FOOTNOTES:

[1] Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that

any one of the depraved forms is better than any other.

[2] None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or

permanent conquests; but the tribute sometimes paid by one state to

another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source

of corruption. Compare the remarks of Hume (_Essays_, part i. 3,

_That Politics may be reduced to a Science_), "free governments are

the most ruinous and oppressive for their provinces."

[3] Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to

have become the universal successor of the people. Some of the

peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only

on this view, e.g. the curious distinction between wrecks come to

land and wrecks still on water. The common right to wreckage was no

doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every

ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right

held of the crown by a vassal.

[4] See Bagehot's _English Constitution_; or, for a more recent

analysis, Sidney Low's _Governance of England_.

[5] For an account of the double chamber system in the state

legislatures see UNITED STATES: _Constitution and Government_, and

also S. G. Fisher, _The Evolution of the Constitution_ (Philadelphia,

1897).

[6] A government "defeat" may, of course, not really represent a

hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government

has obtained a reversal of the vote and has _not_ resigned.

GOVERNOR (from the Fr. _gouverneur_, from _gouverner_, O. Fr.

_governer_, Lat. _gubernare_, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in

general, one who governs or exercises authority; specifically, an

official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &c. In British

colonies or dependencies the representative of the crown is termed a

governor. Colonial governors are classed as governors-general, governors

and lieutenant-governors, according to the status of the colony or group

of colonies over which they preside. Their powers vary according to the

position which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority of

the crown. In the United States (q.v.) the official at the head of every

state government is called a governor.

GOW, NIEL (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parentage, famous as

a violinist and player of reels, but more so for the part he played in

preserving the old melodies of Scotland. His compositions, and those of

his four sons, Nathaniel, the most famous (1763-1831), William

(1751-1791), Andrew (1760-1803), and John (1764-1826), formed the "Gow

Collection," comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his sons, a

valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most important of

Niel's sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as the author of the

well-known "Caller Herrin," taken from the fishwives' cry, a tune to

which words were afterwards written by Lady Nairne. Nathaniel's son,

NIEL GOW junior (1795-1823), was the author of the famous songs "Flora

Macdonald's Lament" and "Cam' ye by Athol."

GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced age in 1408, so

that he may be presumed to have been born about 1330. He belonged to a

good Kentish family, but the suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the

poet is to be identified with a John Gower who was at one time possessed

of the manor of Kentwell is open to serious objections. There is no

evidence that he ever lived as a country gentleman, but he was

undoubtedly possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner

of the manors of Feltwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk. In a

document of 1382 he is called an "Esquier de Kent," and he was certainly

not in holy orders. That he was acquainted with Chaucer we know, first

because Chaucer in leaving England for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and

another to represent him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer

addressed his _Troilus and Criseide_ to Gower and Strode (whom he

addresses as "moral Gower" and "philosophical Strode") for criticism and

correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition of

Gower's _Confessio amantis_, "And gret wel Chaucer whan ye mete," &c.

There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion, based partly on the

subsequent omission of these lines and partly on the humorous reference

of Chaucer to Gower's _Confessio amantis_ in the introduction to the

_Man of Law's Tale_, that the friendship was broken by a quarrel. From

his Latin poem _Vox clamantis_ we know that he was deeply and painfully

interested in the peasants' rising of 1381; and by the alterations which

the author made in successive revisions of this work we can trace a

gradually increasing sense of disappointment in the youthful king, whom

he at first acquits of all responsibility for the state of the kingdom

on account of his tender age. That he became personally known to the

king we learn from his own statement in the first edition of the

_Confessio amantis_, where he says that he met the king upon the river,

was invited to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which

followed received the suggestion which led him to write his principal

English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the later

revisions of the _Confessio amantis_, that he was a great admirer of the

king's brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., whom

he came eventually to regard as a possible saviour of society from the

misgovernment of Richard II. We have a record that in 1393 he received a

collar from his favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that

the effigy upon Gower's tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the swan

badge which was used by Henry.

The first edition of the _Confessio amantis_ is dated 1390, and this

contains, at least in some copies, a secondary dedication to the then

earl of Derby. The later form, in which Henry became the sole object of

the dedication, is of the year 1393. Gower's political opinions are

still more strongly expressed in the _Cronica tripartita_.

In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the special licence

granted by the bishop of Winchester for the celebration of this marriage

in John Gower's private oratory we gather that he was then living in

lodgings assigned to him within the priory of St Mary Overy, and perhaps

also that he was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is

probable that this was not his first marriage, for there are indications

in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when that was

written. His will is dated the 15th of August 1408, and his death took

place very soon after this. He had been blind for some years before his

death. A magnificent tomb with a recumbent effigy was erected over his

grave in the chapel of St John the Baptist within the church of the

priory, now St Saviour's, Southwark, and this is still to be seen,

though not quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on

the tomb, as well as from other indications, it appears that he was a

considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely to the

rebuilding of the church.

The effigy on Gower's tomb rests its head upon a pile of three folio

volumes entitled _Speculum meditantis_, _Vox clamantis_ and _Confessio

amantis_. These are his three principal works. The first of these was

long supposed to have perished, but a copy of it was discovered in the

year 1895 under the title _Mirour de l'omme_. It is a French poem of

about 30,000 lines in twelve-line stanzas, and under the form of an

allegory of the human soul describes the seven deadly sins and their

opposing virtues, and then the various estates of man and the vices

incident to each, concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin

Mary, and with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God

and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part, but shows

considerable command over the language and a great facility in metrical

expression.

Gower's next work was the _Vox clamantis_ in Latin elegiac verse, in

which the author takes occasion from the peasants' insurrection of 1381

to deal again with the faults of the various classes of society. In the

earlier portion the insurrection itself is described in a rather vivid

manner, though under the form of an allegory: the remainder contains

much the same material as we have already seen in that part of the

French poem where the classes of society are described. Gower's Latin

verse is very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book

he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam, Peter de Riga

and others.

Gower's chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests upon his

English work, the _Confessio amantis_, in which he displays in his

native language a real gift as a story-teller. He is himself the lover

of his poem, in spite of his advancing years, and he makes his

confession to Genius, the priest of Venus, under the usual headings

supplied by the seven deadly sins. These with their several branches are

successively described, and the nature of them illustrated by tales,

which are directed to the illustration both of the general nature of the

sin, and of the particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he

receives at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of

Venus, for which his age renders him unfit. The idea is ingenious, and

there is often much quaintness of fancy in the application of moral

ideas to the relations of the lover and his mistress. The tales are

drawn from very various sources and are often extremely well told. The

metre is the short couplet, and it is extremely smooth and regular. The

great fault of the _Confessio amantis_ is the extent of its digressions,

especially in the fifth and seventh books.

Gower also wrote in 1397 a short series of French ballades on the virtue

of the married state (_Traitie pour essampler les amantz maries_), and

after the accession of Henry IV. he produced the _Cronica tripartita_, a

partisan account in Latin leonine hexameters of the events of the last

twelve years of the reign of Richard II. About the same time he

addressed an English poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (_In Praise

of Peace_), and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades

(_Cinkante Balades_), which deal with the conventional topics of love,

but are often graceful and even poetical in expression. Several

occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his life.

On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had considerable literary

powers; and though not a man of genius, and by no means to be compared

with Chaucer, yet he did good service in helping to establish the

standard literary language, which at the end of the 14th century took

the place of the Middle English dialects. The _Confessio amantis_ was

long regarded as a classic of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were

often mentioned side by side as the fathers of English poetry.

A complete edition of Gower's works in four volumes, edited by G. C.

Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume containing the

French works, the second and third the English, and the fourth the

Latin, with a biography. Before this the _Confessio amantis_ had been

published in the following editions: Caxton (1483); Berthelette (1532

and 1554); Chalmers, _British Poets_ (1810); Reinhold Pauli (1857); H.

Morley (1889, incomplete). The two series of French ballades and the

_Praise of Peace_ were printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1818, and the

_Vox clamantis_ and _Cronica tripartita_ were edited by H. O. Coxe for

the Roxburghe Club in 1850. The _Cronica tripartita_, the _Praise of

Peace_ and some of the minor Latin poems were printed in Wright's

_Political Poems_ (Rolls series, 14). The _Praise of Peace_ appeared

in the early folio editions of Chaucer, and has been edited also by Dr

Skeat in his _Chaucerian and other Pieces_. Reference may be made to

Todd's _Illustrations of the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer_;

the article (by Sir H. Nicolas) in the _Retrospective Review_ for

1828; _Observations on the Language of Chaucer and Gower_, by F. J.

Child; H. Morley's English Writers, iv.; Ten Brink's _History of Early

English Literature_, ii.; and Courthope's _History of English Poetry_,

i. (G. C. M.)

GOWER, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan, lying

between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between Breconshire and the sea,

its length from the Breconshire border to Worm's Head being 28 m., and

its breadth about 8 m. It corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower

(in Welsh _Gwyr_) which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other

commotes stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the

principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the country to

the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by its continued

inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural deaneries, West and

East Gower, being in the archdeaconry of Carmarthen. What is meant by

Gower in modern popular usage, however, is only the peninsular part or

"English Gower" (that is the Welsh _Bro-wyr_, as distinct from _Gwyr_

proper), roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying

mainly to the south of a line drawn from Swansea to Loughor.

The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their immense

deposits of animal remains, but their traces of man are far scantier,

those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave being the most

important. In the Roman period the river Tawe, or the great morass

between it and the Neath, probably formed the boundary between the

Silures and the Goidelic population to the west. The latter, reinforced

perhaps from Ireland, continued to be the dominant race in Gower till

their conquest or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of

Cunedda who introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries

later Scandinavian rovers raided the coasts, leaving traces of their

more or less temporary occupation in such place-names as Burry Holms,

Worms Head and Swansea, and probably also in some cliff earthworks.

About the year 1100 the conquest of Gower was undertaken by Henry de

Newburgh, first earl of Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de

Londres and others. His followers, who were mostly Englishmen from the

marches and Somersetshire with perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled

for the most part on the southern side of the peninsula, leaving the

Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically undisturbed.

These invaders were probably reinforced a little later by a small

detachment of the larger colony of Flemings which settled in south

Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which in some cases developed into

castles, were built for the protection of the various manors into which

the district was parcelled out, the castles of Swansea and Loughor being

ascribed to the earl of Warwick and that of Oystermouth to Maurice de

Londres. These were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during

the 12th and 13th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in 1113, by his

son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting in concert with

Llewelyn the Great in 1215, and by the last Prince Llewelyn in 1257.

With the Norman conquest the feudal system was introduced, and the

manors were held _in capite_ of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard

of the castle of Swansea, the _caput baroniae_.

About 1189 the lordship passed from the Warwick family to the crown and

was granted in 1203 by King John to William de Braose, in whose family

it remained for over 120 years except for three short intervals when it

was held for a second time by King John (1211-1215), by Llewelyn the

Great (1216-1223), and the Despensers (c. 1323-1326). In 1208 the Welsh

and English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of their

treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from King John,

who also visited the town of Swansea in 1210 and in 1215 granted its

merchants liberal privileges. In 1283 a number of de Braose's

tenants--unquestionably Welshmen--left Gower for the royal lordship of

Carmarthen, declaring that they would live under the king rather than

under a lord marcher. In the following year the king visited de Braose

at Oystermouth Castle, which seems to have been made the lord's chief

residence, after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn. Later on

the king's officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen

repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavouring to

reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with semi-regal

jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent of the new county. De

Braose resisted the claim and organized the English part of his lordship

on the lines of a county palatine, with its own _comitatus_ and chancery

held in Swansea Castle, the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by

himself. The inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown

against their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king,

who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into their alleged

grievances, but in the following year the de Braose of the time,

probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both to the burgesses of

Swansea and to the English and Welsh inhabitants of his "county" of

English Gower. He was the last lord seignior to live within the

seigniory, which passed from him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray.

Other troubles befell the de Braose barons and their successors in

title, for their right to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps,

representatives of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation

carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beauchamps being

actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was given in their

favour, till its reversal in 1396. It then reverted to the Mowbrays and

was held by them until the 4th duke of Norfolk exchanged it in 1489,

for lands in England, with William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The

latter's granddaughter brought it to her husband Charles Somerset, who

in 1506 was granted her father's subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow,

Raglan and Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present

lord, the duke of Beaufort.

Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by its inclusion

in 1535 in the county of Glamorgan as then reorganized; its chancery,

which from about the beginning of the 14th century had been located at

Oystermouth Castle, came to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535

and 1542 purported to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords

marchers as conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded

as private rights, have survived into modern times. For instance, the

seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till 1858, when

it was abolished by act of parliament, the appointment of coroner for

Gower is still vested in him, all writs are executed by the lord's

officers instead of by the officers of the sheriff for the county, and

the lord's rights to the foreshore, treasure trove, felon's goods and

wrecks are undiminished.

The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south and

south-west of its central ridge of Cefn y Bryn. It was this part that

was declared by Professor Freeman to be "more Teutonic than Kent

itself." The seaside fringe lying between this area and the town of

Swansea, as well as the extreme north-west of the peninsula, also became

anglicized at a comparatively early date, though the place-names and the

names of the inhabitants are still mainly Welsh. The present line of

demarcation between the two languages is one drawn from Swansea in a

W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It has remained

practically the same for several centuries, and is likely to continue

so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern outcrop of the coal

measures, the industrial population to the north being Welsh-speaking,

the agriculturists to the south being English. In 1901 the Gower rural

district (which includes the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of

Llanrhidian, with about three-sevenths of the total population) had

64.5% of the population above three years of age that spoke English

only, 5.2% that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as

compared with 17% speaking English only, 17.7% speaking Welsh only and

the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7% speaking

English only, 55.2% speaking Welsh only and the rest bilinguals in the

Pontardawe rural district, the last two districts constituting Welsh

Gower.

More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed common

land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is apparently capable of

cultivation. Besides the demesne manors of the lord seignior, six in

number, there are some twelve mesne manors and fees belonging to the

Penrice estate, and nearly twenty more belonging to various other

owners. The tenure is customary freehold, though in some cases described

as copyhold, and in the ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is

by borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller in

size than in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales, and

agriculture is still in a backward state.

In the Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of Goire as the

island home of the dead, a view which probably sprang up among the Celts

of Cornwall, to whom the peninsula would appear as an island. It is also

surmised by Sir John Rhys that Malory's Brandegore (i.e. Bran of Gower)

represents the Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, _Arthurian Legend_,

160, 329 et seq.). On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula,

is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur's Stone. The

unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty by Sir

Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower was a favourite

burial-place in early British times.

See Rev. J. D. Davies, _A History of West Gower_ (4 vols., 1877-1894);

Col. W. Ll-Morgan, _An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower_ (1899); an

article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled "Anglia

Trans-Walliana" in the _Saturday Review_ for May 20, 1876; "The

Signory of Gower" by G. T. Clark in _Archaeologia Cambrensis_ for

1893-1894; _The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey_, ed. by Baker and

Grant-Francis (1861-1870). (D. Ll. T.)

GOWN, properly the term for a loose outer garment formerly worn by

either sex but now generally for that worn by women. While "dress" is

the usual English word, except in such combinations as "tea-gown,"

"dressing-gown" and the like, where the original loose flowing nature of

the "gown" is referred to, "gown" is the common American word. "Gown"

comes from the O. Fr. _goune_ or _gonne_. The word appears in various

Romanic languages, cf. Ital. _gonna_. The medieval Lat. _gunna_ is used

of a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually adopted,

but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from the English. Outside

the ordinary use of the word, "gown" is the name for the distinctive

robes worn by holders of particular offices or by members of particular

professions or of universities, &c. (see ROBES).

GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN, 3RD EARL OF (c. 1577-1600), Scottish conspirator,

was the second son of William, 4th Lord Ruthven and 1st earl of Gowrie

(cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea, daughter of Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord

Methven. The Ruthven family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had

owned extensive estates in the time of William the Lion; the Ruthven

peerage dated from the year 1488. The 1st earl of Gowrie (? 1541-1584),

and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (c. 1520-1566), had both been

concerned in the murder of Rizzio in 1566; and both took an active part

on the side of the Kirk in the constant intrigues and factions among the

Scottish nobility of the period. The former had been the custodian of

Mary, queen of Scots, during her imprisonment in Loch Leven, where,

according to the queen, he had pestered her with amorous attentions; he

had also been the chief actor in the plot known as the "raid of Ruthven"

when King James VI. was treacherously seized while a guest at the castle

of Ruthven in 1582, and kept under restraint for several months while

the earl remained at the head of the government. Though pardoned for

this conspiracy he continued to plot against the king in conjunction

with the earls of Mar and Angus; and he was executed for high treason on

the 2nd of May 1584; his friends complaining that the confession on

which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise of pardon

from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of Gowrie, only

survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates, which had been

forfeited, having been restored to him in 1586.

When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom while still a

child, he inherited along with his vast estates family traditions of

treason and intrigue. There was also a popular belief, though without

foundation, that there was Tudor blood in his veins; and Burnet

afterwards asserted that Gowrie stood next in succession to the crown of

England after King James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him,

the young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming preachers,

who procured his election in 1592 as provost of Perth, a post that was

almost hereditary in the Ruthven family. He received an excellent

education at the grammar school of Perth and the university of

Edinburgh, where he was in the summer of 1593, about the time when his

mother, and his sister the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing

himself sword in hand into the king's bedchamber in Holyrood Palace. A

few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in offering to

serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile to the Scottish king;

and it is probable that he had also relations with the rebellious

Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already deeply engaged in treasonable

conspiracy when, in August 1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor,

William Rhynd, to study at the university of Padua. On his way home in

1599 he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer Theodore

Beza; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the English ambassador, who

reported him to Cecil as devoted to Elizabeth's service, and a nobleman

"of whom there may be exceeding use made." In Paris he may also at this

time have had further communication with the exiled Bothwell; in London

he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her ministers.

The Gowrie conspiracy.

These circumstances owe their importance to the light they throw on the

obscurity of the celebrated "Gowrie conspiracy," which resulted in the

slaughter of the earl and his brother by attendants of King James at

Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks after Gowrie's return to Scotland in

May 1600. This event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history. The

mystery is caused by the improbabilities inherent in any of the

alternative hypotheses suggested to account for the unquestionable facts

of the occurrence; the discrepancies in the evidence produced at the

time; the apparent lack of forethought or plan on the part of the chief

actors, whichever hypothesis be adopted, as well as the thoughtless

folly of their actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive,

whoever the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery

that have been suggested are three in number: first, that Gowrie and his

brother had concocted a plot to murder, or more probably to kidnap King

James, and that they lured him to Gowrie House for this purpose;

secondly, that James paid a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the

intention, which he carried out, of slaughtering the two Ruthvens; and

thirdly, that the tragedy was the outcome of an unpremeditated brawl

following high words between the king and the earl, or his brother. To

understand the relative probabilities of these hypotheses regard must be

had to the condition of Scotland in the year 1600 (see SCOTLAND:

_History_). Here it can only be recalled that plots to capture the

person of the sovereign for the purpose of coercing his actions were of

frequent occurrence, more than one of which had been successful, and in

several of which the Ruthven family had themselves taken an active part;

that the relations between England and Scotland were at this time more

than usually strained, and that the young earl of Gowrie was reckoned in

London among the adherents of Elizabeth; that the Kirk party, being at

variance with James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of

their cause, and had recently sent an agent to Paris to recall him to

Scotland as their leader; that Gowrie was believed to be James's rival

for the succession to the English crown. Moreover, as regards the

question of motive it is to be observed, on the one hand, that the

Ruthvens believed Gowrie's father to have been treacherously done to

death, and his widow insulted by the king's favourite minister; while,

on the other, James was indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of

Gowrie's estate, and popular gossip credited either Gowrie or his

brother, Alexander Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although

the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance connected

with the tragedy itself, has been exhaustively examined by historians of

the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted that the mystery has been

entirely dispelled; but, while it is improbable that complete certainty

will ever be arrived at as to whether the guilt lay with James or with

the Ruthven brothers, the most modern research in the light of materials

inaccessible or overlooked till the 20th century, points pretty clearly

to the conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and his

brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution, it follows

that King James was innocent of the blood of the Ruthvens; and it raises

the presumption that his own account of the occurrence was, in spite of

the glaring improbabilities which it involved, substantially true.

The slaughter of the Ruthvens.

The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in outline, as

follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose early to hunt in the

neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about 14 m. from Perth. Just as he was

setting forth in company with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir

Thomas Erskine and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known

as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of Gowrie, who

had ridden from Perth that morning to inform the king that he had met on

the previous day a man in possession of a pitcher full of foreign gold

coins, whom he had secretly locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven

urged the king to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to

take possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave credit

to the story, suspecting that the possessor of the coins was one of the

numerous Catholic agents at that time moving about Scotland in disguise.

Without giving a positive reply to Alexander Ruthven, James started to

hunt; but later in the morning he called Ruthven to him and said he

would ride to Perth when the hunting was over. Ruthven then despatched a

servant, Henderson, by whom he had been accompanied from Perth in the

early morning, to tell Gowrie that the king was coming to Gowrie House.

This messenger gave the information to Gowrie about ten o'clock in the

morning. Meanwhile Alexander Ruthven was urging the king to lose no

time, requesting him to keep the matter secret from his courtiers, and

to bring to Gowrie House as small a retinue as possible. James, with a

train of some fifteen persons, arrived at Gowrie House about one

o'clock, Alexander Ruthven having spurred forward for a mile or so to

announce the king's approach. But notwithstanding Henderson's warning

some three hours earlier, Gowrie had made no preparations for the king's

entertainment, thus giving the impression of having been taken by

surprise. After a meagre repast, for which he was kept waiting an hour,

James, forbidding his retainers to follow him, went with Alexander

Ruthven up the main staircase and passed through two chambers and two

doors, both of which Ruthven locked behind them, into a turret-room at

the angle of the house, with windows looking on the courtyard and the

street. Here James expected to find the mysterious prisoner with the

foreign gold. He found instead an armed man, who, as appeared later, was

none other than Gowrie's servant, Henderson. Alexander Ruthven

immediately put on his hat, and drawing Henderson's dagger, presented it

to the king's breast with threats of instant death if James opened a

window or called for help. An allusion by Ruthven to the execution of

his father, the 1st earl of Gowrie, drew from James a reproof of

Ruthven's ingratitude for various benefits conferred on his family.

Ruthven then uncovered his head, declaring that James's life should be

safe if he remained quiet; then, committing the king to the custody of

Henderson, he left the turret--ostensibly to consult Gowrie--and locked

the door behind him. While Ruthven was absent the king questioned

Henderson, who professed ignorance of any plot and of the purpose for

which he had been placed in the turret; he also at James's request

opened one of the windows, and was about to open the other when Ruthven

returned. Whether or not Alexander had seen his brother is uncertain.

But Gowrie had meantime spread the report below that the king had taken

horse and had ridden away; and the royal retinue were seeking their

horses to follow him. Alexander, on re-entering the turret, attempted to

bind James's hands; a struggle ensued, in the course of which the king

was seen at the window by some of his followers below in the street, who

also heard him cry "treason" and call for help to the earl of Mar.

Gowrie affected not to hear these cries, but kept asking what was the

matter. Lennox, Mar and most of the other lords and gentlemen ran up the

main staircase to the king's help, but were stopped by the locked door,

which they spent some time in trying to batter down. John Ramsay

(afterwards earl of Holdernesse), noticing a small dark stairway leading

directly to the inner chamber adjoining the turret, ran up it and found

the king struggling at grips with Ruthven. Drawing his dagger, Ramsay

wounded Ruthven, who was then pushed down the stairway by the king. Sir

Thomas Erskine, summoned by Ramsay, now followed up the small stairs

with Dr Hugh Herries, and these two coming upon the wounded Ruthven

despatched him with their swords. Gowrie, entering the courtyard with

his stabler Thomas Cranstoun and seeing his brother's body, rushed up

the staircase after Erskine and Herries, followed by Cranstoun and

others of his retainers; and in the melee Gowrie was killed. Some

commotion was caused in the town by the noise of these proceedings; but

it quickly subsided, though the king did not deem it safe to return to

Falkland for some hours.

The Sprot forgeries.

The tragedy caused intense excitement throughout Scotland, and the

investigation of the circumstances was followed with much interest in

England also, where all the details were reported to Elizabeth's

ministers. The preachers of the Kirk, whose influence in Scotland was

too extensive for the king to neglect, were only with the greatest

difficulty persuaded to accept James's account of the occurrence,

although he voluntarily submitted himself to cross-examination by one of

their number. Their belief, and that of their partisans, influenced no

doubt by political hostility to James, was that the king had invented

the story of a conspiracy by Gowrie to cover his own design to extirpate

the Ruthven family. James gave some colour to this belief, which has not

been entirely abandoned, by the relentless severity with which he

pursued the two younger, and unquestionably innocent, brothers of the

earl. Great efforts were made by the government to prove the complicity

of others in the plot. One noted and dissolute conspirator, Sir Robert

Logan of Restalrig, was posthumously convicted of having been privy to

the Gowrie conspiracy on the evidence of certain letters produced by a

notary, George Sprot, who swore they had been written by Logan to Gowrie

and others. These letters, which are still in existence, were in fact

forged by Sprot in imitation of Logan's handwriting; but the researches

of Andrew Lang have shown cause for suspecting that the most important

of them was either copied by Sprot from a genuine original by Logan, or

that it embodied the substance of such a letter. If this be correct, it

would appear that the conveyance of the king to Fast Castle, Logan's

impregnable fortress on the coast of Berwickshire, was part of the plot;

and it supplies, at all events, an additional piece of evidence to prove

the genuineness of the Gowrie conspiracy.

Gowrie's two younger brothers, William and Patrick Ruthven, fled to

England; and after the accession of James to the English throne William

escaped abroad, but Patrick was taken and imprisoned for nineteen years

in the Tower of London. Released in 1622, Patrick Ruthven resided first

at Cambridge and afterwards in Somersetshire, being granted a small

pension by the crown. He married Elizabeth Woodford, widow of the 1st

Lord Gerrard, by whom he had two sons and a daughter, Mary; the latter

entered the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, and married the famous

painter van Dyck, who painted several portraits of her. Patrick died in

poverty in a cell in the King's Bench in 1652, being buried as "Lord

Ruthven." His son, Patrick, presented a petition to Oliver Cromwell in

1656, in which, after reciting that the parliament of Scotland in 1641

had restored his father to the barony of Ruthven, he prayed that his

"extreme poverty" might be relieved by the bounty of the Protector.

See Andrew Lang, _James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery_ (London, 1902),

and the authorities there cited; Robert Pitcairn, _Criminal Trials in

Scotland_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1833); David Moysie, _Memoirs of the

Affairs of Scotland, 1577-1603_ (Edinburgh, 1830); Louis A. Barbe,

_The Tragedy of Gowrie House_ (London, 1887); Andrew Bisset, _Essays

on Historical Truth_ (London, 1871); David Calderwood, _History of the

Kirk of Scotland_ (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849); P. F. Tytler,

_History of Scotland_ (9 vols., Edinburgh, 1828-1843); John Hill

Burton, _History of Scotland_ (7 vols., Edinburgh, 1867-1870). W. A.

Craigie has edited as _Skotlands Rimur_ some Icelandic ballads

relating to the Gowrie conspiracy. He has also printed the Danish

translation of the official account of the conspiracy, which was

published at Copenhagen in 1601. (R. J. M.)

GOWRIE, a belt of fertile alluvial land (_Scotice_, "carse") of

Perthshire, Scotland. Occupying the northern shore of the Firth of Tay,

it has a generally north-easterly trend and extends from the eastern

boundaries of Perth city to the confines of Dundee. It measures 15 m. in

length, its breadth from the river towards the base of the Sidlaw Hills

varying from 2 to 4 m. Probably it is a raised beach, submerged until a

comparatively recent period. Although it contained much bog land and

stagnant water as late as the 18th century, it has since been drained

and cultivated, and is now one of the most productive tracts in

Perthshire. The district is noteworthy for the number of its castles and

mansions, almost wholly residential, among which may be mentioned

Kinfauns Castle, Inchyra House, Pitfour Castle, Errol Park, Megginch

Castle, dating from 1575; Fingask Castle, Kinnaird Castle, erected in

the 15th century and occupied by James VI. in 1617; Rossie Priory, the

seat of Lord Kinnaird; and Huntly Castle, built by the 3rd earl of

Kinghorne.

GOYA, a river town and port of Corrientes, Argentine Republic, the

commercial centre of the south-western departments of the province and

chief town of a department of the same name, on a _riacho_ or side

channel of the Parana about 5 m. from the main channel and about 120 m.

S. of the city of Corrientes. Pop. (1905, est.) 7000. The town is built

on low ground which is subject to inundations in very wet weather, but

its streets are broad and the general appearance of its edifices is

good. Among its public buildings is a handsome parish church and a

national normal school. The productions of the neighbourhood are chiefly

pastoral, and its exports include cattle, hides, wool and oranges. Goya

had an export of crudely-made cheese long before the modern cheese

factories of the Argentine Republic came into existence. The place dates

from 1807, and had its origin, it is said, in the trade established

there by a ship captain and his wife Gregoria or Goya, who supplied

passing vessels with beef.

GOYANNA, or GOIANA, a city of Brazil in the N.E. angle of the state of

Pernambuco, about 65 m. N. of the city of Pernambuco. Pop.(1890) 15,436.

It is built on a fertile plain between the rivers Tracunhaem and

Capibaribe-mirim near their junction to form the Goyanna river, and is

15 m. from the coast. It is surrounded by, and is the commercial centre

for, one of the richest agricultural districts of the state, which

produces sugar, rum, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cattle, hides and castor

oil. The Goyanna river is navigable for small vessels nearly up to the

city, but its entrance is partly obstructed and difficult. Goyanna is

one of the oldest towns of the state, and was occupied by the Dutch from

1636 to 1654. It has several old-style churches, an orphans' asylum,

hospital and some small industries.

GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO (1746-1828), Spanish painter, was born in

1746 at Fuendetodos, a small Aragonese village near Saragossa. At an

early age he commenced his artistic career under the direction of Jose

Luzan Martinez, who had studied painting at Naples under Mastroleo. It

is clear that the accuracy in drawing Luzan is said to have acquired by

diligent study of the best Italian masters did not much influence his

erratic pupil. Goya, a true son of his province, was bold, capricious,

headstrong and obstinate. He took a prominent part on more than one

occasion in those rival religious processions at Saragossa which often

ended in unseemly frays; and his friends were led in consequence to

despatch him in his nineteenth year to Madrid, where, prior to his

departure for Rome, his mode of life appears to have been anything but

that of a quiet orderly citizen. Being a good musician, and gifted with

a voice, he sallied forth nightly, serenading the caged beauties of the

capital, with whom he seems to have been a very general favourite.

Lacking the necessary royal patronage, and probably scandalizing by his

mode of life the sedate court officials, he did not receive--perhaps did

not seek--the usual honorarium accorded to those students who visited

Rome for the purpose of study. Finding it convenient to retire for a

time from Madrid, he decided to visit Rome at his own cost; and being

without resources he joined a "quadrilla" of bull-fighters, passing from

town to town until he reached the shores of the Mediterranean. We next

hear of him reaching Rome, broken in health and financially bankrupt. In

1772 he was awarded the second prize in a competition initiated by the

academy of Parma, styling himself "pupil to Bayeu, painter to the king

of Spain." Compelled to quit Rome somewhat suddenly, he appears again in

Madrid in 1775, the husband of Bayeu's daughter, and father of a son.

About this time he appears to have visited his parents at Fuendetodos,

no doubt noting much which later on he utilized in his genre works. On

returning to Madrid he commenced painting canvases for the tapestry

factory of Santa Barbara, in which the king took much interest. Between

1776 and 1780 he appears to have supplied thirty examples, receiving

about L1200 for them. Soon after the revolution of 1868, an official was

appointed to take an inventory of all works of art belonging to the

nation, and in one of the cellars of the Madrid palace were discovered

forty-three of these works of Goya on rolls forgotten and neglected (see

_Los Tapices de Goya; por Cruzado Villaamil, Madrid_, 1870).

His originality and talent were soon recognized by Mengs, the king's

painter, and royal favour naturally followed. His career now becomes

intimately connected with the court life of his time. He was

commissioned by the king to design a series of frescoes for the church

of St Anthony of Florida, Madrid, and he also produced works for

Saragossa, Valencia and Toledo. Ecclesiastical art was not his forte,

and although he cannot be said to have failed in any of his work, his

fame was not enhanced by his religious subjects.

In portraiture, without doubt, Goya excelled: his portraits are

evidently life-like and unexaggerated, and he disdained flattery. He

worked rapidly, and during his long stay at Madrid painted, amongst many

others, the portraits of four sovereigns of Spain--Charles III. and IV.,

Ferdinand VII. and "King Joseph." The duke of Wellington also sat to

him; but on his making some remark which raised the artist's choler,

Goya seized a plaster cast and hurled it at the head of the duke. There

are extant two pencil sketches of Wellington, one in the British Museum,

the other in a private collection. One of his best portraits is that of

the lovely Andalusian duchess of Alva. He now became the spoiled child

of fortune, and acquired, at any rate externally, much of the polish of

court manners. He still worked industriously upon his own lines, and,

while there is a stiffness almost ungainly in the pose of some of his

portraits, the stern individuality is always preserved.

Including the designs for tapestry, Goya's genre works are numerous and

varied, both in style and feeling, from his Watteau-like "Al Fresco

Breakfast," "Romeria de San Isidro," to the "Curate feeding the Devil's

Lamp," the "Meson del Gallo," and the painfully realistic massacre of

the "Dos de Mayo" (1808). Goya's versatility is proverbial; in his hands

the pencil, brush and graver are equally powerful. Some of his crayon

sketches of scenes in the bull ring are full of force and character,

slight but full of meaning. He was in his thirty-second year when he

commenced his etchings from Velasquez, whose influence may, however, be

traced in his work at an earlier date. A careful examination of some of

the drawings made for these etchings indicates a steadiness of purpose

not usually discovered in Goya's craft as draughtsman. He is much more

widely known by his etchings than his oils; the latter necessarily must

be sought in public and private collections, principally in Spain, while

the former are known and prized in every capital of Europe. The etched

collections by which Goya is best known include "Los Caprichos," which

have a satirical meaning known only to the few; they are bold, weird and

full of force. "Los Proverbios" are also supposed to have some hidden

intention. "Los Desastres de la Guerra" may fairly claim to depict Spain

during the French invasion. In the bull-fight series Goya is evidently

at home; he was a skilled master of the barbarous art, and no doubt

every sketch is true to nature, and from life.

Goya retired from Madrid, desiring probably during his latter years to

escape the trying climate of that capital. He died at Bordeaux on the

16th of April 1828, and a monument has been erected there over his

remains. From the deaths of Velasquez and Murillo to the advent of

Fortuny, Goya's name is the only important one found in the history of

Spanish art.

See also the lives by Paul Lefort (1877), and Yriarte (1867).

GOYAZ, an inland state of Brazil, bounded by Matto Grosso and Para on

the W., Maranhao, Bahia and Minas Geraes on the E., and Minas Geraes and

Matto Grosso on the S. Pop. (1890) 227,572; (1900) 255,284, including

many half-civilized Indians and many half-breeds. Area, 288,549 sq. m.

The outline of the state is that of a roughly-shaped wedge with the thin

edge extending northward between and up to the junction of the rivers

Araguaya and Upper Tocantins, and its length is nearly 15 deg. of

latitude. The state lies wholly within the great Brazilian plateau

region, but its surface is much broken towards the N. by the deeply

eroded valleys of the Araguaya and Upper Tocantins rivers and their

tributaries. The general slope of the plateau is toward the N., and the

drainage of the state is chiefly through the above-named rivers--the

principal tributaries of the Araguaya being the Grande and Vermelho, and

of the Upper Tocantins, the Manoel Alves Grande, Somno, Paranan and

Maranhao. A considerable part of southern Goyaz, however, slopes

southward and the drainage is through numerous small streams flowing

into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the Parana. The general

elevation of the plateau is estimated to be about 2700 ft., and the

highest elevation was reported in 1892 to be the Serra dos Pyreneos

(5250 ft.). Crossing the state N.N.E. to S.S.W. there is a well-defined

chain of mountains, of which the Pyreneos, Santa Rita and Santa Martha

ranges form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great.

The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby arboreal

growth called _caatingas_, but the streams are generally bordered with

forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards the N. the forest

becomes denser and of the character of the Amazon Valley. The climate of

the plateau is usually described as temperate, but it is essentially

sub-tropical. The valley regions are tropical, and malarial fevers are

common. The cultivation of the soil is limited to local needs, except in

the production of tobacco, which is exported to neighbouring states. The

open campos afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported.

Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more than two

centuries, but the output has never been large and no very rich mines

have been discovered. Diamonds have been found, but only to a very

limited extent. There is a considerable export of quartz crystal,

commercially known as "Brazilian pebbles," used in optical work.

Although the northern and southern extremities of Goyaz lie within two

great river systems--the Tocantins and Parana--the upper courses of

which are navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only

outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to the railway

termini of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the extension of railways

from both of those states, one entering Goyaz by way of Catalao, near

the southern boundary, and the other at some point further N.

The capital of the state is GOYAZ, or Villa-Boa de Goyaz, a mining town

on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya rising on the northern

slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop. (1890) 6807. Gold was discovered

here in 1682 by Bartholomeu Bueno, the first European explorer of this

region, and the settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which

is still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren, rocky

mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the heat is most

oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly cold. Goyaz is the

see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and possesses a small cathedral and

some churches.

GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656), Dutch painter, was born at

Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned painting under several

masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married in 1618 and settled at the Hague

about 1631. He was one of the first to emancipate himself from the

traditions of minute imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and

Savery. Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those

painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with

considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He formed

Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention from Rembrandt, and

bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter de Molyn, Coelenbier,

Saftleven, van der Kabel and even Berghem. His life at the Hague for

twenty-five years was very prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be

president of his gild. A friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der

Helst, he sat to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter

Margaret married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder

Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the Hague. He

died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and houses to the amount of

15,000 florins.

Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school to the other.

He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh; he then passed through

the workshops of de Man, Klok and de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive

step and joined Esaias van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier

pictures, some of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show

the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is minute.

Details of branching and foliage are given, and the figures are

important in relation to the distances. After 1625 these peculiarities

gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in landscapes of cool tints

varying from grey green to pearl or brown and yellow dun is the

principal object which van Goyen holds in view, and he succeeds

admirably in light skies with drifting misty cloud, and downs with

cottages and scanty shrubbery or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of

foliage he now works in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of

sepia or Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or

lucidity. Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate

light and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most pleasing

views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with shipping near the

banks, he sometimes has the strength if not the colour of Albert Cuyp.

The defect of his work is chiefly want of solidity. But even this had

its charm for van Goyen's contemporaries, and some time elapsed before

Cuyp, who imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to

the foliage of foreground trees.

Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collections, but

his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly at the Louvre, and in

Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works

were exhibited together at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once

or twice, van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland

and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views of

Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts. But he was also

fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did not neglect Arnheim or

Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is a view of the Hague, executed in

1651 for the municipality, and now in the town collection of that city.

Most of his panels represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the

Maese. But he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea

at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict the calm

inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more than a curling

breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often painted winter scenes,

with ice and skaters and sledges, in the style familiar to Isaac van

Ostade. There are numerous varieties of these subjects in the master's

works from 1621 to 1653. One historical picture has been assigned to van

Goyen--the "Embarkation of Charles II." in the Bute collection. But this

canvas was executed after van Goyen's death. When he tried this form of

art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he produced little in

partnership with his contemporaries, and we can only except the

"Watering-place" in the gallery of Vienna, where the landscape is

enlivened with horses and cattle by Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen,

who was his son-in-law, only painted figures for one of his pictures,

and it is probable that this piece was completed after van Goyen's

death. More than 250 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible.

Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist without the

full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter whose hand it is

easier to trace without the help of these adjuncts. An etcher, but a

poor one, van Goyen has only bequeathed to us two very rare plates.

GOZLAN, LEON (1806-1866), French novelist and play-writer, was born on

the 1st of September 1806, at Marseilles. When he was still a boy, his

father, who had made a large fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series

of misfortunes, and Leon, before completing his education, had to go to

sea in order to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined

to run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Mery, who was

then making himself famous by his political satires, introduced him to

several newspapers, and Gozlan's brilliant articles in the _Figaro_ did

much harm to the already tottering government of Charles X. His first

novel was _Les Memoires d'un apothicaire_ (1828), and this was followed

by numberless others, among which may be mentioned _Washington Levert et

Socrate Leblanc_ (1838), _Le Notaire de Chantilly_ (1836), _Aristide

Froissart_ (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his

productions), _Les Nuits du Pere Lachaise_ (1846), _Le Tapis vert_

(1855), _La Folle du logis_ (1857), _Les Emotions de Polydore Marasquin_

(1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are--_La Pluie et le

beau temps_ (1861), and _Une Tempete dans un verre d'eau_ (1850), two

curtain-raisers which have kept the stage; _Le Lion empaille_ (1848),

_La Queue du chien d'Alcibiade_ (1849), _Louise de Nanteuil_ (1854), _Le

Gateau des reines_ (1855), _Les Paniers de la comtesse_ (1852); and he

adapted several of his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a

romantic and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions of

his country entitled _Les Chateaux de France_ (2 vols., 1844),

originally published (1836) as _Les Tourelles_, which has some

archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (_Balzac chez

lui_, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1846, and

in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan died on the 14th of September

1866, in Paris.

See also P. Audebrand, _Leon Gozlan_ (1887).

GOZO (GOZZO), an island of the Maltese group in the Mediterranean Sea,

second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3-1/4 m. from the nearest

point of Malta, is of oval form, 8-3/4 m. in length and 4-1/2 m. in

extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m. Its chief town,

Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1901, 5057) stands near the

middle of the island on one of a cluster of steep conical hills, 3-1/2

m. from the port of Migiarro Bay, on the south-east shore, below Fort

Chambray. The character of the island is similar to that of Malta. The

estimated population in 1907 was 21,911.

GOZZI, CARLO, COUNT (1722-1806), Italian dramatist, was descended from

an old Venetian family, and was born at Venice in March 1722. Compelled

by the embarrassed condition of his father's affairs to procure the

means of self-support, he, at the age of sixteen, joined the army in

Dalmatia; but three years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he

soon made a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the

Granelleschi society, to which the publication of several satirical

pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally devoted to

conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims, and was especially

zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature pure and untainted by foreign

influences. The displacement of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of

Pietro Chiari (1700-1788) and Goldoni, founded on French models,

threatened defeat to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the

rescue by publishing a satirical poem, _Tartana degli influssi per l'

anno bisestile_, and in 1761 by his comedy, _Fiaba dell' amore delle tre

melarancie_, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets, founded

on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained the services of the

Sacchi company of players, who, on account of the popularity of the

comedies of Chiari and Goldoni--which afforded no scope for the display

of their peculiar talents--had been left without employment; and as

their satirical powers were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play

met with extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the

audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical element,

which he had merely used as a convenient medium for his satirical

purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic pieces based on fairy

tales, which for a period obtained great popularity, but after the

breaking up of the Sacchi company were completely disregarded. They

have, however, obtained high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de

Stael and Sismondi; and one of them, _Re Turandote_, was translated by

Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production of

tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced; but as this

innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had recourse to the

Spanish drama, from which he obtained models for various pieces, which,

however, met with only equivocal success. He died on the 4th of April

1806.

His collected works were published under his own superintendence, at

Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works, translated

into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in 1795. See Gozzi's

work, _Memorie inutili della vita di Carlo Gozzi_ (3 vols., Venice,

1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset (1848), and into

English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, _Uber Gozzis dramatische

Poesie_ (Venice, 1803); Gherardini, _Vita di Gasp. Gozzi_ (1821);

"Charles Gozzi," by Paul de Musset, in the _Revue des deux mondes_ for

15th November 1844; Magrini, _Carlo Gozzi e la fiabe: saggi storici,

biografici, e critici_ (Cremona, 1876), and the same author's book on

Gozzi's life and times (Benevento, 1883).

GOZZI, GASPARO, COUNT (1713-1786), eldest brother of Carlo Gozzi, was

born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739 he married the poetess Luise

Bergalli, and she undertook the management of the theatre of Sant'

Angelo, Venice, he supplying the performers with dramas chiefly

translated from the French. The speculation proved unfortunate, but

meantime he had attained a high reputation for his contributions to the

_Gazzetta Veneta_, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest

critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a

considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in 1774 he

was appointed to reorganize the university system at Padua. He died at

Padua on the 26th of December 1786.

His principal writings are _Osservatore Veneto periodico_ (1761), on

the model of the English _Spectator_, and distinguished by its high

moral tone and its light and pleasant satire; _Lettere famigliari_

(1755), a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on

subjects of general interest; _Sermoni_, poems in blank verse after

the manner of Horace; _Il Mondo morale_ (1760), a personification of

human passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian; and

_Giudizio degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante_

(1755), a defence of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli.

He also translated various works from the French and English,

including Marmontel's _Tales_ and Pope's _Essay on Criticism_. His

collected works were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes,

and several editions have appeared since.

GOZZOLI, BENOZZO, Italian painter, was born in Florence in 1424, or

perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career assisted Fra Angelico,

whom he followed to Rome and worked with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed

in Santa Maria in Aracoeli a fresco of "St Anthony and Two Angels." In

1449 he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria.

In S. Fortunate, near Montefalco, he painted a "Madonna and Child with

Saints and Angels," and three other works. One of these, the altar-piece

representing "St Thomas receiving the Girdle of the Virgin," is now in

the Lateran Museum, and shows the affinity of Gozzoli's early style to

Angelico's. He next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco,

Montefalco, filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the

life of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante,

Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and is still

marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there with a more

distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church, in the chapel of St

Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin and Saints, the Crucifixion

and other subjects. He remained at Montefalco (with an interval at

Viterbo) probably till 1456, employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he

went to Perugia, and painted in a church a "Virgin and Saints," now in

the local academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the

headquarters of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished his

important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Riccardi, the "Journey of

the Magi to Bethlehem," and, in the tribune of this chapel, a

composition of "Angels in a Paradise." His picture in the National

Gallery, London, a "Virgin and Child with Saints," 1461, belongs also to

the period of his Florentine sojourn. Another small picture in the same

gallery, the "Rape of Helen," is of dubious authenticity. In 1464

Gozzoli left Florence for S. Gimignano, where he executed some extensive

works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St Sebastian

protecting the City from the Plague of this same year, 1464; over the

entire choir of the church, a triple course of scenes from the legends

of St Augustine, from the time of his entering the school of Tegaste on

to his burial, seventeen chief subjects, with some accessories; in the

Pieve di S. Gimignano, the "Martyrdom of Sebastian," and other subjects,

and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his style

combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original elements, and he

received co-operation from Giusto d'Andrea. He stayed in this city till

1467, and then began, in the Campo Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast

series of mural paintings with which his name is specially identified.

There are twenty-four subjects from the Old Testament, from the

"Invention of Wine by Noah" to the "Visit of the Queen of Sheba to

Solomon." He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten

ducats each--a sum which may be regarded as equivalent to L100 at the

present day. It appears, however, that this contract was not strictly

adhered to, for the actual rate of painting was only three pictures in

two years. Perhaps the great multitude of figures and accessories was

accepted as a set-off against the slower rate of production. By January

1470 he had executed the fresco of "Noah and his Family,"--followed by

the "Curse of Ham," the "Building of the Tower of Babel" (which contains

portraits of Cosmo de' Medici, the young Lorenzo Politian and others),

the "Destruction of Sodom," the "Victory of Abraham," the "Marriages of

Rebecca and of Rachel," the "Life of Moses," &c. In the Cappella

Ammannati, facing a gate of the Campo Santo, he painted also an

"Adoration of the Magi," wherein appears a portrait of himself. All this

enormous mass of work, in which Gozzoli was probably assisted by Zanobi

Macchiavelli, was performed, in addition to several other pictures

during his stay in Pisa (we need only specify the "Glory of St Thomas

Aquinas," now in the Louvre), in sixteen years, lasting up to 1485. This

is the latest date which can with certainty be assigned to any work from

his hand, although he is known to have been alive up to 1498. In 1478

the Pisan authorities had given him, as a token of their regard, a tomb

in the Campo Santo. He had likewise a house of his own in Pisa, and

houses and land in Florence. In rectitude of life he is said to have

been worthy of his first master, Fra Angelico.

The art of Gozzoli does not rival that of his greatest contemporaries

either in elevation or in strength, but is pre-eminently attractive by

its sense of what is rich, winning, lively and abundant in the aspects

of men and things. His landscapes, thronged with birds and quadrupeds,

especially dogs, are more varied, circumstantial and alluring than those

of any predecessor; his compositions are crowded with figures, more

characteristically true when happily and gracefully occupied than when

the demands of the subject require tragic or dramatic intensity, or

turmoil of action; his colour is bright, vivacious and festive.

Gozzoli's genius was, on the whole, more versatile and assimilative than

vigorously original; his drawing not free from considerable

imperfections, especially in the extremities and articulations, and in

the perspective of his gorgeously-schemed buildings. In fresco-painting

he used the methods of tempera, and the decay of his works has been

severe in proportion. Of his untiring industry the recital of his

labours and the number of works produced are the most forcible

attestation.

Vasari, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the other ordinary authorities,

can be consulted as to the career of Gozzoli. A separate _Life_ of

him, by H. Stokes, was published in 1903 in Newnes's Art library.

(W. M. R.)

GRAAFF REINET, a town of South Africa, 185 m. by rail N.W. by N. of Port

Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 10,083, of whom 4055 were whites. The town lies

2463 ft. above the sea and is built on the banks of the Sunday river,

which rises a little farther north on the southern slopes of the

Sneeuwberg, and here ramifies into several channels. The Dutch church is

a handsome stone building with seating accommodation for 1500 people.

The college is an educational centre of some importance; it was rebuilt

in 1906. Graaff Reinet is a flourishing market for agricultural produce,

the district being noted for its mohair industry, its orchards and

vineyards.

The town was founded by the Cape Dutch in 1786, being named after the

then governor of Cape Colony, C. J. van de Graaff, and his wife. In 1795

the burghers, smarting under the exactions of the Dutch East India

Company proclaimed a republic. Similar action was taken by the burghers

of Swellendam. Before the authorities at Cape Town could take decisive

measures against the rebels, they were themselves compelled to

capitulate to the British. The burghers having endeavoured,

unsuccessfully, to get aid from a French warship at Algoa Bay

surrendered to Colonel (afterwards General Sir) J. O. Vandeleur. In

January 1799 Marthinus Prinsloo, the leader of the republicans in 1795,

again rebelled, but surrendered in April following. Prinsloo and

nineteen others were imprisoned in Cape Town castle. After trial,

Prinsloo and another commandant were sentenced to death and others to

banishment. The sentences were not carried out and the prisoners were

released, March 1803, on the retrocession of the Cape to Holland. In

1801 there had been another revolt in Graaff Reinet, but owing to the

conciliatory measures of General F. Dundas (acting governor of the Cape)

peace was soon restored. It was this district, where a republican

government in South Africa was first proclaimed, which furnished large

numbers of the voortrekkers in 1835-1842. It remains a strong Dutch

centre.

See J. C. Voight, _Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in South

Africa 1795-1845_, vol. i. (London, 1899).

GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH (1801-1836), German dramatist, was born at

Detmold on the 11th of December 1801. Entering the university of Leipzig

in 1819 as a student of law, he continued the reckless habits which he

had begun at Detmold, and neglected his studies. Being introduced into

literary circles, he conceived the idea of becoming an actor and wrote

the drama _Herzog Theodor von Gothland_ (1822). This, though showing

considerable literary talent, lacks artistic form, and is morally

repulsive. Ludwig Tieck, while encouraging the young author, pointed out

its faults, and tried to reform Grabbe himself. In 1822 Grabbe removed

to Berlin University, and in 1824 passed his advocate's examination. He

now settled in his native town as a lawyer and in 1827 was appointed a

_Militarauditeur_. In 1833 he married, but in consequence of his drunken

habits was dismissed from his office, and, separating from his wife,

visited Dusseldorf, where he was kindly received by Karl Immermann.

After a serious quarrel with the latter, he returned to Detmold, where,

as a result of his excesses, he died on the 12th of September 1836.

Grabbe had real poetical gifts, and many of his dramas contain fine

passages and a wealth of original ideas. They largely reflect his own

life and character, and are characterized by cynicism and indelicacy.

Their construction also is defective and little suited to the

requirements of the stage. The boldly conceived _Don Juan und Faust_

(1829) and the historical dramas _Friedrich Barbarossa_ (1829),

_Heinrich VI._ (1830), and _Napoleon oder die Hundert Tage_ (1831), the

last of which places the battle of Waterloo upon the stage, are his best

works. Among others are the unfinished tragedies _Marius and Sulla_

(continued by Erich Korn, Berlin, 1890); and _Hannibal_ (1835,

supplemented and edited by C. Spielmann, Halle, 1901); and the patriotic

_Hermannsschlacht_ or the battle between Arminius and Varus

(posthumously published with a biographical notice, by E. Duller, 1838).

Grabbe's works have been edited by O. Blumenthal (4 vols., 1875), and

E. Grisebach (4 vols., 1902). For further notices of his life, see K.

Ziegler, _Grabbes Leben und Charakter_ (1855); O. Blumenthal,

_Beitrage zur Kenntnis Grabbes_ (1875); C. A. Piper, _Grabbe_ (1898),

and A. Ploch, _Grabbes Stellung in der deutschen Literatur_ (1905).

GRABE, JOHN ERNEST (1666-1711), Anglican divine, was born on the 10th of

July 1666, at Konigsberg, where his father, Martin Sylvester Grabe, was

professor of theology and history. In his theological studies Grabe

succeeded in persuading himself of the schismatical character of the

Reformation, and accordingly he presented to the consistory of Samland

in Prussia a memorial in which he compared the position of the

evangelical Protestant churches with that of the Novatians and other

ancient schismatics. He had resolved to join the Church of Rome when a

commission of Lutheran divines pointed out flaws in his written argument

and called his attention to the English Church as apparently possessing

that apostolic succession and manifesting that fidelity to ancient

institutions which he desired. He came to England, settled in Oxford,

was ordained in 1700, and became chaplain of Christ Church. His

inclination was towards the party of the nonjurors. The learned labours

to which the remainder of his life was devoted were rewarded with an

Oxford degree and a royal pension. He died on the 3rd of November 1711,

and in 1726 a monument was erected to him by Edward Harley, earl of

Oxford, in Westminster Abbey. He was buried in St Pancras Church,

London.

Some account of Grabe's life is given in R. Nelson's _Life of George

Bull_, and by George Hickes in a discourse prefixed to the pamphlet

against W. Whiston's _Collection of Testimonies against the True_

_Deity of the Son and of the Holy Ghost_. His works, which show him

to have been learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in critical

acumen, include a _Spicilegium SS. Patrum et haereticorum_

(1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries of

the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of the

second. A second edition of this work was published in 1714. He

brought out an edition of Justin Martyr's _Apologia prima_ (1700), of

Irenaeus, _Adversus omnes haereses_ (1702), of the Septuagint, and of

Bishop Bull's Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septuagint was

based on the _Codex Alexandrinus_; it appeared in 4 volumes

(1707-1720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George Wigan.

GRACCHUS, in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family of the

Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives were the famous

tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and

(5) below, usually called simply "the Gracchi."

1. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, consul in 238 B.C., carried on

successful operations against the Ligurian mountaineers, and, at the

conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war, was in command of the

fleet which at the invitation of the insurgents took possession of the

island of Sardinia.

2. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, probably the son of (1), distinguished

himself during the second Punic war. Consul in 215, he defeated the

Capuans who had entered into an alliance with Hannibal, and in 214

gained a signal success over Hanno near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the

_volones_ (slave-volunteers), to whom he had promised freedom in the

event of victory. In 213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried

on the war in Lucania; in the following year, while advancing northward

to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed into

the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a Lucanian of rank, who had

formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected with Gracchus

himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell fighting bravely; his body

was sent to Hannibal, who accorded him a splendid burial.

3. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (c. 210-151 B.C.), father of the

tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter of the elder Scipio

Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius Sempronius Gracchus who was

tribune in 189. Although a determined political opponent of the two

Scipios (Asiaticus and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on

their behalf when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the

king of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission

sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumenes II. of

Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule aedileship (182) he

celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale that the burdens imposed

upon the Italian and extra-Italian communities led to the official

interference of the senate. In 181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain,

and, after gaining signal successes in the field, applied himself to the

pacification of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic

attitude won the respect and affection of the inhabitants; the land had

rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177, he was occupied in

putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought back so many prisoners

that _Sardi venales_ (Sardinians for sale) became a proverbial

expression for a drug in the market. In 169 Gracchus was censor, and

both he and his colleague (C. Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves

determined opponents of the capitalists. They deeply offended the

equestrian order by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts

under the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently

enforced the limitation of the freedmen to the four city tribes, which

completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In 165 and 161 he

went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes, with whom he established

friendly relations. Amongst the places visited by him was Rhodes, where

he delivered a speech in Greek, which he afterwards published. In 163 he

was again consul.

4. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (163-133 B.C.), son of (3), was the

elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother were brought up by

their mother Cornelia, assisted by the rhetorician Diophanes of Mytilene

and the Stoic Blossius of Cumae. In 147 he served under his

brother-in-law the younger Scipio in Africa during the last Punic war,

and was the first to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When

quaestor in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus to

Spain. During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved from

annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom alone the

Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the memory of his

father. The senate refused to ratify the agreement; Mancinus was handed

over to the enemy as a sign that it was annulled, and only personal

popularity saved Tiberius himself from punishment. In 133 he was

tribune, and championed the impoverished farmer class and the lower

orders. His proposals (see AGRARIAN LAWS) met with violent opposition,

and were not carried until he had, illegally and unconstitutionally,

secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune, M. Octavius, who had been

persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate put every obstacle

in the way of the three commissioners appointed to carry out the

provisions of the law, and Tiberius, in view of the bitter enmity he had

aroused, saw that it was necessary to strengthen his hold on the popular

favour. The legacy to the Roman people of the kingdom and treasures of

Attalus III. of Pergamum gave him an opportunity. He proposed that the

money realized by the sale of the treasures should be divided, for the

purchase of implements and stock, amongst those to whom assignments of

land had been made under the new law. He is also said to have brought

forward measures for shortening the period of military service, for

extending the right of appeal from the _judices_ to the people, for

abolishing the exclusive privilege of the senators to act as jurymen,

and even for admitting the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen

his position further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election as

tribune for the following year. The senate declared that it was illegal

to hold this office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius treated this

objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of the people, he appeared

in mourning, and appealed for protection for his wife and children, and

whenever he left his house he was accompanied by a bodyguard of 3000

men, chiefly consisting of the city rabble. The meeting of the tribes

for the election of tribunes broke up in disorder on two successive

days, without any result being attained, although on both occasions the

first divisions voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate

that he was aiming at supreme power, that he had touched his head with

his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An appeal to the consul

P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death at once having

failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola was acting

treacherously towards the state, and called upon those who agreed with

him to take up arms and follow him. During the riot that followed,

Tiberius attempted to escape, but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol

and was beaten to death with the end of a bench. At night his body, with

those of 300 others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy boldly

assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up a

commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius, many

of whom were banished and others put to death. Even the moderate

Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica was justified in his

action; and it was reported that Scipio, when he heard at Numantia of

his brother-in-law's death, repeated the line of Homer--"So perish all

who do the like again."

See Livy, _Epit._ 58; Appian, _Bell. civ._ i. 9-17; Plutarch,

_Tiberius Gracchus_; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3.

5. GAIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (153-121 B.C.), younger brother of (4), was

a man of greater abilities, bolder and more passionate, although

possessed of considerable powers of self-control, and a vigorous and

impressive orator. When twenty years of age he was appointed one of the

commissioners to carry out the distribution of land under the provisions

of his brother's agrarian law. At the time of Tiberius's death, Gaius

was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, but probably

returned to Rome in the following year (132). In 131 he supported the

bill of C. Papirius Carbo, the object of which was to make it legal for

a tribune to offer himself as candidate for the office in two

consecutive years, and thus to remove one of the chief obstacles that

had hampered Tiberius. The bill was then rejected, but appears to have

subsequently passed in a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected

without any disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal,

and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For the next few

years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion pointed him out as the

man to avenge his brother's death and carry out his plans, and the

aristocratic party, warned by the example of Tiberius, were anxious to

keep him away from Rome. In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius

Orestes as quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made

himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the command of

Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to remain there in his

capacity of quaestor. But he returned to Rome without the permission of

the senate, and, when called to account by the censors, defended himself

so successfully that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The

disappointed aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of

being implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways

unsuccessfully endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then

decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became a candidate

for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined opposition of the

aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123, although only fourth on

the list. The legislative proposals[1] brought forward by him had for

their object:--the punishment of his brother's enemies; the relief of

distress and the attachment to himself of the city populace; the

diminution of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the

_equites_; the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and

provincials.

A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in a matter

affecting his life or political status unless the people had

previously given its assent. This was specially aimed at Popilius

Laenas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the

adherents of Tiberius. Another law enacted that any magistrate who had

been deprived of office by decree of the people should be

incapacitated from holding office again. This was directed against M.

Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate through

Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was withdrawn at the

earnest request of Cornelia.

He revived his brother's agrarian law, which, although it had not been

repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his _Lex Frumentaria_ every

citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain amount of corn at

about half the usual price; as the distribution only applied to those

living in the capital, the natural result was that the poorer country

citizens flocked into Rome and swelled the number of Gaius's

supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to serve in the army before

the commencement of his eighteenth year, and his military outfit was

to be supplied by the state, instead of being deducted from his pay.

Gaius also proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy (at

Tarentum and Capua), and sent out to the site of Carthage 6000

colonists to found the new city of Junonia, the inhabitants of which

were to possess the rights of Roman citizens; this was the first

attempt at over-sea colonization. A new system of roads was

constructed which afforded easier access to Rome. Having thus gained

over the city proletariat, in order to secure a majority in the

comitia by its aid, Gaius did away with the system of voting in the

comitia centuriata, whereby the five property classes in each tribe

gave their votes one after another, and introduced promiscuous voting

in an order fixed by lot.

The judices in the standing commissions for the trial of particular

offences (the most important of which was that dealing with the trial

of provincial magistrates for extortion, _de repetundis_) were in

future to be chosen from the equites (q.v.), not as hitherto from the

senate. The taxes of the new province of Asia were to be let out by

the censors to Roman _publicani_ (who belonged to the equestrian

order), who paid down a lump sum for the right of collecting them. It

is obvious that this afforded the equites extensive opportunities for

money-making and extortion, while the alteration in the appointment of

the judices gave them the same practical immunity and perpetuated the

old abuses, with the difference that it was no longer senators, but

equites, who could look forward with confidence to being leniently

dealt with by men belonging to their own order; Gaius also expected

that this moneyed aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate

against Tiberius, would now support him against it. It was enacted

that the provinces to be assigned to the consuls, should be determined

before, instead of after their election; and the consuls themselves

had to settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of

them would take.[2]

These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity, and during

the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered the absolute

ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second time for the year

122. To this period is probably to be assigned his proposal that the

franchise should be given to all the Latin communities and that the

status of the Latins should be conferred upon the Italian allies. In 125

M. Fulvius Flaccus had brought forward a similar measure, but he was got

out of the way by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This

proposal, more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally

opposed by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius's popularity

amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the prospect of an

increase in the number of Roman citizens. The senate put up M. Livius

Drusus to outbid him, and his absence from Rome while superintending the

organization of the newly-founded colony, Junonia-Carthago, was taken

advantage of by his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he

found his popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship for

the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected consul. The

latter at once decided to propose the abandonment of the new colony,

which was to occupy the site cursed by Scipio, while its foundation had

been attended by unmistakable manifestations of the wrath of the gods.

On the day when the matter was to be put to the vote, a lictor named

Antyllius, who had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to

death. This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was

declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with dictatorial

powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their position in the temple of

Diana on the Aventine, offered little resistance to the attack ordered

by Opimius. Gaius managed to escape across the Tiber, where his dead

body was found on the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side

of that of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself.

The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple of Concord

erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath the inscription

recording the occasion on which the temple had been built some one

during the night wrote the words: "The work of Discord makes the temple

of Concord."

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Livy, _Epit._ 60; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 21;

Plutarch, _Gaius Gracchus_; Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3, xi. 10.

For an account of the two tribunes see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng.

trans.), bk. iv., chs. 2 and 3; C. Neumann, _Geschichte Roms wahrend

des Verfalles der Republik_ (1881); A. H. J. Greenidge, _History of

Rome_ (1904); E. Meyer, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Gracchen_

(1894); G. E. Underhill, Plutarch's _Lives of the Gracchi_ (1892); W.

Warde Fowler in _English Historical Review_ (1905), pp. 209 and 417;

Long, _Decline of the Roman Republic_, chs. 10-13, 17-19, containing a

careful examination of the ancient authorities; G. F. Hertzberg in

Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; C. W. Oman, _Seven Roman

Statesmen of the later Republic_ (1902); T. Lau, _Die Gracchen und

ihre Zeit_ (1854). The exhaustive monograph by C. W. Nitzsch, _Die

Gracchen und ihre nachsten Vorganger_ (1847), also contains an account

of the other members of the family, with full references to ancient

authorities in the notes. (J. H. F.)