FOOTNOTES:

[1] By some writers the birds of the genera _Acridotheres_ and

_Temenuchus_ are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of

_Gracula_ are called "hill mynas" by way of distinction.

[2] For a valuable monograph on the various species of _Gracula_ and

its allies see Professor Schlegel's "Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het

Geschlacht Beo'" (_Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde_ i.

1-9).

GRADISCA, a town of Austria, in the province of Gorz and Gradisca, 10 m.

S.W. of Gorz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly Italians. It is situated

on the right bank of the Isonzo and was formerly a strongly fortified

place. Its principal industry is silk spinning. Gradisca originally

formed part of the margraviate of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of

Aquileia in 1028, and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca

was fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to the

emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory, including

Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected into a separate

countship in favour of Johann Anton von Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On

the extinction of his line in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was

completely incorporated with Gorz in 1754. The name was revived by the

constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Gorz and

Gradisca.

GRADO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; 11 m. W. by

N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a left-hand tributary of

the Nalon. Pop. (1900) 17,125. Grado is built in the midst of a

mountainous, well-wooded and fertile region. It has some trade in

timber, live stock, cider and agricultural produce. The nearest railway

station is that of the Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and

small-arms factory, 5 m. S.E.

GRADUAL (Med. Lat. _gradualis_, of or belonging to steps or degrees;

_gradus_, step), advancing or taking place by degrees or step by step;

hence used of a slow progress or a gentle declivity or slope, opposed to

steep or precipitous. As a substantive, "gradual" (Med. Lat. _graduale_

or _gradale_) is used of a service book or antiphonal of the Roman

Catholic Church containing certain antiphons, called "graduals," sung at

the service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle.

This antiphon received the name either because it was sung on the steps

of the altar or while the deacon was mounting the steps of the ambo for

the reading or singing of the Gospel. For the so-called Gradual Psalms,

cxx.-cxxxiv., the "songs of degrees," LXX. [Greek: ode ana bathmon], see

PSALMS, BOOK OF.

GRADUATE (Med. Lat. _graduare_, to admit to an academical degree,

_gradus_), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the academical sense

intransitively, i.e. "to take or proceed to a university degree," and

figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, or proficiency in, anything. The

original transitive sense of "to confer or admit to a degree" is,

however, still preserved in America, where the word is, moreover, not

strictly confined to university degrees, but is used also of those

successfully completing a course of study at any educational

establishment. As a substantive, a "graduate" (Med. Lat. _graduatus_) is

one who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have matriculated

at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are known as

"undergraduates." The word "student," used of undergraduates e.g. in

Scottish universities, is never applied generally to those of the

English and Irish universities. At Oxford the only "students" are the

"senior students" (i.e. fellows) and "junior students" (i.e.

undergraduates on the foundation, or "scholars") of Christ Church. The

verb "to graduate" is also used of dividing anything into degrees or

parts in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application

see GRADUATION below. It may also mean "to arrange in gradations" or "to

adjust or apportion according to a given scale." Thus by "a graduated

income-tax" is meant the system by which the percentage paid differs

according to the amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.

GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE), the art of dividing straight scales,

circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required number of equal

parts. It is the most important and difficult part of the work of the

mathematical instrument maker, and is required in the construction of

most physical, astronomical, nautical and surveying instruments.

The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the teeth of

their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was confined to

them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in its performance was

required. This only arose when astronomy began to be seriously studied,

and the exact position of the heavenly bodies to be determined, which

created the necessity for strictly accurate means of measuring linear

and angular magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art

which required special talents and training, and the best artists gave

great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments. Of these

may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John Bird (1709-1776), John

Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800), John Troughton, Edward

Troughton (1753-1835), William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross.

The first graduated instrument must have been done by the hand and eye

alone, whether it was in the form of a straight-edge with equal

divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but, once in the possession of

one such divided instrument, it was a comparatively easy matter to

employ it as a standard. Hence graduation divides itself into two

distinct branches, _original graduation_ and _copying_, which latter may

be done either by the hand or by a machine called a dividing engine.

Graduation may therefore be treated under the three heads of _original

graduation_, _copying_ and _machine graduation_.

_Original Graduation._--In regard to the graduation of straight scales

elementary geometry provides the means of dividing a straight line into

any number of equal parts by the method of continual bisection; but the

practical realization of the geometrical construction is so difficult as

to render the method untrustworthy. This method, which employs the

common diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius,

which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read to

minutes--a result, according to Thomson and Tait (_Nat. Phil._), "giving

no greater accuracy than is now attainable by the pocket sextants of

Troughton and Simms, the radius of whose arc is little more than an

inch."

The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the

method of continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection

the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as

possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked

off by faint arcs from each end of the line. Should these marks

coincide the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not, as

will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is

carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The

same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on

in succession, dividing the line into parts represented by 2, 4, 8,

16, &c. till the desired divisions are reached. In the method of

stepping the smallest division required is first taken, as accurately

as possible, by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off,

by successive steps, from one end of the line. In this method, any

error at starting will be multiplied at each division by the number of

that division. Errors so made are usually adjusted by the dots being

put either back or forward a little by means of the dividing punch

guided by a magnifying glass. This is an extremely tedious process, as

the dots, when so altered several times, are apt to get insufferably

large and shapeless.

The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle as

the graduation of straight lines.

The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was

graduated by George Graham (1673-1751) for Greenwich Observatory in

1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96.85 and 95.8 in.

respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On the inner of

these the arc of 90 deg. was to be divided into degrees and 12th parts

of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided into 96

equal parts and these again into 16th parts. The reason for adopting

the latter was that, 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the divisions

could be got at by continual bisection alone, which, in Graham's

opinion, who first employed it, is the only accurate method, and would

thus serve as a check upon the accuracy of the divisions of the outer

arc. With the same distance on the beam-compass as was used to

describe the inner arc, laid off from 0 deg., the point 60 deg. was at

once determined. With the points 0 deg. and 60 deg. as centres

successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very nearly bisecting

the arc of 60 deg., two slight marks were made on the arc; the

distance between these marks was divided by the hand aided by a lens,

and this gave the point 30 deg. The chord of 60 deg. laid off from the

point 30 deg. gave the point 90 deg., and the quadrant was now divided

into three equal parts. Each of these parts was similarly bisected,

and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving 18 parts of 5 deg.

each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees, the 12th parts of

which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as before. The outer

arc was divided by continual bisection alone, and a table was

constructed by which the readings of the one arc could be converted

into those of the other. After the dots indicating the required

divisions were obtained, either straight strokes all directed towards

the centre were drawn through them by the dividing knife, or sometimes

small arcs were drawn through them by the beam-compass having its

fixed point somewhere on the line which was a tangent to the

quadrantal arc at the point where a division was to be marked.

The next important example of graduation was done by Bird in 1767. His

quadrant, which was also 8-ft. radius, was divided into degrees and

12th parts of a degree. He employed the method of continual bisection

aided by chords taken from an exact scale of equal parts, which could

read to .001 of an inch, and which he had previously graduated by

continual bisections. With the beam-compass an arc of radius 95.938

in. was first drawn. From this radius the chords of 30 deg., 15 deg.,

10 deg. 20', 4 deg. 40[min] and 42 deg. 40' were computed, and each of

them by means of the scale of equal parts laid off on a separate

beam-compass to be ready. The radius laid off from 0 deg. gave the

point 60 deg.; by the chord of 30 deg. the arc of 60 deg. was

bisected; from the point 30 deg. the radius laid off gave the point 90

deg.; the chord of 15 deg. laid off backwards from 90 deg. gave the

point 75 deg.; from 75 deg. was laid off forwards the chord of 10 deg.

20'; and from 90 deg. was laid off backwards the chord of 4 deg. 40';

and these were found to coincide in the point 85 deg. 20'. Now 85 deg.

20' being = 5' X 1024 = 5' X 2^10, the final divisions of 85 deg. 20'

were found by continual bisections. For the remainder of the quadrant

beyond 85 deg. 20', containing 56 divisions of 5' each, the chord of

64 such divisions was laid off from the point 85 deg. 40', and the

corresponding arc divided by continual bisections as before. There was

thus a severe check upon the accuracy of the points already found,

viz. 15 deg., 30 deg., 60 deg., 75 deg., 90 deg., which, however, were

found to coincide with the corresponding points obtained by continual

bisections. The short lines through the dots were drawn in the way

already mentioned.

The next eminent artists in original graduation are the brothers John

and Edward Troughton. The former was the first to devise a means of

graduating the quadrant by continual bisection without the aid of such

a scale of equal parts as was used by Bird. His method was as follows:

The radius of the quadrant laid off from 0 deg. gave the point 60 deg.

This arc bisected and the half laid off from 60 deg. gave the point 90

deg. The arc between 60 deg. and 90 deg. bisected gave 75 deg.; the

arc between 75 deg. and 90 deg. bisected gave the point 82 deg. 30',

and the arc between 82 deg. 30' and 90 deg. bisected gave the point 86

deg. 15'. Further, the arc between 82 deg. 30' and 86 deg. 15'

trisected, and two-thirds of it taken beyond 82 deg. 30', gave the

point 85 deg., while the arc between 85 deg. and 86 deg. 15' also

trisected, and one-third part laid off beyond 85 deg., gave the point

85 deg. 25'. Lastly, the arc between 85 deg. and 85 deg. 25' being

quinquesected, and four-fifths taken beyond 85 deg., gave 85 deg. 20',

which as before is = 5' X 2^10, and so can be finally divided by

continual bisection.

The method of original graduation discovered by Edward Troughton is

fully described in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1809, as

employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft. radius. The

circle was first accurately turned both on its face and its inner and

outer edges. A roller was next provided, of such diameter that it

revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round the

outer edge of the circle. This roller, made movable on pivots, was

attached to a frame-work, which could be slid freely, yet tightly,

along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of

frictional contact, on the outer edge. The roller was also, after

having been properly adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as

possible into 16 equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the

frame carrying the roller was moved once round along the circle, the

points of contact of the roller-divisions with the circle were

accurately observed by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of

which (which we shall call H) commanded the ring on the circle near

its edge, which was to receive the divisions and the other viewed the

roller-divisions. The points of contact thus ascertained were marked

with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256 very

nearly equal parts.

The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the errors

of these dots, which are called _apparent_ errors, in consequence of

the error of each dot being ascertained on the supposition that its

neighbours are all correct. For this purpose two microscopes (which we

shall call A and B) were taken, with cross wires and micrometer

adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided into 100

divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite

direction. These microscopes were fixed so that their cross-wires

respectively bisected the dots 0 and 128, which were supposed to be

diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half-way round on

its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A, and, should

dot 0 be found to coincide with B, then the two dots were 180 deg.

apart. If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coincided with

dot 0, and the number of divisions of the micrometer head noted. Half

this number gave clearly the error of dot 128, and it was tabulated +

or - according as the arcual distance between 0 and 128 was found to

exceed or fall short of the remaining part of the circumference. The

microscope B was now shifted, A remaining opposite dot 0 as before,

till its wire bisected dot 64, and, by giving the circle one quarter

of a turn on its axis, the difference of the arcs between dots 0 and

64 and between 64 and 128 was obtained. The half of this difference

gave the apparent error of dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper

sign. With the microscope A still in the same position the error of

dot 192 was obtained, and in the same way by shifting B to dot 32 the

errors of dots 32, 96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In

this way the apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated.

From this table of apparent errors a table of _real_ errors was drawn

up by employing the following formula:--

1/2(x(a) + x(c)) + z = the real error of dot b,

where x(a) is the real error of dot a, x(c) the real error of dot c,

and z the apparent error of dot b midway between a and c. Having got

the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives

the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots.

The last part of Troughton's process was to employ them to cut the

final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5' each. Now

the mean interval between any two dots is 360 deg./256 = 5' X 16-7/8,

and hence, in the final division, this interval must be divided into

16-7/8 equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a

subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and had

a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable as

to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis, and

rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional

adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow of

its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting the

roller. While the roller passes over an angular space equal to the

mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must pass over

16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle represented by

360 deg. X 16/256 = 22 deg. 30'. This interval was therefore divided

by 16-7/8, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was laid

off on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each

equal to 1 deg. 20'; and, to provide for the necessary 7/8ths of a

division, there was laid off at each end of the sector, and beyond the

16 equal parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts.

A microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on

the main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions, just

as the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle. Before

the first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was brought

under I and then the division cut at the point on the circle indicated

by H, which also coincided with the dot 0. The frame was then slipped

along the circle by the slow screw motion provided for the purpose,

till the first sector-division, by the action of the roller, was

brought under I. The second mark was then cut on the circle at the

point indicated by H. That the marks thus obtained are 5' apart is

evident when we reflect that the distance between them must be 1/16th

of a division on the section which by construction is 1 deg. 20'. In

this way the first 16 divisions were cut; but before cutting the 17th

it was necessary to adjust the micrometer wires of H to the real error

of dot 1, as indicated by the table, and bring back the sector, not to

zero, but to 1/8th short of zero. Starting from this position the

divisions between dots 1 and 2 were filled in, and then H was adjusted

to the real error of dot 2, and the sector brought back to its proper

division before commencing the third course. Proceeding in this manner

through the whole circle, the microscope H was finally found with its

wire at zero, and the sector with its 16th division under its

microscope indicating that the circle had been accurately divided.

_Copying._--In graduation by copying the pattern must be either an

accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately divided circle,

commonly called a _dividing plate_.

In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided, usually

called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their upper faces in

the same plane. The dividing square, which closely resembles an ordinary

joiner's square, is then laid across both, and the point of the dividing

knife dropped into the zero division of the pattern. The square is now

moved up close to the point of the knife; and, while it is held firmly

in this position by the left hand, the first division on the work is

made by drawing the knife along the edge of the square with the right

hand.

It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale are either

greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet this case, and still

use the same pattern, the work must be fixed at a certain angle of

inclination with the pattern. This angle is found in the following way.

Take the exact ratio of a division on the pattern to the required

division on the scale. Call this ratio [alpha]. Then, if the required

divisions are longer than those of the pattern, the angle is cos^-1

[alpha], but, if shorter, the angle is sec^-1 [alpha]. In the former

case two operations are required before the divisions are cut: first,

the square is laid on the pattern, and the corresponding divisions

merely notched very faintly on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the

square is applied to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite

each faint notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is sec^-1

[alpha], the dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions

cut when the edge of the square coincides with the end of each division

on the pattern.

In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This is a circular

plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully graduated near

its outer edge. It is turned quite flat, and has a steel pin fixed in

its centre, and at right angles to its plane. For guiding the dividing

knife an instrument called an index is employed. This is a straight bar

of thin steel of length equal to the radius of the plate. A piece of

metal, having a V notch with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one

end of the bar in such a position that the vertex of the notch is

exactly in a line with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the

index is laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the

straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The work to

be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed by two clamps

in a position exactly concentric with it. The index is now laid on, with

its edge coinciding with any required division on the dividing plate,

and the corresponding division on the work is cut by drawing the

dividing knife along the straight edge of the index.

_Machine Graduation._--The first dividing engine was probably that of

Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly used by him for

cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was followed shortly after by an

engine devised by the duc de Chaulnes; but the first notable engine was

that made by Ramsden, of which an account was published by the Board of

Longitude in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of L300, and

a further sum of L315 was given to him on condition that he would

divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of other makers. The

essential principles of Ramsden's machine have been repeated in almost

all succeeding engines for dividing circles.

Ramsden's machine consisted of a large brass prate 45 in. in diameter,

carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge of the plate

was ratched with 2160 teeth, into which a tangent screw worked, by

means of which the plate could be made to turn through any required

angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved the plate through 1 deg., and

1/60th of a turn through 1/360th of a degree. On the axis of the

tangent screw was placed a cylinder having a spiral groove cut on its

surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 60 teeth was attached to this

cylinder, and was so arranged that, when the cylinder moved in one

direction, it carried the tangent screw with it, and so turned the

plate, but when it moved in the opposite direction, it left the

tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary. Round the spiral

groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wound, one end of which was

attached to a treadle and the other to a counterpoise weight. When the

treadle was depressed the tangent screw turned round, and when the

pressure was removed it returned, in obedience to the weight, to its

former position without affecting the screw. Provision was also made

whereby certain stops could be placed in the way of the screw, which

only allowed it the requisite amount of turning. The work to be

divided was firmly fixed on the plate, and made concentric with it.

The divisions were cut, while the screw was stationary, by means of a

dividing knife attached to a swing frame, which allowed it to have

only a radial motion. In this way the artist could divide very rapidly

by alternately depressing the treadle and working the dividing knife.

Ramsden also constructed a linear dividing engine on essentially the

same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular plate with its

notches stretched out into a straight line and made movable in a

straight slot, the screw, treadle, &c., remaining as before, we get a

very good idea of the linear engine.

In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing engine, of which

the plate was smaller than in Ramsden's, and which differed considerably

in simplifying matters of detail. The plate was originally divided by

Troughton's own method, already described, and the divisions so obtained

were employed to ratch the edge of the plate for receiving the tangent

screw with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (_Trans. Soc. Arts_, 1830-1831)

constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably from those of

Ramsden and Troughton.

The essential point of difference is that, in Ross's engine, the

tangent screw does not turn the engine plate; that is done by an

independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is only

to stop the plate after it has passed through the required angular

interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated. Round the

circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which just look as

if the circumference had been divided into as many deep and somewhat

peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through each of these teeth a hole

is bored parallel to the plane of the plate and also to a tangent to

its circumference. Into these holes are screwed steel screws with

capstan heads and flat ends. The tangent screw consists only of a

single turn of a large square thread which works in the teeth or

notches of the plate. This thread is pierced by 90 equally distant

holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw, and at the same distance

from it. Into each of these holes is inserted a steel screw exactly

similar to those in the teeth, but with its end rounded. It is the

rounded and flat ends of these sets of screws coming together that

stop the engine plate at the desired position, and the exact point can

be nicely adjusted by suitably turning the screws.

[Illustration: Dividing Engine.]

A description is given of a dividing engine made by William Simms in the

_Memoirs of the Astronomical Society_, 1843. Simms became convinced that

to copy upon smaller circles the divisions which had been put upon a

large plate with very great accuracy was not only more expeditious but

more exact than original graduation. His machine involved essentially

the same principle as Troughton's. The accompanying figure is taken by

permission.

The plate A is 46 in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-metal cast

in one solid piece. It has two sets of 5' divisions--one very faint on

an inlaid ring of silver, and the other stronger on the gun-metal.

These were put on by original graduation, mainly on the plan of Edward

Troughton. One very great improvement in this engine is that the axis

B is tubular, as seen at C. The object of this hollow is to receive

the axis of the circle to be divided, so that it can be fixed flat to

the plate by the clamps E, without having first to be detached from

the axis and other parts to which it has already been carefully

fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting, which can hardly be

done without some error. D is the tangent screw, and F the frame

carrying it, which turns on carefully polished steel pivots. The screw

is pressed against the edge of the plate by a spiral spring acting

under the end of the lever G, and by screwing the lever down the screw

can be altogether removed from contact with the plate. The edge of the

plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which were cut opposite the original

division by a circular cutter attached to the screw frame. H is the

spiral barrel round which the catgut band is wound, one end of which

is attached to the crank L on the end of the axis J and the other to a

counterpoise weight not seen. On the other end of J is another crank

inclined to L and carrying a band and counterpoise weight seen at K.

The object of this weight is to balance the former and give steadiness

to the motion. On the axis J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which

move the rod I, which, by another pair of bevelled wheels attached to

the box N, gives motion to the axis M, on the end of which is an

eccentric for moving the bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying

the cutter. Between the eccentric and the point of the screw P is an

undulating plate by which long divisions can be cut. The cutting

apparatus is supported upon the two parallel rails which can be

elevated or depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting

apparatus can be moved forward or backward upon these rails to suit

circles of different diameters. The box N is movable upon the bar R,

and the rod I is adjustable as to length by having a kind of telescope

joint. The engine is self-acting, and can be driven either by hand or

by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown in or out of

gear at once by a handle seen at S.

Mention may be made of Donkin's linear dividing engine, in which a

compensating arrangement is employed whereby great accuracy is obtained

notwithstanding the inequalities of the screw used to advance the

cutting tool. Dividing engines have also been made by Reichenbach,

Repsold and others in Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other

astronomical instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R. Watts &

Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the _Monthly Not. R. A. S._, January

1909.

REFERENCES.--Bird, _Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments_

(London, 1767); Duc de Chaulnes, _Nouvelle Methode pour diviser les

instruments de mathematique et d'astronomie_ (1768); Ramsden,

_Description of an Engine for dividing Mathematical Instruments_

(London, 1777); Troughton's memoir, _Phil. Trans._ (1809); _Memoirs of

the Royal Astronomical Society_, v. 325, viii. 141, ix. 17, 35. See

also J. E. Watkins, "On the Ramsden Machine," _Smithsonian Rep._

(1890), p. 721; and L. Ambronn, _Astronomische Instrumentenkunde_

(1899). (J. Bl.)

GRADUS, or GRADUS AD PARNASSUM (a step to Parnassus), a Latin (or Greek)

dictionary, in which the quantities of the vowels of the words are

marked. Synonyms, epithets and poetical expressions and extracts are

also included under the more important headings, the whole being

intended as an aid for students in Greek and Latin verse composition.

The first Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler

(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus by C. D.

Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and H. G. Wintle (1890);

Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby (1815), bishop of Durham.

GRAETZ, HEINRICH (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish historian of modern

times, was born in Posen in 1817 and died at Munich in 1891. He received

a desultory education, and was largely self-taught. An important stage

in his development was the period of three years that he spent at

Oldenburg as assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened

orthodoxy was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz

proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1842. Breslau was then

becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the leader of Jewish

reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger's attitude, and though he

subsequently took radical views of the Bible and tradition (which made

him an opponent of Hirsch), Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform.

He contended for freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for

freedom of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the

rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career. For some years he

supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute by his

published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the fourth volume of

his history of the Jews made him famous. This fourth volume (the first

to be published) dealt with the Talmud. It was a brilliant resuscitation

of the past. Graetz's skill in piecing together detached fragments of

information, his vast learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were

equalled by his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book

of the 19th century produced such a sensation as this, and Graetz won at

a bound the position he still occupies as recognized master of Jewish

history. His _Geschichte der Juden_, begun in 1853, was completed in

1875; new editions of the several volumes were frequent. The work has

been translated into many languages; it appeared in English in five

volumes in 1891-1895. The _History_ is defective in its lack of

objectivity; Graetz's judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular

he lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a work of genius.

Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv. Graetz was appointed on

the staff of the new Breslau Seminary, of which the first director was

Z. Frankel. Graetz passed the remainder of his life in this office; in

1869 he was created professor by the government, and also lectured at

the Breslau University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a

biblical critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the

date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books. His

critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief contribution to

biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor Bacher edited Graetz's

_Emendationes_ to many parts of the Hebrew scriptures.

A full bibliography of Graetz's works is given in the _Jewish

Quarterly Review_, iv. 194; a memoir of Graetz is also to be found

there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the "index" volume of the

_History_ in the American re-issue of the English translation in six

volumes (Philadelphia, 1898). (I. A.)

GRAEVIUS (properly GRAVE or GREFFE), JOHANN GEORG (1632-1703). German

classical scholar and critic, was born at Naumburg, Saxony, on the 29th

of January 1632. He was originally intended for the law, but having made

the acquaintance of J. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer,

under his influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He

completed his studies under D. Heinsius at Leiden, and under the

Protestant theologians A. Morus and D. Blondel at Amsterdam. During his

residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel's influence he abandoned

Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church; and in 1656 he was called by

the elector of Brandenburg to the chair of rhetoric in the university of

Duisburg. Two years afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he

was chosen to succeed that scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was

translated to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the

chair of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January 11th, 1703)

that of history and politics. Graevius enjoyed a very high reputation as

a teacher, and his lecture-room was crowded by pupils, many of them of

distinguished rank, from all parts of the civilized world. He was

honoured with special recognition by Louis XIV., and was a particular

favourite of William III. of England, who made him historiographer

royal.

His two most important works are the _Thesaurus antiquitatum

Romanarum_ (1694-1699, in 12 volumes), and the _Thesaurus antiquitatum

et historiarum Italiae_ published after his death, and continued by

the elder Burmann (1704-1725). His editions of the classics, although

they marked a distinct advance in scholarship, arc now for the most

part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667), Lucian, _Pseudosophista_

(1668), Justin, _Historiae Philippicae_ (1669), Suetonius (1672),

Catullus, Tibullus et Propertius (1680), and several of the works of

Cicero (his best production). He also edited many of the writings of

contemporary scholars. The _Oratio funebris_ by P. Burmann (1703)

contains an exhaustive list of the works of this scholar; see also P.

H. Kulb in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_, and J. E.

Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_, ii. (1908).

GRAF, ARTURO (1848- ), Italian poet, of German extraction, was born at

Athens. He was educated at Naples University and became a lecturer on

Italian literature in Rome, till in 1882 he was appointed professor at

Turin. He was one of the founders of the _Giornale della letteratura

italiana_, and his publications include valuable prose criticism; but he

is best known as a poet. His various volumes of verse--_Poesie e

novelle_ (1874), _Dopo il tramonto versi_ (1893), &c.--give him a high

place among the recent lyrical writers of his country.

GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815-1869), German Old Testament scholar and

orientalist, was born at Mulhausen in Alsace on the 28th of February

1815. He studied Biblical exegesis and oriental languages at the

university of Strassburg under E. Reuss, and, after holding various

teaching posts, was made instructor in French and Hebrew at the

Landesschule of Meissen, receiving in 1852 the title of professor. He

died on the 16th of July 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old

Testament criticism. In his principal work, _Die geschichtlichen Bucher

des Alten Testaments_ (1866), he sought to show that the priestly

legislation of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers is of later origin than the

book of Deuteronomy. He still, however, held the accepted view, that the

Elohistic narratives formed part of the _Grundschrift_ and therefore

belonged to the oldest portions of the Pentateuch. The reasons urged

against the contention that the priestly legislation and the Elohistic

narratives were separated by a space of 500 years were so strong as to

induce Graf, in an essay, "Die sogenannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs,"

published shortly before his death, to regard the whole _Grundschrift_

as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch. The idea had

already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since Graf was the first to

introduce it into Germany, the theory, as developed by Julius

Wellhausen, has been called the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis.

Graf also wrote, _Der Segen Moses Deut. 33_ (1857) and _Der Prophet

Jeremia erklart_ (1862). See T. K. Cheyne, _Founders of Old Testament

Criticism_ (1893); and Otto Pfleiderer's book translated into English

by J. F. Smith as _Development of Theology_ (1890).

GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828-1870), German oculist, son of Karl Ferdinand

von Grafe, was born at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1828. At an early age

he manifested a preference for the study of mathematics, but this was

gradually superseded by an interest in natural science, which led him

ultimately to the study of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at

Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and

devoting special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice

as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution for the

treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many similar ones in

Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was appointed teacher of

ophthalmology in Berlin university; in 1858 he became extraordinary

professor, and in 1866 ordinary professor. Grafe contributed largely to

the progress of the science of ophthalmology, especially by the

establishment in 1855 of his _Archiv fur Ophthalmologie_, in which he

had Ferdinand Arlt (1812-1887) and F. C. Donders (1818-1889) as

collaborators. Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his

method of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He was

also regarded as an authority in diseases of the nerves and brain. He

died at Berlin on the 20th of July 1870.

See _Ein Wort der Erinnerung an Albrecht von Grafe_ (Halle, 1870) by

his cousin, Alfred Grafe (1830-1899), also a distinguished

ophthalmologist, and the author of _Das Sehen der Schielenden_

(Wiesbaden, 1897); and E. Michaelis, _Albrecht von Grafe. Sein Leben

und Wirken_ (Berlin, 1877).

GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802-1868), German educationist, was born at Buttstadt

in Saxe-Weimar on the 3rd of May 1802. He studied mathematics and

theology at Jena, and in 1823 obtained a curacy in the town church of

Weimar. He was transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825;

in 1840 he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science of

education (Padagogik) in that university; and in 1842 he became head of

the _Burgerschule_ (middle class school) in Cassel. After reorganizing

the schools of the town, he became director of the new _Realschule_ in

1843; and, devoting himself to the interests of educational reform in

electoral Hesse, he became in 1849 a member of the school commission,

and also entered the house of representatives, where he made himself

somewhat formidable as an agitator. In 1852 for having been implicated

in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular

minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission, he was

condemned to three years' imprisonment, a sentence afterwards reduced to

one of twelve months. On his release he withdrew to Geneva, where he

engaged in educational work till 1855, when he was appointed director of

the school of industry at Bremen. He died in that city on the 21st of

July 1868.

Besides being the author of many text-books and occasional papers on

educational subjects, he wrote _Das Rechisverhaltnis der Volksschule

von innen und aussen_ (1829); _Die Schulreform_ (1834); _Schule und

Unterricht_ (1839); _Allgemeine Padagogik_ (1845); _Die deutsche

Volksschule_ (1847). Together with Naumann, he also edited the _Archiv

fur das praktische Volksschulwesen_ (1828-1835).

GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1787-1840), German surgeon, was born at

Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He studied medicine at Halle and

Leipzig, and after obtaining licence from the Leipzig university, he was

in 1807 appointed private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg.

In 1811 he became professor of surgery and director of the surgical

clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was

superintendent of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded in

1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed

physician to the general staff of the army, and he became a director of

the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-Chirurgical Academy.

He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1840 at Hanover, whither he had been

called to operate on the eyes of the crown prince. Grafe did much to

advance the practice of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment

of wounds. He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was

chiefly due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted

students from all parts of Europe.

The following are his principal works: _Normen fur die Ablosung

grosser Gliedmassen_ (Berlin, 1812); _Rhinoplastik_ (1818); _Neue

Beitrage zur Kunst Theile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen_

(1821); _Die epidemisch-kontagiose Augenblennorrhoe Agyptens in den

europaischen Befreiungsheeren_ (1824); and _Jahresberichte uber das

klinisch-chirurgisch-augenarztliche Institut der Universitat zu

Berlin_ (1817-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the

_Journal fur Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde_. See E. Michaelis, _Karl

Ferdinand von Grafe in seiner 30 jahrigen Wirken fur Staat und

Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1840).

GRAFFITO, plural _graffiti_, the Italian word meaning "scribbling" or

"scratchings" (_graffiare_, to scribble, Gr. [Greek: graphein]), adopted

by archaeologists as a general term for the casual writings, rude

drawings and markings on ancient buildings, in distinction from the more

formal or deliberate writings known as "inscriptions." These "graffiti,"

either scratched on stone or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a

nail, or, more rarely, written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found

in great abundance, e.g. on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The

best-known "graffiti" are those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and

elsewhere in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrucci (_Graffiti di

Pompei_, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra ("Graffiti di Roma" in _Bolletino

della commissione municipale archaeologica_, Rome, 1893; see also _Corp.

Ins. Lat._ iv., Berlin, 1871). The subject matter of these scribblings

is much the same as that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys,

street idlers and the casual "tripper." The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote

out lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from Virgil for

memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, "sportsmen"

scribbled the names of horses they had been "tipped," and wrote those of

their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse is frequent, and rude

caricatures are found, such as that of one Peregrinus with an enormous

nose, or of Naso or Nasso with hardly any. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes

up his election address and appeals to the _pilicrepi_ or ball-players

for their votes for him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for

lovers in dejection or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius

appear to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt the

nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome near the _Porta

Portuensis_ has been found an inscription begging people not to scribble

(_scariphare_) on the walls.

Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to the

philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the various

alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasionally guide the

archaeologist to the date of the building on which they appear, but they

are chiefly valuable for the light they throw on the everyday life of

the "man in the street" of the period, and for the intimate details of

customs and institutions which no literature or formal inscriptions can

give. The graffiti dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in

this respect particularly noteworthy; the rude drawings such as that of

the _secutor_ caught in the net of the _retiarius_ and lying entirely at

his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents of these

shows were like than any account in words (see Garrucci, _op. cit._,

Pls. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, _Pompeii in Leben und Kunst_, 2nd ed., 1908, ch.

xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome, near the church of S.

Crisogono, was discovered the guardhouse (_excubitorium_) of the seventh

cohort of the city police (_vigiles_), the walls being covered by the

scribblings of the guards, illustrating in detail the daily routine, the

hardships and dangers, and the feelings of the men towards their

officers (W. Henzen, "L' Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili"

in _Bull. Inst._ 1867, and _Annali Inst._, 1874; see also R. Lanciani,

_Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries_, 230, and _Ruins and

Excavations of Ancient Rome_, 1897, 548). The most famous graffito yet

discovered is that generally accepted as representing a caricature of

Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the Domus Gelotiana on the

Palatine in 1857, and now preserved in the Kircherian Museum of the

Collegio Romano. Deeply scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad

in the short _tunica_ with one hand upraised in salutation to another

figure, with the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a

cross; beneath is written in rude Greek letters "Anaxamenos worships

(his) god." It has been suggested that this represents an adherent of

some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal-headed deities of Egypt

(see Ferd. Becker, _Das Spottcrucifix der romischen Kaiserpalaste_,

Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, _Das Spottcrucifix vom Palatin_, Freiburg in

Breisgau, 1872; and Visconti and Lanciani, _Guida del Palatino_).

There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti, in

the _Edinburgh Review_, October 1859, vol. cx. (C. We.)

GRAFLY, CHARLES (1862- ), American sculptor, was born at Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December 1862. He was a pupil of the schools

of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri

M. Chapu and Jean Dampt, and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He

received an Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his

"Mauvais Presage," now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal

at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893, Atlanta,

1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor, Pennsylvania Academy of

the Fine Arts), 1899. In 1892 he became instructor in sculpture at the

Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at

the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the

National Academy of Design in 1905. His better-known works include:

"General Reynolds," Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; "Fountain of Man"

(made for the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo); "From Generation to

Generation"; "Symbol of Life"; "Vulture of War," and many portrait

busts.

GRAFRATH, a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach, 14 m. E. of

Dusseldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop. (1905) 9030. It has a

Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, and there was an abbey here

from 1185 to 1803. The principal industries are iron and steel, while

weaving is carried on in the town.

GRAFT (a modified form of the earlier "graff," through the French from

the Late Lat. _graphium_, a stylus or pencil), a small branch, shoot or

"scion," transferred from one plant or tree to another, the "stock," and

inserted in it so that the two unite (see HORTICULTURE). The name was

adopted from the resemblance in shape of the "graft" to a pencil. The

transfer of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another

part of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows is

also known as "grafting," and is frequently practised in modern surgery.

The word is applied, in carpentry, to an attachment of the ends of

timbers, and, as a nautical term, to the "whipping" or "pointing" of a

rope's end with fine twine to prevent unravelling. "Graft" is used as a

slang term, in England, for a "piece of hard work." In American usage

Webster's _Dictionary_ (ed. 1904) defines the word as "the act of any

one, especially an official or public employe, by which he procures

money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position; also the

surreptitious gain thus procured." It is thus a word embracing blackmail

and illicit commission. The origin of the English use of the word is

probably an obsolete word "graft," a portion of earth thrown up by a

spade, from the Teutonic root meaning "to dig," seen in German _graben_,

and English "grave."

GRAFTON, DUKES OF. The English dukes of Grafton are descended from HENRY

FITZROY (1663-1690), the natural son of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers

(countess of Castlemaine and duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was

married to the daughter and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created

earl of Euston; in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. He was brought

up as a sailor, and saw military service at the siege of Luxemburg in

1684. At James II.'s coronation he was lord high constable. In the

rebellion of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the royal troops in

Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill (duke of Marlborough),

and joined William of Orange against the king. He died of a wound

received at the storming of Cork, while leading William's forces, being

succeeded as 2nd duke by his son Charles (1682-1757).

AUGUSTUS HENRY FITZROY, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811), one of the

leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the 2nd duke, and

was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He first became known in

politics as an opponent of Lord Bute; in 1765 he was secretary of state

under the marquis of Rockingham; but he retired next year, and Pitt

(becoming earl of Chatham) formed a ministry in which Grafton was first

lord of the treasury (1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham's

illness at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective

leader, but political differences and the attacks of "Junius" led to his

resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy seal in Lord North's

ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being in favour of conciliatory

action towards the American colonists. In the Rockingham ministry of

1782 he was again lord privy seal. In later years he was a prominent

Unitarian.

Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous other

children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitzroy (1764-1829),

whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858), governor of New South Wales,

and Robert Fitzroy (q.v.), the hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th

duke's son, who succeeded as 5th duke, was father of the 6th and 7th

dukes.

The 3rd duke left in manuscript a _Memoir_ of his public career, of

which extracts have been printed in Stanhope's _History_, Walpole's

_Memories of George III._ (Appendix, vol. iv.), and Campbell's _Lives

of the Chancellors_.

GRAFTON, RICHARD (d. 1572). English printer and chronicler, was probably

born about 1513. He received the freedom of the Grocers' Company in

1534. Miles Coverdale's version of the Bible had first been printed in

1535. Grafton was early brought into touch with the leaders of religious

reform, and in 1537 he undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch,

to produce a modified version of Coverdale's text, generally known as

Matthew's Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris to reprint Coverdale's

revised edition (1538). There Whitchurch and he began to print the folio

known as the Great Bible by special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from

the French government. Suddenly, however, the work was officially

stopped and the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell

eventually bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed

in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under his

direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton and Whitchurch

secured the exclusive right of printing church service books, and on the

accession of Edward VI. he was appointed king's printer, an office which

he retained throughout the reign. In this capacity he produced _The

Booke of the Common Praier and Administracion of the Sacramentes, and

other Rites and Ceremonies of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche

of Englande_ (1549 fol.), and _Actes of Parliament_ (1552 and 1553). In

1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey's proclamation and signed himself the

queen's printer. For this he was imprisoned for a short time, and he

seems thereafter to have retired from active business. His historical

works include a continuation (1543) of Hardyng's Chronicle from the

beginning of the reign of Edward IV. down to Grafton's own times. He is

said to have taken considerable liberties with the original, and may

practically be regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in

1548 Edward Hall's _Union of the ... Families of Lancastre and Yorke_,

adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After he retired from

the printing business he published _An Abridgement of the Chronicles of

England_ (1562), _Manuell of the Chronicles of England_ (1565),

_Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the Affayres of England_

(1568). In these books he chiefly adapted the work of his predecessors,

but in some cases he gives detailed accounts of contemporary events. His

name frequently appears in the records of St Bartholomew's and Christ's

hospitals, and in 1553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King

Edward's foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the City

in Parliament, and in 1562-1563 he sat for Coventry.

An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A.

Kingdon under the auspices of the Grocers' Company, with the title

_Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, &c._, in continuation

of _Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz and R. Grafton_ (1895). His

_Chronicle at large_ was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in 1809.

GRAFTON, a city of Clarence county, New South Wales, lying on both sides

of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m. from its mouth, 342 m.

N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901) 4174, South Grafton, 976. The two

sections, North Grafton and South Grafton, form separate municipalities.

The river is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate

burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The entrance

to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton is the seat of the

Anglican joint-bishopric of Grafton and Armidale, and of a Roman

Catholic bishopric created in 1888, both of which have fine cathedrals.

Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are important industries, and there are

several sugar-mills in the neighbourhood; great numbers of horses, also,

are bred for the Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and

fruits are also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney.

There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &c. The city became a

municipality in 1859.

GRAFTON, a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county, Massachusetts,

U.S.A. Pop. (1905) 5052; (1910) 5705. It is served by the New York, New

Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban

electric lines. The township contains several villages (including

Grafton, North Grafton, Saundersville, Fisherville and Farnumsville);

the principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The

villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many summer

residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public library. There is

ample water power from the Blackstone river and its tributaries, and

among the manufactures of Grafton are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &c.

Within what is now Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of

Hassanamesit. John Eliot, the "apostle to the Indians," visited it soon

after 1651, and organized the third of his bands of "praying Indians"

there; in 1671 he established a church for them, the second of the kind

in New England, and also a school. In 1654 the Massachusetts General

Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive use, a tract of about

4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole proprietors until 1718, when

they sold a small farm to Elisha Johnson, the first permanent white

settler in the neighbourhood. In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro,

Sudbury, Concord and Stowe, with the permission of the General Court,

bought from the Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to

establish forty English families on the tract within three years, and to

maintain a church and school of which the Indians should have free use.

The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour of the

2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded Indians died about

1825.

GRAFTON, a city and the county-seat of Taylor county, West Virginia,

U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of Wheeling. Pop.

(1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, including 226 foreign-born and 162 negroes;

(1910) 7563. It is served by four divisions of the Baltimore & Ohio

railway, which maintains extensive car shops here. The city is about

1000 ft. above sea-level. It has a small national cemetery, and about 4

m. W., at Pruntytown, is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is

situated near large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among

its manufactures are machine-shop and foundry products, window glass and

pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-mill products. The first

settlement was made about 1852, and Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and

chartered as a city in 1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city

were increased by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900,

796), of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory.

GRAHAM, SIR GERALD (1831-1899), British general, was born on the 27th of

June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was educated at Dresden and Woolwich

Academy, and entered the Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with

distinction through the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the

battles of the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches

before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry at

the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism on numerous occasions.

He also received the Legion of Honour, and was promoted to a brevet

majority. In the China War of 1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho

and Tang-ku, the storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely

wounded, and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and

C.B.). Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties until

1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works for barracks at

the war office, a position he held until his promotion to major-general

in 1881. In command of the advanced force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the

brunt of the fighting, was present at the action of Magfar, commanded at

the first battle of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his

brigade at Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received

the K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the expedition

to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful battles of El Teb and

Tamai. On his return home he received the thanks of parliament and was

made a lieutenant-general for distinguished service in the field. In

1885 he commanded the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin

and Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the

expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.). In 1896 he

was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant Royal Engineers. He died

on the 17th of December 1899. He published in 1875 a translation of

Goetze's _Operations of the German Engineers in 1870-1871_, and in 1887

_Last Words with Gordon_.

GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792-1861), British statesman,

son of a baronet, was born at Naworth, Cumberland, on the 1st of June

1792, and was educated at Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting

the university, while making the "grand tour" abroad, he became private

secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England in

1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the Whig

interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820. In 1824 he

succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered parliament as

representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon exchanged for the

county of Cumberland. In the same year he published a pamphlet entitled

"Corn and Currency," which brought him into prominence as a man of

advanced Liberal opinions; and he became one of the most energetic

advocates in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl

Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of the

admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he sat for the

eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dissensions on the Irish

Church question led to his withdrawal from the ministry in 1834, and

ultimately to his joining the Conservative party. Rejected by his former

constituents in 1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841

for Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert Peel

as secretary of state for the home department, a post he retained until

1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable odium in Scotland, by

his unconciliating policy on the church question prior to the

"disruption" of 1843; and in 1844 the detention and opening of letters

at the post-office by his warrant raised a storm of public indignation,

which was hardly allayed by the favourable report of a parliamentary

committee of investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but

in the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen's cabinet as first lord of

the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short time in the

Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of a select committee of

inquiry into the conduct of the Russian war ultimately led to his

withdrawal from official life. He continued as a private member to

exercise a considerable influence on parliamentary opinion. He died at

Netherby, Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861.

His _Life_, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907.

GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794-1851), American dietarian, was born in Suffield,

Connecticut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst College, and was ordained to

the Presbyterian ministry in 1826, but he seems to have preached but

little. He became an ardent advocate of temperance reform and of

vegetarianism, having persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause

of abnormal cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he

died at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 11th of September 1851. His

name is now remembered because of his advocacy of unbolted (Graham)

flour, and as the originator of "Graham bread." But his reform was much

broader than this. He urged, primarily, physiological education, and in

his _Science of Human Life_ (1836; republished, with biographical

memoir, 1858) furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had

carefully planned a complete regimen including many details besides a

strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding House was opened in New

York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath Nicholson, who published _Nature's

Own Book_ (2nd ed., 1835) giving Graham's rules for boarders; and in

Boston a Graham House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street.

There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American

Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly

called _The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to

illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science

of human life as taught by Sylvester Graham_, edited by David

Campbell. Graham wrote _Essay on Cholera_ (1832); _The Esculapian

Tablets of the Nineteenth Century_ (1834); _Lectures to Young Men on

Chastity_ (2nd ed., 1837); and _Bread and Bread Making_; and projected

a work designed to show that his system was not counter to the Holy

Scriptures.

GRAHAM, THOMAS (1805-1869), British chemist, born at Glasgow on the 20th

of December 1805, was the son of a merchant of that city. In 1819 he

entered the university of Glasgow with the intention of becoming a

minister of the Established Church. But under the influence of Thomas

Thomson (1773-1852), the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste

for experimental science and especially for molecular physics, a subject

which formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After

graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of Professor T.

C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow gave lessons in

mathematics, and subsequently chemistry, until the year 1829, when he

was appointed lecturer in the Mechanics' Institute. In 1830 he succeeded

Dr Andrew Ure (1778-1857) as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian

Institution, and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was

transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College, London.

There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir John Herschel as

Master of the Mint, a post he held until his death on the 16th of

September 1869. The onerous duties his work at the Mint entailed

severely tried his energies, and in quitting a purely scientific career

he was subjected to the cares of official life, for which he was not

fitted by temperament. The researches, however, which he conducted

between 1861 and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he

engaged. Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, and a

corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847, while Oxford

made him a D. C. L. in 1855. He took a leading part in the foundation of

the London Chemical and the Cavendish societies, and served as first

president of both, in 1841 and 1846. Towards the close of his life the

presidency of the Royal Society was offered him, but his failing health

caused him to decline the honour.

Graham's work is remarkable at once for its originality and for the

simplicity of the methods employed obtaining most important results. He

communicated papers to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow before the

work of that society was recorded in _Transactions_, but his first

published paper, "On the Absorption of Gases by Liquids," appeared in

the _Annals of Philosophy_ for 1826. The subject with which his name is

most prominently associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first

paper on this subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment

had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of gases.

"Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in interesting

speculations, the experimental information we possess on the subject

amounts to little more than the well-established fact that gases of a

different nature when brought into contact do not arrange themselves

according to their density, but they spontaneously diffuse through each

other so as to remain in an intimate state of mixture for any length of

time." For the fissured jar of J. W. Dobereiner he substituted a glass

tube closed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple

appliance he developed the law now known by his name "that the diffusion

rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their density." (See

DIFFUSION.) He further studied the passage of gases by transpiration

through fine tubes, and by effusion through a minute hole in a platinum

disk, and was enabled to show that gas may enter a vacuum in three

different ways: (1) by the molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of

which a gas penetrates through the pores of a disk of compressed

graphite; (2) by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a

platinum disk the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being

similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is usually

carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity many thousand

times as great as is demonstrable by the latter; and (3) by the peculiar

rate of passage due to transpiration through fine tubes, in which the

ratios appear to be in direct relation with no other known property of

the same gases--thus hydrogen has exactly double the transpiration rate

of nitrogen, the relation of those gases as to density being as 1:14. He

subsequently examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions

of india-rubber, unglazed earthenware and plates of metals such as

palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septa neither by

diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but in virtue of a

selective absorption which the septa appear to exert on the gases in

contact with them. By this means ("atmolysis") he was enabled partially

to separate oxygen from air.

His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine the

spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the experiments he

divided bodies into two classes--crystalloids, such as common salt, and

colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type--the former having high and the

latter low diffusibility. He also proved that the process of liquid

diffusion causes partial decomposition of certain chemical compounds,

the potassium sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium

sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt. He also

extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids, adopting the

method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poiseuille. He found that

dilution with water does not effect proportionate alteration in the

transpiration velocities of different liquids, and a certain

determinable degree of dilution retards the transpiration velocity.

With regard to Graham's more purely chemical work, in 1833 he showed

that phosphoric anhydride and water form three distinct acids, and he

thus established the existence of polybasic acids, in each of which one

or more equivalents of hydrogen are replaceable by certain metals (see

ACID). In 1835 he published the results of an examination of the

properties of water of crystallization as a constituent of salts. Not

the least interesting part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain

definite salts with alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of

alcoholates was given. A brief paper entitled "Speculative Ideas on the

Constitution of Matter" (1863) possesses special interest in connexion

with work done since his death, because in it he expressed the view that

the various kinds of matter now recognized as different elementary

substances may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic molecule in

different conditions of movement.

Graham's _Elements of Chemistry_, first published in 1833, went

through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled

under J. Otto's direction. His _Chemical and Physical Researches_ were

collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and printed "for

presentation only" at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith contributing to the

volume a valuable preface and analysis of its contents. See also T. E.

Thorpe, _Essays in Historical Chemistry_ (1902).

GRAHAME, JAMES (1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in Glasgow on the

22nd of April 1765, the son of a successful lawyer. After completing his

literary course at Glasgow university, Grahame went in 1784 to

Edinburgh, where he qualified as writer to the signet, and subsequently

for the Scottish bar, of which he was elected a member in 1795. But his

preferences had always been for the Church, and when he was forty-four

he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton,

Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works include a

dramatic poem, _Mary Queen of Scots_ (1801), _The Sabbath_ (1804),

_British Georgics_ (1804), _The Birds of Scotland_ (1806), and _Poems on

the Abolition of the Slave Trade_ (1810). His principal work, _The

Sabbath_, a sacred and descriptive poem in blank verse, is characterized

by devotional feeling and by happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In

the notes to his poems he expresses enlightened views on popular

education, the criminal law and other public questions. He was

emphatically a friend of humanity--a philanthropist as well as a poet.

He died in Glasgow on the 14th of September 1811.

GRAHAM'S DYKE (or SHEUGH = trench), a local name for the Roman fortified

frontier, consisting of rampart, forts and road, which ran across the

narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth to the Clyde (about 36 m.),

and formed from A.D. 140 till about 185 the northern frontier of Roman

Britain. The name is locally explained as recording a victorious assault

on the defences by one Robert Graham and his men; it has also been

connected with the Grampian Hills and the Latin surveying term _groma_.

But, as is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke (Fordun,

A.D. 1385), it is the same as the term Grim's Ditch which occurs several

times in England in connexion with early ramparts--for example, near

Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between Berkhampstead (Herts) and

Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might

be credited with the wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short

periods of time. By antiquaries the Graham's Dyke is usually styled the

Wall of Pius or the Antonine Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus Pius,

in whose reign it was constructed. See further BRITAIN: _Roman_.

(F. J. H.)

GRAHAM'S TOWN, a city of South Africa, the administrative centre for the

eastern part of the Cape province, 106 m. by rail N.E. of Port Elizabeth

and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of Port Alfred. Pop. (1904) 13,887, of whom

7283 were whites and 1837 were electors. The town is built in a basin of

the grassy hills forming the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above

sea-level. It is a pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy

climate, and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The

streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the High Street

are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St George, built from

designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemoration Chapel, the chief place

of worship of the Wesleyans, erected by the British emigrants of 1820.

The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to the

left of the High Street. The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a

square clock tower built on arches over the pavement. Graham's Town is

one of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides the

public schools and the Rhodes University College (which in 1904 took

over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St Andrew's College),

scholastic institutions are maintained by religious bodies. The town

possesses two large hospitals, which receive patients from all parts of

South Africa, and the government bacteriological institute. It is the

centre of trade for an extensive pastoral and agricultural district.

Owing to the sour quality of the herbage in the surrounding _zuurveld_,

stock-breeding and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent

replaced by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham's Town is the

most important entrepot. Dairy farming is much practised in the

neighbourhood.

In 1812 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters of the

British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape Colony from

the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after Colonel John Graham

(1778-1821), then commanding the forces. (Graham had commanded the light

infantry battalion at the taking of the Cape by the British in the

action of the 6th of January 1806. He also took part in campaigns in

Italy and Holland during the Napoleonic wars.) In 1819 an attempt was

made by the Kaffirs to surprise Graham's Town, and 10,000 men attacked

it, but they were repulsed by the garrison, which numbered not more than

320 men, infantry and artillery, under Lieut.-Colonel (afterwards

General Sir) Thomas Willshire. In 1822 the town was chosen as the

headquarters of the 4000 British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony

in 1820. It has maintained its position as the most important inland

town of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape

parliament met in Graham's Town, the only instance of the legislature

sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed by a municipality.

The rateable value in 1906 was L891,536 and the rate levied 2-1/2d. in

the pound.

See T. Sheffield, _The Story of the Settlement ..._ (2nd ed., Graham's

Town, 1884); C. T. Campbell, _British South Africa ... with notices of

some of the British Settlers of 1820_ (London, 1897).

GRAIL, THE HOLY, the famous talisman of Arthurian romance, the object of

quest on the part of the knights of the Round Table. It is mainly, if

not wholly, known to English readers through the medium of Malory's

translation of the French _Quete du Saint Graal_, where it is the cup or

chalice of the Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the

wounds of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved.

Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these texts

an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature and origin of

the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to determine the precise

value of these differing versions.[1] Broadly speaking the Grail

romances have been divided into two main classes: (1) those dealing with

the search for the Grail, the _Quest_, and (2) those relating to its

early history. These latter appear to be dependent on the former, for

whereas we may have a _Quest_ romance without any insistence on the

previous history of the Grail, that history is never found without some

allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its

successful termination. The _Quest_ versions again fall into three

distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero who is

respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most important and

interesting group is that connected with Perceval, and he was regarded

as the original Grail hero, Gawain being, as it were, his understudy.

Recent discoveries, however, point to a different conclusion, and

indicate that the _Gawain_ stories represent an early tradition, and

that we must seek in them rather than in the _Perceval_ versions for

indications as to the ultimate origin of the Grail.

The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will be seen

from the following summary.

1. GAWAIN, included in the continuation to Chretien's _Perceval_ by

Wauchier de Denain, and attributed to Bleheris the Welshman, who is

probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus Cambrensis, and

considerably earlier than Chretien de Troyes. Here the Grail is a

food-providing, self-acting talisman, the precise nature of which is not

specified; it is designated as the "rich" Grail, and serves the king and

his court _sans serjant et sans seneschal_, the butlers providing the

guests with wine. In another version, given at an earlier point of the

same continuation, but apparently deriving from a later source, the

Grail is borne in procession by a weeping maiden, and is called the

"holy" Grail, but no details as to its history or character are given.

In a third version, that of _Diu Crone_, a long and confused romance,

the origin of which has not been determined, the Grail appears as a

reliquary, in which the Host is presented to the king, who once a year

partakes alike of it and of the blood which flows from the lance.

Another account is given in the prose _Lancelot_, but here Gawain has

been deposed from his post as first hero of the court, and, as is to be

expected from the treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit

ends in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with the

atmosphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the _Quete_, and

is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These are the _Gawain_

versions.

2. PERCEVAL.--The most important _Perceval_ text is the _Conte del

Grael_, or _Perceval le Galois_ of Chretien de Troyes. Here the Grail is

wrought of gold richly set with precious stones; it is carried in solemn

procession, and the light issuing from it extinguishes that of the

candles. What it is is not explained, but inasmuch as it is the vehicle

in which is conveyed the Host on which the father of the Fisher king

depends for nutriment, it seems not improbable that here, as in _Diu

Crone_, it is to be understood as a reliquary. In the _Parzival_ of

Wolfram von Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with

that of Chretien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a

precious stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the

guardianship of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a

body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and youth

preserving talisman--no man may die within eight days of beholding it,

and the maiden who bears it retains perennial youth--and an oracle

choosing its own servants, and indicating whom the Grail king shall wed.

The sole link with the Christian tradition is the statement that its

virtue is renewed every Good Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven.

The discrepancy between this and the other Grail romances is most

startling.

In the short prose romance known as the "Didot" _Perceval_ we have, for

the first time, the whole history of the relic logically set forth. The

_Perceval_ forms the third and concluding section of a group of short

romances, the two preceding being the _Joseph of Arimathea_ and the

_Merlin_. In the first we have the precise history of the Grail, how it

was the dish of the Last Supper, confided by our Lord to the care of

Joseph, whom he miraculously visited in the prison to which he had been

committed by the Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his

brother-in-law Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the

final winner and guardian of the relic. The _Merlin_ forms the

connecting thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and the

chivalric atmosphere of Arthur's court; and finally, in the _Perceval_,

the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned by Merlin of the

quest which awaits him and which he achieves after various adventures.

In the _Perlesvaus_ the Grail is the same, but the working out of the

scheme is much more complex; a son of Joseph of Arimathea, Josephe, is

introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar to that used so

effectively in the _Parzival_.

3. GALAHAD.--The _Quete du Saint Graal_, the only romance of which

Galahad is the hero, is dependent on and a completion of the _Lancelot_

development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot, as lover of Guinevere,

could not be permitted to achieve so spiritual an emprise, yet as

leading knight of Arthur's court it was impossible to allow him to be

surpassed by another. Hence the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by

the Grail king's daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the

quest, foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his

father's fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail-winner, could

not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail, the chalice of the

Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the _Gawain_ stories,

self-acting and food-supplying.

The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and the early

history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and dealing only with the

early history, is the _Grand Saint Graal_, a work of interminable

length, based upon the _Joseph of Arimathea_, which has undergone

numerous revisions and amplifications: its precise relation to the

_Lancelot_, with which it has now much matter in common, is not easy to

determine.

To be classed also under the head of early history are certain

interpolations in the MSS. of the _Perceval_, where we find the _Joseph_

tradition, but in a somewhat different form, e.g. he is said to have

caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of receiving the holy blood.

With this account is also connected the legend of the _Volto Santo_ of

Lucca, a crucifix said to have been carved by Nicodemus. In the

conclusion to Chretien's poem, composed by Manessier some fifty years

later, the Grail is said to have _followed_ Joseph to Britain, how, is

not explained. Another continuation by Gerbert, interpolated between

those of Wauchier and Manessier, relates how the Grail was brought to

Britain by Perceval's mother in the companionship of Joseph.

It will be seen that with the exception of the _Grand Saint Graal_,

which has now been practically converted into an introduction to the

_Quete_, no two versions agree with each other; indeed, with the

exception of the oldest _Gawain-Grail_ visit, that due to Bleheris, they

do not agree with themselves, but all show, more or less, the influence

of different and discordant versions. Why should the vessel of the Last

Supper, jealously guarded at Castle Corbenic, visit Arthur's court

independently? Why does a sacred relic provide purely material food?

What connexion can there be between a precious stone, a _baetylus_, as

Dr Hagen has convincingly shown, and Good Friday? These, and such

questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn.

Numerous attempts have been made to solve these problems, and to

construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so far the

difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would admit of the

practically simultaneous existence of apparently contradictory features.

At one time considered as an introduction from the East, the theory of

the Grail as an Oriental talisman has now been discarded, and the expert

opinion of the day may be said to fall into two groups: (1) those who

hold the Grail to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel

which has accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained,

acquired certain folk-lore characteristics; and (2) those who hold, on

the contrary, that the Grail is _aborigine_ folk-lore and Celtic, and

that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather than an

essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth in the work

of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of Mr Alfred Nutt, the

two constituting the only _travaux d'ensemble_ which have yet appeared

on the subject. It now seems probable that both are in a measure

correct, and that the ultimate solution will be recognized to lie in a

blending of two originally independent streams of tradition. The

researches of Professor Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in

England have amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on

popular thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation

worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called mysteries

of Adonis. Here the ordinary processes of nature and progression of the

seasons were symbolized under the figure of the death and resuscitation

of the god. These rites are found all over the world, and in his

monumental work, _The Golden Bough_, Dr Frazer has traced a host of

extant beliefs and practices to this source. The earliest form of the

Grail story, the _Gawain_-Bleheris version, exhibits a marked affinity

with the characteristic features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we

have a castle on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of

which is never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted

country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the dead man,

and which is restored to fruitfulness when the quester asks the meaning

of the marvels he beholds (the two features of the weeping women and the

wasted land being retained in versions where they have no significance);

finally the mysterious food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common

feast--one and all of these features may be explained as survivals of

the Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key to

the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature myth:

Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero; Dr Lewis Mott has

pointed out the correspondence between the so-called Round Table sites

and the ritual of nature worship; but it is only with the discovery of

the existence of Bleheris as reputed authority for Arthurian tradition,

and the consequent recognition that the Grail story connected with his

name is the earliest form of the legend, that we have secured a solid

basis for such theories.

With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research has

again aided us--we know now that a legend similar in all respects to the

Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely current at least a century

before our earliest Grail texts. The story with Nicodemus as protagonist

is told of the _Saint-Sang_ relic at Fecamp; and, as stated already, a

similar origin is ascribed to the _Volto Santo_ at Lucca. In this

latter case the legend professes to date from the 8th century, and

scholars who have examined the texts in their present form consider that

there may be solid ground for this attribution. It is thus demonstrable

that the material for our Grail legend, in its present form, existed

long anterior to any extant text, and there is no improbability in

holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries which had assumed

the form of a popular folk-tale, became finally Christianized by

combination with an equally popular ecclesiastical legend, the point of

contact being the vessel of the common ritual feast. Nor can there be

much doubt that in this process of combination the Fecamp legend played

an important role. The best and fullest of the _Perceval_ MSS. refer to

a book written at Fecamp as source for certain _Perceval_ adventures.

What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact that certain

special Fecamp relics, silver knives, appear in the Grail procession of

the _Parzival_, it seems most probable that it was a _Perceval_-Grail

story. The relations between the famous Benedictine abbey and the

English court both before and after the Conquest were of an intimate

character. Legends of the part played by Joseph of Arimathea in the

conversion of Britain are closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks

of which foundation showed, in the 12th century, considerable literary

activity, and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the

present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glastonbury

elaborating ideas borrowed from Fecamp. This much is certain, that

between the _Saint-Sang_ of Fecamp, the _Volto Santo_ of Lucca, and the

Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link, the precise nature of

which has yet to be determined. The two former were popular objects of

pilgrimage; was the third originally intended to serve the same purpose

by attracting attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of

the Grail, Joseph of Arimathea?

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the Gawain Grail visits see the Potvin edition of

the _Perceval_, which, however, only gives the Bleheris version; the

second visit is found in the best and most complete MSS., such as

12,576 and 12,577 (_Fonds francais_) of the Paris library. _Diu

Crone_, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852). vol. vi. of _Arthurian

Romances_ (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, _Diu Crone_ and

_Prose Lancelot_ visits.

The _Conte del Graal_, or _Perceval_, is only accessible in the

edition of M. Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871). The Mons MS., from which

this has been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and

untrustworthy text. _Parzival_, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, has been

frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877), in

_Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters_, contains full notes and a

glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K.

Lachmann (1891), Leitzmann (1902-1903) and E. Martin (1903). There are

modern German translations by Simrock (very close to the original) and

Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with notes and appendices

by J. L. Weston. "Didot" _Perceval_, ed. Hucher, _Le Saint Graal_

(1875-1878), vol. i. _Perlesvaus_ was printed by Potvin, under the

title of _Perceval le Gallois_, in vol. i. of the edition above

referred to; a Welsh version from the Hengwert MS. was published with

translation by Canon R. Williams (2 vols., 1876-1892). Under the title

of _The High History of the Holy Grail_ a fine version was published

by Dr Sebastian Evans in the Temple Classics (2 vols., 1898). The

_Grand Saint Graal_ was published by Hucher as given above; this

edition includes the _Joseph of Arimathea_. A 15th century metrical

English adaptation by one Henry Lovelich, was printed by Dr Furnivall

for the Roxburghe Club 1861-1863; a new edition was undertaken for the

Early English Text Society. _Quete du Saint Graal_ can best be studied

in Malory's somewhat abridged translation, books xiii.-xviii. of the

_Morte Arthur_. It has also been printed by Dr Furnivall for the

Roxburghe Club, from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these

texts is, however, very good, and the student who can decipher old

Dutch would do well to read it in the metrical translation published

by Joenckbloet, _Roman van Lanceloet_, as the original here was

considerably fuller.

For general treatment of the subject see _Legend of Sir Perceval_, by

J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvii. (1906); _Studies on the Legend

of the Holy Grail_, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise treatment of

the subject by the same writer in No. 14 of _Popular Studies_ (1902);

Professor Birch-Hirschfeld's _Die Sage vom Gral_ (1877). The late

Professor Heinzel's _Die alt-franzosischen Gral-Romane_ contains a

mass of valuable matter, but is very confused and ill-arranged. For

the Fecamp legend see Leroux de Lincey's _Essai sur l'abbaye de

Fescamp_ (1840); for the _Volto Santo_ and kindred legends, Ernest von

Dobschutz, _Christus-Bilder_ (Leipzig, 1899). (J. L. W.)