.); it
is applied also to certain gifts of God freely bestowed, e.g. miracles,
tongues, &c. (Rom. xv. 15; 1 Cor. xv. 10; Eph. iii. 8, &c.), to the
Christian virtues, gifts of God also, e.g. charity, holiness, &c. (2
Cor. viii. 7; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally,
as opposed to the Law (John i. 17; Rom. vi. 14; 1 Pet. v. 12, &c.);
connected with this is the use of the term "year of grace" for a year of
the Christian era.
The word "grace" is the central subject of three great theological
controversies: (1) that of the nature of human depravity and
regeneration (see PELAGIUS), (2) that of the relation between grace and
free-will (see CALVIN, JOHN, and ARMINIUS, JACOBUS), (3) that of the
"means of grace" between Catholics and Protestants, i.e. whether the
efficacy of the sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is _ex opere
operato_ or dependent on the faith of the recipient.
In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed, "grace"
survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or after meals. The
word was originally used in the plural, and "to do, give, render, yield
graces" was said, in the general sense of the French _rendre graces_ or
Latin _gratias agere_, of any giving thanks. The close, and finally
exclusive, association of the phrase "to say grace" with thanksgiving at
meals was possibly due to the formula "Gratias Deo agamus" ("let us give
thanks to God") with which the ceremony began in monastic refectories.
The custom of saying grace, which obtained in pre-Christian times among
the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and was adopted universally by Christian
peoples, is probably less widespread in private houses than it used to
be. It is, however, still maintained at public dinners and also in
schools, colleges and institutions generally. Such graces are generally
in Latin and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, e.g. "Laus
Deo," "Benedictus benedicat," and sometimes, as at the Oxford and
Cambridge colleges, of considerable length. In some countries grace has
sunk to a polite formula; in Germany, e.g. it is usual before and after
meals to bow to one's neighbours and say "Gesegnete Malzeit!" (May your
meal be blessed), a phrase often reduced in practice to "Malzeit"
simply.
GRACES, THE, (Gr. [Greek: Charites], Lat. _Gratiae_), in Greek
mythology, the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in
moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to a number
or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the _Iliad_ one Charis is
the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised wife of Sleep, while the
plural Charites often occurs. The Charites are usually described as
three in number--Aglaia (brightness), Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia
(bloom)--daughters of Zeus and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus),
or of Helios and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta
(noise) and Phaenna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and Hegemone
(queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with whom they live on Mount
Olympus, and the companions of Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of
persuasion, and of Hermes, the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm
is an indispensable adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist
is indicated by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient
seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest images,
in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up in their temple.
Their worship was said to have been instituted by Eteocles, whose three
daughters fell into a well while dancing in their honour. At Orchomenus
nightly dances took place, and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by
musical contests, was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated
without music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while
sacrificing to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son
Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the Eumenides; at
Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane, were held at the
entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo, Hegemone and Agraulos, the
daughter of Cecrops, that young Athenians, on first receiving their
spear and shield, took the oath to defend their country. In works of art
the Charites were represented in early times as beautiful maidens of
slender form, hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery;
later, the conception predominated of three naked figures gracefully
intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the rose and musical
instruments. In Rome the Graces were never the objects of special
religious reverence, but were described and represented by poets and
artists in accordance with Greek models.
See F. H. Krause, _Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nymphen_ (1871), and the
articles by Stoll and Furtwangler in Roscher's _Lexikon der
Mythologie_, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire
des antiquites_, with the bibliography.
GRACIAN Y MORALES, BALTASAR (1601-1658), Spanish prose writer, was born
at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of January 1601. Little is known of his
personal history except that on May 14, 1619, he entered the Society of
Jesus, and that ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at
Tarazona, where he died on the 6th of December, 1658. His principal
works are _El Heroe_ (1630), which describes in apophthegmatic phrases
the qualities of the ideal man; the _Arte de ingenio, tratado de la
Agudeza_ (1642), republished six years afterwards under the title of
_Agudeza, y arte de ingenio_ (1648), a system of rhetoric in which the
principles of _conceptismo_ as opposed to culteranismo are inculcated;
_El Discreto_ (1645), a delineation of the typical courtier; _El Oraculo
manual y arte de prudencia_ (1647), a system of rules for the conduct of
life; and _El Criticon_ (1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical
allegory of human existence. The only publication which bears Gracian's
name is _El Comulgatorio_ (1655); his more important books were issued
under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracian (possibly a brother of the
writer) or under the anagram of Gracian de Marlones. Gracian was
punished for publishing without his superior's permission _El Criticon_
(in which Defoe is alleged to have found the germ of _Robinson Crusoe_);
but no objection was taken to its substance. He has been excessively
praised by Schopenhauer, whose appreciation of the author induced him to
translate the _Oraculo manual_, and he has been unduly depreciated by
Ticknor and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his
systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories.
See Karl Borinski, _Baltasar Gracian und die Hoflitteratur in
Deutschland_ (Halle, 1894); Benedetto Croce, _I Trattatisti italiani
del "concettismo" e Baltasar Gracian_ (Napoli, 1899); Narciso Jose
Linan y Heredia, _Baltasar Gracian_ (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer and
Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the _Oraculo manual_ into
German and English.
GRACKLE (Lat. _Gracculus_ or _Graculus_), a word much used in
ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to members of
the families _Sturnidae_ belonging to the Old World and _Icteridae_
belonging to the New. Of the former those to which it has been most
commonly applied are the species known as mynas, mainas, and minors of
India and the adjacent countries, and especially the _Gracula religiosa_
of Linnaeus, who, according to Jerdon and others, was probably led to
confer this epithet upon it by confounding it with the _Sturnus_ or
_Acridotheres tristis_,[1] which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to
Ram Deo, one of their deities, while the true _Gracula religiosa_ does
not seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in. in
length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple and green
reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the quill-feathers of
the wings. The bill is orange and the legs yellow, but the bird's most
characteristic feature is afforded by the curious wattles of bright
yellow, which, beginning behind the eyes, run backwards in form of a
lappet on each side, and then return in a narrow stripe to the top of
the head. Beneath each eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This
species is common in southern India, and is represented farther to the
north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by cognate forms.
They are all frugivorous, and, being easily tamed and learning to
pronounce words very distinctly, are favourite cage-birds.[2]
[Illustration: _Gracula religiosa._]
In America the name Grackle has been applied to several species of the
genera _Scolecophagus_ and _Quiscalus_, though these are more commonly
called in the United States and Canada "blackbirds," and some of them
"boat-tails." They all belong to the family _Icteridae_. The best known
of these are the rusty grackle, _S. ferrugineus_, which is found in
almost the whole of North America, and _Q. purpureus_, the purple
grackle or crow-blackbird, of more limited range, for though abundant
in most parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear
on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer's or the blue-headed grackle,
_S. cyanocephalus_, which has a more western range, not occurring to the
eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth species, _Q. major_, inhabits
the Atlantic States as far north as North Carolina. All these birds are
of exceedingly omnivorous habit, and though destroying large numbers of
pernicious insects are in many places held in bad repute from the
mischief they do to the corn-crops. (A. N.)