SECTION I.
THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS OF ROME.
These slaves, whom I have nurtur'd, pamper'd, fed.
And swoln with peace, and gorg'd with plenty, till
They reign themselves--all monarchs in their mansions.
Now swarm forth in rebellion, and demand
His death, who made their lives a jubilee.--_Byron_.
1. When it was publicly known that Domi'tian[1] was slain, the senate
began to load his memory with every reproach. His statues were
commanded to be taken down, and a decree was made, that all his
inscriptions should be erased, his name struck out of the registers of
fame, and his funeral obsequies omitted. 2. The people, who now
took but little part in the affairs of government, looked on his death
with indifference; the soldiers alone, whom he had loaded with
favours, and enriched by largesses, sincerely regretted their
benefactor.
3. The senate, therefore, resolved to provide a successor before the
army could have an opportunity of taking the appointment upon itself,
and Cocce'ius Ner'va was chosen to the empire the same day on which
the tyrant was slain. 4. He is said to have been of an illustrious
family in Spain, and above sixty-five years old when he was called to
the throne, an elevation which he owed solely to his virtues,
moderation, respect to the laws, and the blameless tenor of his life.
5. The people, long accustomed to tyranny, regarded Nerva's gentle
reign with rapture, and even gave to his imbecility (for his humanity
was carried too far for justice) the name of benevolence. 6. Upon
coming to the throne he solemnly swore, that no senator of Rome should
be put to death by his command during his reign, though guilty of the
most heinous crimes. 7. This oath he so religiously observed, that
when two senators had conspired his death, he used no kind of severity
against them; but, sending for them to let them see he was not
ignorant of their designs, he carried them with him to the public
theatre; there presenting each a dagger, he desired them to strike,
assuring them that he should make no resistance. 8. He had so little
regard for money, that when one of his subjects found a large
treasure, and wrote to the emperor for instructions how to dispose of
it, he received for answer, that he might use it; the finder however
replying, that it was a fortune too large for a private person to use,
Nerva, admiring his honesty, wrote him word that then he might abuse
it.[2]
9. A sovereign of such generosity and mildness was not, however,
without his enemies. Vigil'ius Ru'fus, who had opposed his accession,
was not only pardoned, but made his colleague in the consulship.
Calpur'nius Cras'sus also, with some others, formed a conspiracy to
destroy him; but Nerva was satisfied with banishing those who were
culpable, though the senate were for inflicting more rigorous
punishments. 10. But the most dangerous insurrection was that of
the prætorian bands, who, headed by Caspa'rius Olia'nus, insisted upon
revenging the late emperor's death, whose memory was still dear to
them, from his frequent liberalities. 11. Nerva, whose kindness to
good men rendered him more obnoxious to the vicious, did all in his
power to stop the progress of this insurrection; he presented himself
to the mutinous soldiers, and laying bare his bosom, desired them to
strike there rather than be guilty of so much injustice. 12. The
soldiers, however, paid no regard to his remonstrances; but seizing
upon Petro'nius and Parthe'nius, slew them in the most ignominious
manner. Not content with this, they even compelled the emperor to
approve of their sedition, and to make a speech to the people, in
which he thanked the cohorts for their fidelity.
13. So disagreeable a constraint upon the emperor's inclinations was
in the end attended with the most happy effects, as it caused the
adoption of Trajan[3] to succeed him; for, perceiving that in the
present turbulent disposition of the times, he stood in need of an
assistant in the empire, setting aside all his own relations, he fixed
upon Ul'pius Tra'jan, an utter stranger to his family, who was then
governor in Upper Germany, as his successor. 14. About three months
after this, having put himself into a violent passion with one
Reg'ulus, a senator, he was seized with a fever of which he died,
after a reign of one year, four months, and nine days.
15. He was the first foreigner that ever reigned in Rome, and justly
reputed a prince of great generosity and moderation. He is also
celebrated for his wisdom, though with less reason; the greatest
instance given of it during his reign, being the choice of his
successor.
[Sidenote: U.C. 851. A.D. 98.]
16. On hearing of the death of Nerva, Trajan prepared to come to Rome
from Germany, where he was governor. He received upon his arrival a
letter from Plu'tarch, the philosopher, who had the honour of being
his master, to the following purport:--"Since your merits and not your
importunities, have advanced you to the empire, permit me to
congratulate you on your virtues, and my own good fortune. If your
future government proves answerable to your former worth, I shall
be happy; but if you become worse for power, yours will be the danger,
and mine the ignominy of your conduct. The errors of the pupil will be
charged upon his instructor. Sen'eca is reproached for the enormities
of Nero; and Soc'rates and Quintil'ian have not escaped censure for
the misconduct of their respective scholars. But you have it in your
power to make me the most honoured of men, by continuing what you are.
Retain the command of your passions; and make virtue the rule of all
your actions. If you follow these instructions, then will I glory in
having presumed to give them: if you neglect what I advise, then will
this letter be my testimony that you have not erred through the
counsel and authority of Plu'tarch." I insert this letter, because it
is a striking picture of this great philosopher's manner of addressing
the best of princes.
17. This good monarch's application to business, his moderation
towards his enemies, his modesty in exaltation, his liberality to the
deserving, and his frugal management of the resources of the state,
were the subjects of panegyric among his contemporaries, and continue
to be the admiration of posterity.
18. The first war he was engaged in after his coming to the throne was
with the Da'cians, who, during the reign of Domi'tian, had committed
numberless ravages upon the provinces of the empire. To revenge these,
he raised a powerful army, and with great expedition marched into
those barbarous countries, where he was vigorously opposed by
Deceb'alus, the Da'cian king, who for some time withstood his boldest
efforts. 19. At length, however, this monarch being constrained to
come to a general battle, and no longer able to protract the war, was
routed with great slaughter. The Roman soldiers upon this occasion
wanting linen to bind up their wounds, the emperor tore his own robes
to supply them. 20. This victory compelled the enemy to sue for peace,
which they obtained upon very disadvantageous terms; their king coming
into the Roman camp, and acknowledging himself a vassal of the Roman
empire.
21. Upon Trajan's return, after the usual triumphs and rejoicings, he
was surprised with an account that the Da'cians had renewed
hostilities. Deceb'alus, their king, was a second time adjudged an
enemy to the Roman state, and Tra'jan again entered his dominions. 22.
In order to be enabled to invade the enemy's territories at pleasure,
he undertook a most stupendous work, which was no less than
building a bridge across the Dan'ube. 23. This amazing structure,
which was built over a deep, broad, and rapid river, consisted of more
than twenty-two arches; the ruins, which remain to this day, show
modern architects how far they were surpassed by the ancients, both in
the greatness and boldness of their designs. 24. Upon finishing this
work, Tra'jan continued the war with great vigour, sharing with the
meanest of his soldiers the fatigues of the campaign, and continually
encouraging them to their duty by his own example. 25. By these means,
notwithstanding the country was spacious and uncultivated, and the
inhabitants brave and hardy, he subdued the whole, and added the
kingdom of Da'cia as a province to the Roman empire. Deceb'alus made
some attempts to escape; but being surrounded, he slew himself. 26.
These successes seemed to advance the empire to a greater degree of
splendor than it had hitherto acquired. Ambassadors came from the
interior parts of India, to congratulate Trajan on his successes, and
solicit his friendship. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph, and
the rejoicings for his victories lasted a hundred and twenty days.
27. Having given peace and prosperity to the empire, he was loved,
honoured, and almost adored. He adorned the city with public
buildings; he freed it from such men as lived by their vices; he
entertained persons of merit with familiarity; and so little did he
fear his enemies, that he could scarcely be induced to suppose he had
any.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. How was the account of Domitian's death received?
2. Was he regretted by any description of his subjects?
3. What consequences ensued from this regret?
4. Who was Cocceius Nerva?
5. Was his government acceptable to the people?
6. What afforded a presage of his future mild administration?
7. Did he keep this oath inviolate?
8. Was Nerva avaricious?
9. Was his reign free from disturbances?
10. Were all conspiracies repressed from this time?
11. Did Nerva exert himself to quell it?
12. Were his endeavours successful?
13. What important consequences ensued from these commotions?
14. What occasioned his death?
15. What was his character?
16. How did Trajan act on his accession, and what advice did he
receive?
17. What sentiments did his subjects entertain of their new emperor?
18. With whom did he commence hostilities?
19. What was the event of the campaign?
20. What was the consequence of this victory?
21. Did peace continue long?
22. What great undertaking did he accomplish in this expedition?
23. Was it a difficult work?
24. What followed the building of the bridge?
25. What was the event of this second campaign?
26. What advantages arose from this conquest?
27. Did Trajan suffer prosperity to make him neglectful of his duties?
SECTION II.
With fatal heat impetuous courage glows.--_Johnson_.
[Sidenote: U.C. 860. A.D. 107.]
1. It had been happy for Trajan's memory, had he shown equal clemency
to all his subjects; but about the ninth year of his reign, he was
persuaded to look upon the Christians with a suspicious eye, and great
numbers of them were put to death by popular tumults and judicial
proceedings. 2. However, the persecution ceased after some time; for
the emperor, finding that the Christians were an innocent and
inoffensive people, suspended their punishments.
3. During this emperor's reign there was a dreadful insurrection of
the Jews in all parts of the empire. This wretched people, still
infatuated, and ever expecting some signal deliverance, took the
advantage of Tra'jan's expedition to the east, to massacre all the
Greeks and Romans whom they could get into their power. 4. This
rebellion first began in Cyre'ne, a Roman province in Africa; from
thence the flame extended to Egypt, and next to the island of Cyprus.
Dreadful were the devastations committed by these infatuated people,
and shocking the barbarities exercised on the unoffending inhabitants.
5. Some were sawn asunder, others cast to wild beasts, or made to kill
each other, while the most unheard-of torments were invented and
exercised on the unhappy victims of their fury. Nay, to such a pitch
was their animosity carried, that they actually ate the flesh of their
enemies, and even wore their skins. 6. However, these cruelties were
of no long duration: the governors of the respective provinces making
head against their tumultuous fury, caused them to experience the
horrors of retaliation, and put them to death, not as human beings,
but as outrageous pests of society. In Cy'prus it was made capital for
any Jew to set foot on the island.
7. During these bloody transactions, Tra'jan was prosecuting his
successes in the east, where he carried the Roman arms farther than
they had ever before penetrated; but resolving to visit Rome once
more, he found himself too weak to proceed in his usual manner. He
therefore determined to return by sea; but on reaching the city of
Seleu'cia, he died of an apoplexy, in the sixty-third year of his age,
after a reign of nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days.
[Sidenote: A.D. 117.]
8. A'drian, the nephew of Trajan, was chosen to succeed him. He began
his reign by pursuing a course opposite to that of his predecessor,
taking every method of declining war, and promoting the arts of peace.
His first care was to make peace with the Par'thians, and to restore
Chos'roes, for he was satisfied with preserving the ancient limits of
the empire, and seemed no way ambitious of extensive conquest.
9. A'drian was one of the most remarkable of the Roman emperors for
the variety of his endowments. He was highly skilled in all the
accomplishments both of body and mind. He composed with great beauty,
both in prose and verse, he pleaded at the bar, and was one of the
best orators of his time. 10. Nor were his virtues fewer than his
accomplishments. His moderation and clemency appeared by pardoning the
injuries which he had received when he was yet but a private man. One
day meeting a person who had formerly been his most inveterate
enemy--"My good friend," said he, "you have escaped; for I am made
emperor." He was affable to his friends, and gentle to persons of
meaner stations; he relieved their wants, and visited them in
sickness; it being his constant maxim, that he had been elected
emperor, not for his own good, but for the benefit of mankind at
large.
11. These virtues were, however, contrasted by vices of considerable
magnitude; or rather, he wanted strength of mind to preserve his
rectitude of character without deviation.
12. He was scarcely settled on the throne, when several of the
northern barbarians began to devastate the frontier provinces of the
empire. These hardy nations, who now found the way to conquer by
issuing from their forests, and then retiring on the approach of
a superior force, began to be truly formidable to Rome. 13. A'drian
had thoughts of contracting the limits of the empire, by giving up
some of the most remote and least defensible provinces; in this,
however, he was overruled by friends, who wrongly imagined that an
extensive frontier would intimidate an invading enemy. 14. But though
he complied with their remonstrances, he broke down the bridge over
the Dan'ube, which his predecessor had built, sensible that the same
passage which was open to him, was equally convenient to the
incursions of his barbarous neighbours.
15. Having staid a long time at Rome, to see that all things were
regulated and established for the safety of the public, he prepared to
make a progress through his whole empire. 16. It was one of his
maxims, that an emperor ought to imitate the sun, which diffuses
warmth and vigour over all parts of the earth. He, therefore, took
with him a splendid court, and a considerable force, and entered the
province of Gaul, where he caused the inhabitants to be numbered. 17.
From Gaul he went into Germany, thence to Holland, and afterwards
passed over into Britain; where, reforming many abuses, and
reconciling the natives to the Romans, he, for the better security of
the southern parts of the kingdom, built a wall of wood and earth,
extending from the river E'den, in Cumberland, to the Tyne, in
Northumberland, to prevent the incursions of the Picts, and other
barbarous nations of the north. 18. From Britain, returning through
Gaul, he directed his journey to Spain, his native country, where he
was received with great joy. 19. Returning to Rome, he continued there
for some time, in order to prepare for his journey into the east,
which was hastened by a new invasion of the Par'thians. His approach
compelling the enemy to peace, he pursued his travels without
molestation. He visited the famous city of Athens; there making a
considerable stay, he was initiated into the Eleusin'ian mysteries,
which were accounted the most sacred in the Pagan mythology, and took
upon him the office of archon or chief magistrate. 20. In this place,
also, he remitted the severity of the Christian persecution. He was
even so far reconciled to their sect, as to think of introducing
Christ among the number of the gods. 21. From thence he crossed over
into Africa, and spent much time in reforming abuses, regulating the
government, deciding controversies, and erecting magnificent
buildings. Among the rest, he ordered Carthage[4] to be rebuilt,
calling it after his own name, Adrian'ople.[5] 22. Again he returned
to Rome; travelled a second time into Greece; passed over into Asia
Minor; from thence into Syr'ia; gave laws and instructions to all the
neighbouring kings; entered Pal'estine, Arabia, and Egypt, where he
caused Pompey's tomb, that had been long neglected, and almost covered
with sand, to be repaired and beautified. 23. He gave orders for the
rebuilding of Jerusalem; which was performed with great expedition by
the assistance of the Jews, who now began to conceive hopes of being
restored to their long lost kingdom. 24. But these expectations only
served to aggravate their calamities: for, being incensed at the
privileges which were granted the Pagan worshippers in their new city,
they fell upon the Romans and Christians that were dispersed
throughout Jude'a, and unmercifully put them all to the sword. 25.
A'drian, sending a powerful body of men against them, obtained many
signal, though bloody victories, over the insurgents. The war was
concluded in two years, by the demolition of above one thousand of
their best towns, and the destruction of nearly six hundred thousand
men in battle.
26. Having thus effectually quelled this dangerous insurrection, he
banished all those who remained in Judea; and by a public decree
forbade them to come within view of their native soil. But he was soon
after alarmed by a dangerous irruption of the barbarous nations to the
northward of the empire; who, entering Me'dia with great fury and
passing through Arme'nia, carried their devastations as far as
Cappado'cia. Preferring peace, however, upon any terms, to an
unprofitable war, A'drian bought them off by large sums of money; so
that they returned peaceably into their native wilds, to enjoy their
plunder, and to meditate fresh invasions.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. Was Trajan uniformly merciful?
2. Was the persecution of long duration?
3. What remarkable event happened in this reign?
4. Where did the rebellion principally rage?
5. What were these barbarities?
6. Were no steps taken to repress this insurrection?
7. How was Trajan employed at this time, and what was his end?
8. Who succeeded him?
9. What was the character of Adrian?
10. Was he a virtuous character?
11. Were not his virtues counterbalanced?
12. By whom was the empire now invaded?
13. What wise measure did Adrian contemplate?
14. What remarkable edifice did he destroy?
15. Was he attentive to the concerns of the empire?
16. Why did he do this?
17. What places did he next visit?
18. Whither did he next proceed?
19. Mention his further progress, and the incidents that occurred.
20. Was he merciful to the Christians?
21. Whither did he next repair, and how did he employ himself?
22. Proceed in the description of his route.
23. Did he not favour the Jews?
24. Did they profit by this favourable disposition in the emperor?
25. Was this cruelty punished?
26. What followed this dangerous insurrection?
SECTION III.
Trajan and he,[6] with the mild sire and son
His son of virtue; eased awhile mankind;
And arts revived beneath their gentle beam.--_Thomson_.
1. Having spent thirteen years in travelling and reforming the abuses
of the empire, A'drian at last resolved to end his fatigues at Rome.
2. Nothing could be more grateful to the people than his resolution of
coming to reside for the rest of his days among them; they received
him with the loudest demonstrations of joy; and though he now began to
grow old and unwieldy, he remitted not the least of his former
assiduity and attention to the public welfare. 3. His chief amusement
was in conversing with the most celebrated men in every art and
science, frequently asserting, that he thought no kind of knowledge
inconsiderable, or to be neglected, either in his private or public
capacity. 4. He ordered the knights and senators never to appear in
public, but in the proper habits of their orders. He forbade
masters to kill their slaves, as had been before allowed; but
ordained that they should be tried by the laws. 5. He still further
extended the lenity of the laws to those unhappy men, who had long
been thought too mean for justice: if a master was found killed in his
house, he would not allow all his slaves to be put to the torture as
formerly, but only such as might have perceived and prevented the
murder.
6. In such employments he spent the greatest part of his time; but at
last finding the duties of his station daily increasing, and his own
strength proportionally upon the decline, he resolved on adopting a
successor, and accordingly chose Antoni'nus to that important station.
7. While he was thus careful in providing for the future welfare of
the state, his bodily infirmities became so insupportable, that he
vehemently desired some of his attendants to dispatch him. 8.
Antoni'nus, however, would by no means permit any of the domestics to
be guilty of so great an impiety, but used all the arts in his power
to reconcile the emperor to sustain life. 9. His pain daily
increasing, he was frequently heard to cry out, "How miserable a thing
it is to seek death, and not to find it!" After enduring some time
these excruciating tortures, he at last resolved to observe no
regimen, saying, that kings sometimes died merely by the multitude of
their physicians. 10. This conduct served to hasten that death he
seemed so ardently to desire; and it was probably joy upon its
approach which dictated the celebrated stanzas that are so well
known;[7] and while repeating which he expired, in the sixty-second
year of his age, after a prosperous reign of twenty-one years and
eleven months.
11. Titus Antoni'nus, his successor, was born at Lavin'ium, near Rome,
but his ancestors came originally from Nismes, in Gaul. His father was
a nobleman, who had enjoyed the highest honours of the empire.
[Sidenote: U.C. 891]
At the time of his succeeding to the throne he was above fifty years
old, and had passed through many of the most important offices of the
state with great integrity and application. 12. His virtues in private
life were no way impaired by his exaltation, as he showed himself one
of the most excellent princes for justice, clemency, and moderation;
his morals were so pure, that he was usually compared to Numa, and was
surnamed the Pious, both for his tenderness to his predecessor
A'drian, when dying, and his particular attachment to the religion of
his country.
13. He was an eminent rewarder of learned men, to whom he gave large
pensions and great honours, collecting them around him from all parts
of the world. 14. Among the rest, he sent for Apollo'nius, the famous
stoic philosopher, to instruct his adopted son, Mar'cus Aure'lius.
Apollo'nius being arrived, the emperor desired his attendance; but the
other arrogantly answered, that it was the scholar's duty to wait upon
the master, not the master upon the scholar. 15. To this reply,
Antoni'nus only returned with a smile, "That it was surprising how
Apollo'nius, who made no difficulty of coming from Greece to Rome,
should think it hard to walk from one part of Rome to another;" and
immediately sent Mar'cus Aure'lius to him.[8] 16. While the good
emperor was thus employed in making mankind happy, in directing their
conduct by his own example, or reproving their follies by the keenness
of rebuke, he was seized with a violent fever, and ordered his friends
and principal officers to attend him. 17. In their presence he
confirmed the adoption of Mar'cus Aure'lius; then commanding the
golden statue of Fortune, which was always in the chamber of the
emperors, to be removed to that of his successor, he expired in the
seventy-fourth year of his age, after a prosperous reign of
twenty-two years and almost eight months.[9]
[Sidenote: U.C. 914.]
18. Mar'cus Aure'lius, though left sole successor to the throne, took
Lu'cius Ve'rus as his associate and equal, in governing the state. 19.
Aure'lius was the son of An'nius Ve'rus, of an ancient and illustrious
family, which claimed its origin from Nu'ma. Lu'cius Ve'rus was the
son of Com'modus, who had been adopted by A'drian, but died before he
succeeded to the throne. 20. Aure'lius was as remarkable for his
virtues and accomplishments, as his partner in the empire was for his
ungovernable passions and debauched morals. The one was an example of
the greatest goodness and wisdom; the other of ignorance, sloth, and
extravagance.
21. The two emperors were scarcely settled on the throne, when the
empire was attacked on every side, from the barbarous nations by which
it was surrounded. The Cat'ti invaded Germany and Rhoe'tia, ravaging
all with fire and sword; but were repelled by Victori'nus. The Britons
likewise revolted, but were repressed by Capur'nius. 22. But the
Parthians, under their king Volog'esus, made an irruption still more
dreadful than either of the former; destroying the Roman legions in
Arme'nia; then entering Syria, they drove out the Roman governor, and
filled the whole country with terror and confusion. To repel this
barbarous eruption, Ve'rus went in person, being accompanied by
Aure'lius part of the way.
23. Ve'rus, however, proceeded no farther than An'tioch, and there
gave an indulgence to every appetite, rioting in excesses unknown even
to the voluptuous Greeks; leaving all the glory of the field to his
lieutenants, who were sent to repress the enemy. 24. These, however,
fought with great success; for in the four years that the war lasted,
the Romans entered far into the Parthian country, and entirely subdued
it; but upon their return their army was wasted to less than half its
original number by pestilence and famine. 25. This, however, was no
impediment to the vanity of Ve'rus, who resolved to enjoy the honours
of a triumph, so hardly earned by others. Having appointed a king over
the Arme'nians, and finding the Parthians entirely subdued, he assumed
the titles of Arme'nius and Parthi'cus; and on his return to Rome, he
partook of a triumph with Aure'lius, which was solemnized with great
pomp and splendour.
26. While Ve'rus was engaged in this expedition, Aure'lius was
sedulously intent upon distributing justice and happiness to his
subjects at home. He first applied himself to the regulation of
public affairs, and to the correcting of such faults as he found in
the laws and policy of the state. 27. In this endeavour he showed a
singular respect for the senate, often permitting them to determine
without appeal; so that the commonwealth seemed in a manner once more
revived under his equitable administration. 28. Besides, such was his
application to business, that he often employed ten days together on
the same subject, maturely considering it on all sides, and seldom
departing from the senate-house till the assembly was dismissed by the
consul. 29. But he was daily mortified with accounts of the enormities
of his colleague; being repeatedly assured of his vanity and
extravagance. 30. However, feigning himself ignorant of these
excesses, he judged marriage to be the best method of reclaiming him;
and, therefore, sent him his daughter Lucil'la, a woman of great
beauty, whom Ve'rus married at Antioch. 31. But even this was found
ineffectual, for Lucil'la proved of a disposition very unlike her
father; and, instead of correcting her husband's extravagances only
contributed to inflame them. 32. Aure'lius still hoped that, upon the
return of Ve'rus to Rome, his presence would keep him in awe, and that
happiness would at length be restored to the state. In this he was
also disappointed. His return seemed fatal to the empire; for his army
carried back the plague from Par'thia, and disseminated the infection
into the provinces through which it passed.
33. Nothing could exceed the miserable state of things upon the return
of Ve'rus. In this horrid picture were represented an emperor, unawed
by example or the calamities surrounding him, giving way to unheard-of
crimes; a raging pestilence spreading terror and desolation through
all parts of the western world; earthquakes, famines, inundations,
almost unexampled in history; the products of the earth through all
Italy devoured by locusts; the barbarous nations around the empire
taking advantage of its various calamities, and making their
irruptions even into Italy itself. 34. The priests doing all they
could to put a stop to the miseries of the state, by attempting to
appease the gods, vowing and offering numberless sacrifices;
celebrating all the sacred rites that had ever been known in Rome. 35.
To crown the whole, these enthusiasts, as if the impending calamities
had not been sufficient, ascribed the distresses of the state to the
impieties of the Christians. A violent persecution ensued in all
parts of the empire; and Justin Martyr, Polycarp'us, and a prodigious
number of less note, suffered martyrdom.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. Did Adrian enjoy repose from this time?
2. Was this resolution agreeable to the people?
3. How did he amuse himself?
4. What new edicts did he issue?
5. Did he not ameliorate the condition of slaves?
6. Was he still equal to the fatigues of the empire?
7. Were not his sufferings great?
8. Were his wishes complied with?
9. Were these arts successful?
10. What was the consequence of this conduct?
11. Who was his successor?
12. Did he preserve his virtue on his exaltation?
13. Was he a favourer of learning?
14. What anecdote is related of one of these?
15. What was the emperor's reply?
16. Did he experience a long and prosperous reign?
17. Whom did he appoint as his successor?
18. Was Marcus Aurelius sole emperor?
19. Who were Aurelius and Lucius Verus?
20. Were their characters similar?
21. Was their reign peaceable?
22. Was there not a more formidable invasion still?
23. Did Verus show himself worthy of the trust?
24. Were they successful?
25. Did Verus appear to feel this misfortune?
26. How was Aurelius employed in the mean time?
27. Did he do this solely by his own authority?
28. Was he hasty in his decisions?
29. Was he acquainted with the follies of his colleague?
30. How did he attempt his reformation?
31. Was this effectual?
32. What farther hopes did Aurelius entertain?
33. What was the state of the empire at this period?
34. What were the means made use of to avert these calamities?
35. To whom were they imputed?
SECTION IV.
And wise Aurelius, in whose well-taught mind,
With boundless power unbounded virtue join'd.
His own strict judge, and patron of mankind.--_Pope._
1. In this scene of universal tumult, desolation and distress, there
was nothing left but the virtues and the wisdom of one man to restore
tranquillity and happiness to the empire. 2. Aure'lius began his
endeavours by marching against the Marcoman'ni and Qua'di, taking
Ve'rus with him, who reluctantly left the sensual delights of Rome for
the fatigues of a camp. 3. They came up with the Marcoman'ni near the
city of Aquile'ia, and after a furious engagement, routed their whole
army; then pursuing them across the Alps, overcame them in several
contests; and, at last, entirely defeating them, returned into Italy
without any considerable loss.
[Sidenote: U.C. 022 A.D. 169.]
4. As the winter was far advanced, Ve'rus was determined on going to
Rome, in which journey he was seized with an apoplexy that put an end
to his life, at the age of thirty-nine, having reigned in conjunction
with Aure'lius nine years.
5. Aure'lius, who had hitherto sustained the fatigues of governing,
not only an empire, but his colleague, began to act with greater
diligence, and more vigour than ever. After thus subduing the
Marcoman'ni, he returned to Rome, where he resumed his attempts to
benefit mankind by a farther reformation.
6. But his good endeavours were soon interrupted by a renewal of the
former wars. In one of the engagements that ensued, he is said to have
been miraculously relieved when his army was perishing with thirst, by
the prayers of a Christian legion[10] which had been levied in his
service; for we are told, that there fell such a shower of rain, as
instantly refreshed the fainting army. The soldiers were seen holding
their mouths and their helmets towards heaven, to catch the water
which came so wonderfully to their relief. 7. The same clouds which
served for their rescue, discharged so terrible a storm of hail,
accompanied with thunder, against the enemy, as astonished and
confused them. By this unlooked-for aid, the Romans, recovering
strength and courage, renewed the engagement with fresh vigour, and
cut the enemy to pieces. 8. Such are the circumstances of an event,
acknowledged by Pagan as well as Christian writers; only with this
difference, that the latter ascribe the miracle to their own, the
former to the prayers of their emperor. However this be, Aure'lius
seemed so sensible of miraculous assistance, that he immediately
relaxed the persecution against the Christians, and wrote to the
senate in their favour.
9. Soon after this event, Avid'ius Cas'sius, one of the generals
who had fought with such success against the Parthians, assumed the
imperial purple, but was shortly after killed in an engagement. When
his head was brought to Aure'lius, he expressed great sorrow, turned
his eyes away, and caused it to be honourably interred, complaining
that he had been robbed of an opportunity of showing mercy. On being
blamed for his too great lenity to the relatives and friends of
Cas'sius, he sublimely replied, "We have not lived nor served the gods
so ill, as to think that they would favour Cas'sius."
10. He usually called philosophy his mother, in opposition to the
court, which he considered as his step-mother. He also frequently
said, "the people are happy whose kings are philosophers." He was,
independent of his dignity, one of the most considerable men then
existing; and, though he had been born in the meanest station, his
merits as a writer (for his works remain to this day) would have
insured him immortality.
11. Having thus restored prosperity to his subjects, and peace to
mankind, news was brought him that the Scyth'ians, and other barbarous
nations of the north, were up in arms, and invading the empire. 12. He
once more, therefore, resolved to expose his aged person in the
defence of his country, and made speedy preparations to oppose
them.--He went to the senate, and desired to have money out of the
public treasury. He then spent three days in giving the people
lectures on the regulation of their lives; and, having finished,
departed upon his expedition, amidst the prayers and lamentations of
his subjects. Upon going to open his third campaign, he was seized at
Vienna with the plague, which stopped his farther progress. Nothing,
however, could abate his desire of being beneficial to mankind. 14.
His fears for the youth and unpromising disposition of Com'modus, his
son and successor, seemed to give him great uneasiness. He therefore
addressed his friends and the principal officers that were gathered
round his bed, expressing his hope, that as his son was now losing his
father, he would find many in them. 15. While thus speaking, he was
seized with a weakness which stopped his utterance, and brought on
death. He died in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having reigned
nineteen years. It seemed as if the glory and prosperity of the empire
died with this greatest of the Roman emperors.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. To whom did the Romans look for a restoration of the tranquillity
of the empire?
2. Against whom did Aurelius march, and who accompanied him?
3. Where did they come up with the Marcomanni, and what was the result
of the engagement?
4. What was the fate of Verus?
5. How did Aurelius act on his return to Rome?
6. What miraculous event was ascribed to the prayers of a Christian
legion?
7. How did it operate on the enemy?
8. Did not Aurelius, in consequence, interest himself in favour of the
Christians?
9. What reply did Aurelius make to these who blamed him for his lenity
to the friends of Cassius?
10. What sayings are recorded of him, and what was his character?
11. What news was brought to Aurelius soon after peace had been
restored?
12. In what way did he occupy himself previous to his departure to
oppose the enemy?
13. At what place was he seized with the plague?
14. What seemed to give him great uneasiness?
15. How old was Aurelius when he died, and how many years had he
reigned?
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Domi'tian was the last of those emperors commonly called the
Twelve Cæsars.
[2] Nerva, the most remarkable man in Rome for his virtues, recalled
all the Christians who had been banished or had emigrated under the
persecution of Domi'tian.
[3] It was customary among the Romans, for a person destitute of a son
to adopt one from another family; and the son thus adopted became
immediately invested with the same rights and privileges as if he had
been born to that station; but he had no longer any claim on the
family to which he originally belonged.
[4] Car'thage, the celebrated capital of Africa Pro'pria, was built by
the Tyr'ians, under Dido. This city, the mistress of Spain, Si'cily,
and Sardin'ia, was long the rival of Rome, till it was totally
destroyed by Scip'io the Second, surnamed Africa'nus, B.C. 147. In its
height of prosperity, it contained upwards of 700,000 inhabitants.
[5] This must be distinguished from Adrian'ople, the second city of
European Turkey, which was founded about A.M. 2782, and repaired by
the emperor Adrian, A.D. 122. Hence, its name.
[6] The poet here alludes to Titus, whom he has before been
commending; his actions are described in Chap. XXII. Sect X.
[7] These stanzas are--
Animula, vagula, blandula,
Hospes, comesque corporis
Quæ nonc abibis in loca,
Pallidula, rigida, nudula?
Nec, ut soles, dabis jocos.
Thus imitated by Prior:
Poor little pretty fluttering thing,
Must we no longer live together?
And dost thou prune thy trembling wing
To take thy flight thou know'st not whither?
Thy hum'rous vein, thy pleasing folly,
Lie all neglected, all forgot;
And pensive, wav'ring, melancholy,
Thou dread'st and hop'st thou know'st not what
[8] Antoni'nus being made a model of wisdom and virtue, he was as much
respected by foreigners as by his own people?
[9] This emperor was remarkably favourable to the Christians, and
wrote thus to his governors in Asia:--"If any one shall, for the
future, molest the Christians, and accuse them merely on account of
their religion, let the person who is arraigned be discharged, though
he is found to be a Christian, and the accuser be punished according
to the rigour of the law."
[10] Legion, a body of soldiers in the Roman army, consisting of 300
horse and 4000 foot. Figuratively, an army, a military force, or a
great number.
* * * * *
CHAPTER XXIV.
SECTION I.
FROM COMMODUS TO THE TRANSFERRING OF THE SEAT OF EMPIRE UNDER
CONSTANTINE, FROM ROME TO CONSTANTINOPLE.--U.C. 933. A.D. 180.
O name of country, once how sacred deem'd!
O sad reverse of manners, once esteem'd!
While Rome her ancient majesty maintain'd,
And in his capitol while Jove imperial reign'd.--_Horace_.
1. The merits of Aurelius procured Commodus an easy accession to the
throne.[1] He was acknowledged emperor by the army, by the senate and
people, and afterwards by all the provinces.
2. But his whole reign was a tissue of wantonness and folly, cruelty
and injustice, rapacity and corruption. So strong a similitude was
there between his conduct and that of Domi'tian, that a reader might
imagine he was going over the history of the same reign. 3. He spent
the day in feasting, and the night in the most abominable
wickedness. He would sometimes go about the markets in a frolic, with
small wares, as a petty chapman; sometimes he affected to be a
horse-courser; at other times he drove his own chariot, in a slave's
habit. Those he promoted resembled himself, being the companions of
his pleasures, or the ministers of his cruelties.
4. If any person desired to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining
with Com'modus for a sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in
any manner he thought proper. He commanded a person to be cast to the
wild beasts for reading the life of Calig'ula in Sueto'nius. He
ordered another to be thrown into a burning furnace, for accidentally
overheating his bath. He would sometimes, when he was in a pleasant
humour, cut off men's noses, under pretence of shaving their beards;
and yet he was himself so jealous of all mankind, that he thought it
necessary to be his own barber.
5. At length, upon the feast of Janus, resolving to fence before the
people, as a common gladiator, three of his friends remonstrated with
him upon the indecency of such behaviour: these were Læ'tus, his
general; Elec'tus, his chamberlain; and Mar'cia, of whom he always
appeared excessively fond. 6. Their advice was attended with no other
effect than that of exciting him to resolve upon their destruction. 7.
It was his method, like that of Domi'tian, to set down the names of
all such as he intended to put to death in a roll, which he carefully
kept by him. However, at this time, happening to lay the roll on his
bed, while he was bathing a another room, it was taken up by a little
boy whom he passionately loved. The child, after playing with it some
time brought it to Mar'cia, who was instantly alarmed at the contents.
8. She immediately discovered her terror to Læ'tus and Elec'tus, who,
perceiving their dangerous situation, instantly resolved upon the
tyrant's death. 9. After some deliberation, it was agreed to dispatch
him by poison; but this not succeeding, Mar'cia hastily introduced a
young man, called Narcis'sus, whom she prevailed upon to assist in
strangling the tyrant. Com'modus died in the thirty-first year of his
age, after an impious reign of twelve years and nine months.
[Sidenote: U.C. 945. A.D. 192.]
10. Such were the secrecy and expedition with which Com'modus was
assassinated, that few were acquainted with the real circumstances of
his death. His body was wrapt up as a bale of useless furniture,
and carried through the guards, most of whom were either drunk or
asleep.
11. Hel'vius Per'tinax, whose virtues and courage rendered him worthy
of the most exalted station, and who had passed through many changes
of fortune, had been previously fixed upon to succeed him. When,
therefore, the conspirators repaired to his house, to salute him
emperor, he considered it as a command from the emperor Com'modus for
his death. 12. Upon Læ'tus entering his apartment, Per'tinax, without
any show of fear, cried out, that for many days he had expected to end
his life in that manner, wondering that the emperor had deferred it so
long. He was not a little surprised when informed of the real cause of
their visit; and being strongly urged to accept of the empire, he at
last complied. 13. Being carried to the camp, Per'tinax was proclaimed
emperor, and soon after was acknowledged by the senate and citizens.
They then pronounced Com'modus a parricide, an enemy to the gods, his
country, and all mankind; and commanded that his corpse should rot
upon a heap of dirt. 14. In the mean time they saluted Per'tinax as
emperor and Cæsar, with numerous acclamations, and cheerfully took the
oaths of obedience. The provinces soon after followed the example of
Rome; so that he began his reign with universal satisfaction to the
whole empire, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.
15. Nothing could exceed the justice and wisdom of this monarch's
reign, during the short time it continued. But the prætorian soldiers,
whose manners he attempted to reform, having been long corrupted by
the indulgence and profusion of their former monarch, began to hate
him for his parsimony, and the discipline he had introduced among
them. 16. They therefore resolved to dethrone him; and accordingly, in
a tumultuous manner, marched through the streets of Rome, entered his
palace without opposition, where a Tungrian soldier struck him dead
with a blow of his lance. 17. From the number of his adventures he was
called the tennis-ball of fortune; and certainly no man ever went
through such a variety of situations with so blameless a character. He
reigned but three months.
[Sidenote: U.C. 954. A.D. 201]
18. The soldiers having committed this outrage, made proclamation,
that they would sell the empire to whoever would purchase it at the
highest price. 19. In consequence of this proclamation, two
bidders were found, namely, Sulpicia'nus and Did'ius. The former
a consular person, prefect of the city, and son-in-law to the late
emperor Per'tinax. The latter a consular person likewise, a great
lawyer, and the wealthiest man in the city. 20. Sulpicia'nus had
rather promises than treasure to bestow. The offers of Did'ius, who
produced immense sums of ready money, prevailed. He was received into
the camp, and the soldiers instantly swore to obey him as emperor. 21.
Upon being conducted to the senate-house, he addressed the few that
were present in a laconic speech, "Fathers, you want an emperor, and I
am the fittest person you can choose." The choice of the soldiers was
confirmed by the senate, and Did'ius was acknowledged emperor, in the
fifty-seventh year of his age. 22. It should seem, by this weak
monarch's conduct when seated on the throne, that he thought the
government of an empire rather a pleasure than a toil. Instead of
attempting to gain the hearts of his subjects, he gave himself up to
ease and inactivity, utterly regardless of the duties of his station.
He was mild and gentle indeed, neither injuring any, nor expecting to
be injured. 23. But that avarice by which he became opulent, still
followed him in his exaltation; so that the very soldiers who elected
him soon began to detest him, for qualities so opposite to a military
character. 24. The people also, against whose consent he was chosen,
were not less his enemies. Whenever he issued from his palace, they
openly poured forth their imprecations against him, crying out, that
he was a thief, and had stolen the empire. 25. Did'ius, however,
patiently bore all their reproach, and testified his regard by every
kind of submission. 26. Soon after Seve'rus, an African by birth,
being proclaimed by his army, began his reign by promising to revenge
the death of Per'tinax.
27. Did'ius upon being informed of his approach towards Rome, obtained
the consent of the senate to send him ambassadors, offering to make
him a partner in the empire. 28. But Seve'rus rejected this offer,
conscious of his own strength, and of the weakness of the proposer.
The senate appeared to be of the same sentiment; and perceiving the
timidity and weakness of their present master, abandoned him. 29.
Being called together, as was formerly practised in the times of the
commonwealth, by the consuls, they unanimously decreed, that Did'ius
should be deprived of the empire, and that Severus should be
proclaimed in his stead. They then commanded Did'ius to be slain, and
sent messengers for this purpose to the palace, who, having found
him, with a few friends that still adhered to his interest, they
struck off his head.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. Did Commodus succeed peaceably?
2. Did he imitate his father's virtues?
3. Mention some of his follies?
4. Mention some of his wanton cruelties?
5. Who remonstrated with him on this conduct?
6. What effect did this remonstrance produce?
7. How was this discovered?
8. What was the consequence?
9. How was it affected?
10. Were the circumstances of his death generally known?
11. Who succeeded him?
12. Did Pertinax discover any signs of fear?
13. What ensued on his compliance?
14. Was he acceptable to the Roman people?
15. How did he govern?
16. What was the consequence?
17. By what appellation was he distinguished, and why?
18. How was the imperial purple next disposed of?
19. Who were the candidates?
20. Who was the successful candidate?
21. Was he acknowledged by the senate?
22. What was his conduct as emperor?
23. What gained him the hatred of the soldiers?
24. Was he a favourite of the people?
25. How did Didius bear this?
26. What new competitor for the throne appeared?
27. How did Didius act on this occasion?
28. Was his offer accepted?
29. What was the event?
SECTION II.
There's nought so monstrous but the mind of man,
In some conditions, may be brought to approve;
Theft, sacrilege, treason, and parricide,
When flattering opportunity enticed,
And desperation drove, have been committed
By those who once would start to hear them named.--_Lillo_.
1. Seve'rus having overcome Niger, A.D. 194, and Albinus, A.D. 198,
who were his competitors for the empire, assumed the reins of
government, uniting great vigour with the most refined policy; yet his
African cunning was considered as a singular defect in him. 2. He is
celebrated for his wit, learning, and prudence; but execrated for
his perfidy and cruelty. In short, he seemed equally capable of
the greatest acts of virtue, and the most bloody severities. 3. He
loaded his soldiers with rewards and honours, giving them such
privileges as strengthened his own power, while they destroyed that of
the senate; for the soldiers, who had hitherto showed the strongest
inclination to an abuse of power, were now made arbiters of the fate
of emperors. 4. Being thus secure of his army he resolved to give way
to his natural desire of conquest, and to turn his arms against the
Parthians, who were then invading the frontiers of the empire. 5.
Having, therefore, previously given the government of domestic policy
to one Plau'tian, a favourite, to whose daughter he married his son
Caracal'la, he set out for the east, and prosecuted the war with his
usual expedition and success. 6. He compelled submission from the king
of Arme'nia, destroyed several cities of Ara'bia Felix, landed on the
Parthian coast, took and plundered the famous city of Ctes'iphon,
marched back through Pal'estine and Egypt, and at length returned to
Rome in triumph. 7. During this interval, Plau'tian, who was left to
direct the affairs of Rome, began to think of aspiring to the empire
himself. Upon the emperor's return, he employed a tribune of the
prætorian cohorts, of which he was commander, to assassinate him, and
his son Caracal'la. 8. The tribune informed Seve'rus of his
favourite's treachery. He at first received the intelligence as an
improbable story, and as the artifices of one who envied his
favourite's fortune. However, he was at last persuaded to permit the
tribune to conduct Plau'tian to the emperor's apartments to be a
testimony against himself. 9. With this intent the tribune went and
amused him with a pretended account of his killing the emperor and his
son; desiring him, if he thought fit to see them dead, to go with him
to the palace. 10. As Plau'tian ardently desired their death, he
readily gave credit to the relation, and, following the tribune, was
conducted at midnight into the innermost apartments of the palace. But
what must have been his surprise and disappointment, when, instead of
finding the emperor lying dead, as he expected, he beheld the room
lighted up with torches, and Seve'rus surrounded by his friends,
prepared in array to receive him. 11. Being asked by the emperor, with
a stern countenance, what had brought him there at that unseasonable
time, he ingenuously confessed the whole, entreating forgiveness
for what he had intended. 12. The emperor seemed inclined to pardon;
but Caracal'la, his son, who from the earliest age showed a
disposition to cruelty, ran him through the body with his sword. 13.
After this, Seve'rus spent a considerable time in visiting some cities
in Italy, permitting none of his officers to sell places of trust or
dignity, and distributing justice with the strictest impartiality. He
then undertook an expedition into Britain, where the Romans were in
danger of being destroyed, or compelled to fly the province. After
appointing his two sons, Caracal'la and Ge'ta, joint successors in the
empire, and taking them with him, he landed in Britain, A.D. 208, to
the great terror of such as had drawn down his resentment. 14. Upon
his progress into the country, he left his son Ge'ta in the southern
part of the province, which had continued in obedience, and marched,
with his son Caracal'la, against the Caledo'nians. 15. In this
expedition, his army suffered prodigious hardships in pursuing the
enemy; they were obliged to hew their way through intricate forests,
to drain extensive marshes, and form bridges over rapid rivers; so
that he lost fifty thousand men by fatigue and sickness. 16. However,
he surmounted these inconveniences with unremitting bravery, and
prosecuted his successes with such vigour, that he compelled the enemy
to beg for peace; which they did not obtain without the surrender of a
considerable part of their country. 17. It was then that, for its
better security, he built the famous wall, which still goes by his
name, extending from Solway Frith on the west, to the German Ocean on
the east. He did not long survive his successes here, but died at
York, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after an active, though
cruel reign of about eighteen years.
[Sidenote: U.C.964 A.D.211]
18. Caracal'la and Ge'ta, his sons, being acknowledged as emperors by
the army, began to show a mutual hatred to each other, even before
their arrival at Rome. But this opposition was of no long continuance;
for Caracal'la, being resolved to govern alone, furiously entered
Ge'ta's apartment, and, followed by ruffians, slew him in his mother's
arms. 19. Being thus sole emperor, he went on to mark his course with
blood. Whatever was done by Domi'tian or Ne'ro, fell short of this
monster's barbarities.[2]
[Illustration: Massacre of the Alexandrians.]
20. His tyrannies at length excited the resentment of Macri'nus, the
commander of the forces in Mesopota'mia who employed one Mar'tial, a
man of great strength, and a centurion of the guards, to dispatch him.
21. Accordingly, as the emperor was riding out one day, near a little
city called Carræ, he happened to withdraw himself privately, upon a
natural occasion, with only one page to hold his horse. This was the
opportunity Mar'tial had so long and ardently desired: when, running
to him hastily, as if he had been called, he stabbed the emperor in
the back, and killed him instantly. 22. Having performed this hardy
attempt, he, with apparent unconcern, returned to his troop; but,
retiring by insensible degrees, he endeavoured to secure himself by
flight. His companions, however, soon missing him, and the page giving
information of what had been done, he was pursued by the German horse,
and cut in pieces.
23. During the reign of this execrable tyrant, which continued six
years, the empire was every day declining; the soldiers were entirely
masters of every election; and as there were various armies in
different parts, so there were as many interests opposed to each
other.
[Sidenote: U.C.970 A.D.217]
24. The soldiers, after remaining without an emperor two days, fixed
upon Macri'nus, who took all possible methods to conceal his being
privy to Caracal'la's murder. The senate confirmed their choice
shortly after; and likewise that of his son, Diadumenia'nus, whom he
took as partner in the empire. 25. Macri'nus was fifty-three
years old when he entered upon the government. He was of obscure
parentage; some say by birth a Moor, who, by the mere gradation of
office, being made first prefect of the prætorian bands, was now, by
treason and accident, called to fill the throne.
26. He was opposed by the intrigues of Mosa, and her grandson
Heliogaba'lus; and being conquered by some seditious legions of his
own army, he fled to Chalcedon,[3] where those who were sent in
pursuit overtook him, and put him to death, together with his son
Diadumenia'nus, after a short reign of one year and two months.
[Sidenote: U.C.971 A.D.218]
27. The senate and citizens of Rome being obliged to submit, as usual,
to the appointment of the army, Heliogaba'lus ascended the throne at
the age of fourteen. His short life was a mixture of effeminacy, lust,
and extravagance. 28. He married six wives in the short space of four
years, and divorced them all. He was so fond of the sex, that he
carried his mother with him to the senate-house, and demanded that she
should always be present when matters of importance were debated. He
even went so far as to build a senate-house for women, appointing them
suitable orders, habits and distinctions, of which his mother was made
president. 29. They met several times; all their debates turned upon
the fashions of the day, and the different formalities to be used at
giving and receiving visits. To these follies he added cruelty and
boundless prodigality; he used to say, that such dishes as were
cheaply obtained were scarcely worth eating.
30. However, his soldiers mutinying, as was now usual with them, they
followed him to his palace, pursuing him from apartment to apartment,
till at last he was found concealed in a closet. Having dragged him
from thence through the streets, with the most bitter invectives, and
dispatched him, they attempted once more to squeeze his pampered body
into a closet; but not easily effecting this, they threw it into the
Tiber, with heavy weights, that none might afterwards find it, or give
it burial. This was the ignominious death of Heliogaba'lus, in the
eighteenth year of his age, after a detestable reign of four
years.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. Who succeeded Didius Julianus?
2. What was the character of Severus?
3. By what means did he strengthen his power?
4. What were his first acts?
5. To whom did he commit the government in his absence?
6. What were his exploits?
7. How did Plautian conduct himself in this important post?
8. How was this treachery discovered?
9. How was this effected?
10. Did Plautian fall into the snare?
11. How did he act on the occasion?
12. Was he pardoned?
13. How did Severus next employ himself?
14. What were his first measures in Britain?
15. Was it a difficult campaign?
16. Did he overcome these difficulties?
17. What famous work did he execute, and where did he die?
18. Who succeeded him, and how did the two emperors regard each
other?
19. What was the conduct of Caracalla on thus becoming sole
emperor?
20. Were these cruelties tamely suffered?
21. How was this effected?
22. Did the assassin escape?
23. What was the state of the empire during this reign?
24. Who succeeded Caracalla?
25. Who was Macrinus?
26. By whom was he opposed, and what was his fate?
27. How did Heliogabalus govern?
28. Give a few instances of his folly?
29. Did they enter into his views, and of what farther follies and vices
was he guilty?
30. What was his end?
SECTION III.
I know that there are angry spirits
And turbulent mutterers of stifled treason,
Who lurk in narrow places, and walk out
Muffled, to whisper curses in the night;
Disbanded soldiers, discontented ruffians,
And desperate libertines who brawl in taverns.--_Byron_.
[Sidenote: U.C. 975 A.D. 222]
1. Heliogaba'lus was succeeded by Alexander, his cousin-german,[4]
who, being declared emperor without opposition, the senate, with their
usual adulation, were for conferring new titles upon him; but he
modestly declined them all. 2. To the most rigid justice he added the
greatest humanity. He loved the good, and was a severe reprover of the
lewd and infamous. His accomplishments were equal to his virtues. He
was an excellent mathematician, geometrician, and musician; he
was equally skilful in painting and sculpture; and in poetry few of
his time could equal him. In short, such were his talents, and such
the solidity of his judgment, that though but sixteen years of age, he
was considered equal in wisdom to a sage old man.
3. About the thirteenth year of his reign the Upper Germans, and other
northern nations, began to pour down in immense swarms upon the more
southern parts of the empire. They passed the Rhine and the Danube
with such fury, that all Italy was thrown into the most extreme
consternation. 4. The emperor, ever ready to expose his person for the
safety of his people, made what levies he could, and went in person to
stem the torrent, which he speedily effected. It was in the course of
his successes against the enemy that he was cut off by a mutiny among
his own soldiers. He died in the twenty-ninth year of his age, after a
prosperous reign of thirteen years and nine days.
[Sidenote: U.C.988 A.D.235]
5. The tumults occasioned by the death of Alexander being appeased,
Max'imin, who had been the chief promoter of the sedition, was chosen
emperor. 6. This extraordinary man, whose character deserves a
particular attention, was born of very obscure parentage, being the
son of a poor herdsman of Thrace. He followed his father's humble
profession, and had exercised his personal courage against the robbers
who infested that part of the country in which he lived. Soon after,
his ambition increasing, he left his poor employment and enlisted in
the Roman army, where he soon became remarkable for his great
strength, discipline, and courage. 7. This gigantic man, we are told,
was eight feet and a half high; he had strength corresponding to his
size, being not more remarkable for the magnitude than the symmetry of
his person. His wife's bracelet usually served him for a thumb ring,
and his strength was so great that he was able to draw a carriage
which two oxen could not move. He could strike out the teeth of a
horse with a blow of his fist, and break its thigh with a kick. 8. His
diet was as extraordinary as his endowments: he generally ate forty
pounds weight of flesh every day, and drank six gallons of wine,
without committing any debauch in either. 9. With a frame so athletic,
he was possessed of a mind undaunted in danger, neither fearing nor
regarding any man. 10. The first time he was made known to the emperor
Seve'rus, was while he was celebrating games on the birth day of
his son Ge'ta. He overcame sixteen in running, one after the other; he
then kept up with the emperor on horseback, and having fatigued him in
the course, he was opposed to seven of the most active soldiers, and
overcame them with the greatest ease. 11. These extraordinary exploits
caused him to be particularly noticed; he had been taken into the
emperor's body guard, and by the usual gradation of preferment came to
be chief commander. In this situation he had been equally remarkable
for his simplicity, discipline, and virtue; but, upon coming to the
empire, he was found to be one of the greatest monsters of cruelty
that had ever disgraced power; fearful of nothing himself, he seemed
to sport with the terrors of all mankind.
12. However, his cruelties did not retard his military operations,
which were carried on with a spirit becoming a better monarch. He
overthrew the Germans in several battles, wasted all their country
with fire and sword for four hundred miles together, and formed a
resolution of subduing all the northern nations, as far as the ocean.
13. In these expeditions, in order to attach the soldiers more firmly
to him, he increased their pay; and in every duty of the camp he
himself took as much pains as the meanest sentinel in his army,
showing incredible courage and assiduity. In every engagement, where
the conflict was hottest, Max'imin was seen fighting in person, and
destroying all before him; for, being bred a barbarian, he considered
it his duty to combat as a common soldier, while he commanded as a
general.
14. In the mean time his cruelties had so alienated the minds of his
subjects, that secret conspiracies were secretly aimed against him.
None of them, however, succeeded, till at last his own soldiers, long
harassed by famine and fatigue, and hearing of revolts on every side,
resolved to terminate their calamities by the tyrant's death. 15. His
great strength, and his being always armed, at first deterred them
from assassinating him; but at length the soldiers, having made his
guards accomplices in their designs, set upon him while he slept at
noon in his tent, and without opposition slew both him and his son,
whom he had made his partner in the empire. 16. Thus died this most
remarkable man, after an usurpation of about three years, in the
sixty-fifth year of his age. His assiduity when in a humble station,
and his cruelty when in power, serve to evince, that there are some
men whose virtues are fitted for obscurity, as there are others
who only show themselves great when placed in an exalted station.
[Sidenote: U.C. 991. A.D. 238.]
17. The tyrant being dead, and his body thrown to dogs and birds of
prey, Pupie'nus and Balbie'nus, who had usurped the imperial purple,
continued for some time emperors, without opposition. 18. But,
differing between themselves, the prætorian soldiers, who were the
enemies of both, set upon them in their palace, at a time when their
guards were amused with seeing the Capit'oline games; and dragging
them from the palace towards the camp, slew them both, leaving their
dead bodies in the street, as a dreadful instance of unsuccessful
ambition.
[Sidenote: U.C. 991. A.D. 238.]
19. In the midst of this sedition, as the mutineers were proceeding
along, they by accident met Gor'dian, the grandson of him who was
slain in Africa: him they declared emperor on the spot. 20. This
prince was but sixteen years old when he began to reign, but his
virtues seemed to compensate for his want of experience. His principal
aims were to unite the opposing members of government, and to
reconcile the soldiers and citizens to each other. 21. The army,
however, began as usual to murmur; and their complaints were artfully
fomented by Philip, an Arabian, who was prætorian prefect, and aspired
to the sovereignty. Things thus proceeded from bad to worse. 22.
Philip was at first made equal to Gor'dian in the command of the
empire; shortly after he was invested with the sole power; and at
length, finding himself capable of perpetrating his long meditated
cruelty, Gor'dian was by his order slain, in the twenty-second year of
his age, after a successful reign of nearly six years.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. Who succeeded Heliogabalus?
2. What was his character?
3. Was his reign peaceable?
4. How did Alexander act on the occasion?
5. Who succeeded Alexander?
6. Who was Maximin?
7. Describe his person.
8. What farther distinguished him?
9. Was his mind proportioned to his body?
10. How did he attract the notice of Severus?
11. By what means did he attain rank in the army?
12. Was he equally a terror to his foreign enemies?
13. By what means did he gain the confidence of his soldiers?
14. What effect had his cruelties on the minds of his subjects?
15. How did they accomplish their purpose?
16. How long did he reign, and what inference may be drawn from his
conduct?
17. Who next mounted the imperial throne?
18. What was their end?
19. Who succeeded Pupienus and Balbienus?
20. What were the character and views of this prince?
21. Was his administration approved of by all?
22. Did Philip accomplish his ambitious design?
SECTION IV. U.C. 996.--A.D. 243.
What rein can hold licentious wickedness,
When down the hill he holds his fierce career--_Shakspeare_.
1. Philip having thus murdered his benefactor, was so fortunate as to
be immediately acknowledged emperor by the army. Upon his exaltation
he associated his son, a boy of six years of age, as his partner in
the empire; and, in order to secure his power at home, made peace with
the Persians, and marched his army towards Rome. 2. However, the army
revolting in favour of De'cius, his general, and setting violently
upon him, one of his sentinels at a blow cut off his head, or rather
cleft it asunder, separating the under jaw from the upper. He died in
the forty-fifth year of his age, after a short reign of about five
years.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1001. A.D. 248.]
3. De'cius was universally acknowledged as his successor. His activity
and wisdom seemed, in some measure, to stop the hastening decline of
the Roman empire. The senate seemed to think so highly of his merits,
that they voted him not inferior to Tra'jan; and indeed he appeared in
every instance to consult their dignity, and the welfare of all the
inferior ranks of people. 4. But no virtues could now prevent the
approaching downfall of the state; the obstinate disputes between the
Pagans and the Christians within the empire, and the unceasing
irruptions of barbarous nations from without, enfeebled it beyond the
power of remedy. 5. He was killed in an ambuscade of the enemy, in the
fiftieth year of his age, after a short reign of two years and six
months.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1004. A.D. 251.]
6. Gal'lus, who had betrayed the Roman army, had address enough to get
himself declared emperor by that part of it which survived the
defeat; he was forty-five years old when he began to reign, and
was descended from an honourable family in Rome. 7. He was the first
who bought a dishonourable peace from the enemies of the state,
agreeing to pay a considerable annual tribute to the Goths, whom it
was his duty to repress. He was regardless of every national calamity,
and was lost in debauchery and sensuality. The Pagans were allowed a
power of persecuting the Christians through all parts of the state. 8.
These calamities were succeeded by a pestilence from heaven, that
seemed to have spread over every part of the earth, and continued
raging for several years, in an unheard-of manner; as well as by a
civil war, which followed shortly after between Gallus and his general
Æmilia'nus, who, having gained a victory over the Goths, was
proclaimed emperor by his conquering army. 9. Gallus hearing this,
soon roused from the intoxications of pleasure, and prepared to oppose
his dangerous rival: but both he and his son were slain by Æmilia'nus,
in a battle fought in Mossia. His death was merited, and his vices
were such as to deserve the detestation of posterity. He died in the
forty-seventh year of his age, after an unhappy reign of two years and
four months, in which the empire suffered inexpressible calamities.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1006. A.D. 253.]
10. The senate refused to acknowledge the claims of Æmilia'nus; and an
army that was stationed near the Alps chose Vale'rian, who was their
commander, to succeed to the throne. 11. He set about reforming the
state with a spirit that seemed to mark a good and vigorous mind. But
reformation was now grown almost impracticable. 12. The Persians under
their king Sapor, invading Syr'ia, took the unfortunate Vale'rian
prisoner, as he was making preparations to oppose them; and the
indignities as well as the cruelties, which were practised upon this
unhappy monarch, thus fallen into the hands of his enemies, are almost
incredible. 13. Sapor, we are told, used him as a footstool for
mounting his horse; he added the bitterness of ridicule to his
insults, and usually observed, that an attitude like that to which
Vale'rian was reduced, was the best statue that could be erected in
honour of his victory. 14. This horrid life of insult and sufferance
continued for seven years; and was at length terminated by the cruel
Persian commanding his prisoner's eyes to be plucked out, and
afterwards causing him to be flayed alive.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1012. A.D. 259.]
15. When Vale'rian was taken prisoner, Galie'nus, his son, promising
to revenge the insult, was chosen emperor, being then about
forty-one years old. However, it was soon discovered that he sought
rather the splendours than the toils of empire; for, after having
overthrown Ingen'uus, who had assumed the title of emperor, he sat
down, as if fatigued with conquest, and gave himself up to ease and
luxury. 16. At this time, no less than thirty pretenders were seen
contending with each other for the dominion of the state, and adding
the calamities of civil war to the rest of the misfortunes of this
devoted empire. These are usually mentioned in history by the name of
the thirty tyrants. 17. In this general calamity, Galie'nus, though at
first seemingly insensible, was at length obliged for his own security
to take the field, and led an army to besiege the city of Milan, which
had been taken by one of the thirty usurping tyrants. In this
expedition he was slain by his own soldiers: Mar'tian, one of his
generals, having conspired against him.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1021. A.D. 268.]
18. Fla'vius Clau'dius being nominated to succeed, was joyfully
accepted by all orders of the state, and his title confirmed by the
senate and the people. 19. He was a man of great valour and conduct,
having performed the most excellent services against the Goths, who
had long continued to make irruptions into the empire; but, after a
great victory over that barbarous people, he was seized with a
pestilential fever at Ser'mium in Panno'nia, of which he died, to the
great regret of his subjects, and the irreparable loss of the Roman
empire.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1023. A.D. 270.]
20. Upon the death of Clau'dius, Aure'lian was acknowledged by all the
states of the empire, and assumed the command with a greater share of
power than his predecessors had enjoyed for a long time before. 21.
This active monarch was of mean and obscure parentage in Da'cia, and
about fifty-five years old at the time of his coming to the throne. He
had spent the early part of his life in the army, and had risen
through all the gradations of military rank. He was of unshaken
courage and amazing strength. He, in one engagement, killed forty of
the enemy with his own hand; and at different times above nine
hundred. In short, his valour and expedition were such, that he was
compared to Julius Cæsar; and, in fact, only wanted mildness and
clemency to be every way his equal. 22. Among those who were compelled
to submit to his power, was the famous Zeno'bia, queen of Palmy'ra. He
subdued her country, destroyed her city, and took her prisoner.
Longi'nus, the celebrated critic, who was secretary to the queen, was
by Aure'lian's order put to death. Zeno'bia was reserved to grace his
triumph; and afterwards was allotted such lands, and such an income,
as served to maintain her in almost her former splendour. 23. But the
emperor's severities were at last the cause of his own destruction.
Mnes'theus, his principal secretary, having been threatened by him for
some fault which he had committed, formed a conspiracy against him,
and as the emperor passed, with a small guard, from Ura'clea, in
Thrace, towards Byzan'tium, the conspirators set upon him at once and
slew him, in the sixtieth year of his age, after a very active reign
of almost five years.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1028. A.D. 275.]
24. After some time the senate made choice of Ta'citus, a man of great
merit, and no way ambitious of the honours that were offered him,
being at that time seventy-five years old. 25. A reign begun with much
moderation and justice, only wanted continuance to have made his
subjects happy: but after enjoying the empire about six months, he
died of a fever in his march to oppose the Persians and Scyth'ians,
who had invaded the eastern parts of the empire. 26. During this short
period the senate seemed to have possessed a large share of authority,
and the histories of the times are liberal of their praises to such
emperors as were thus willing to divide their power.
27. Upon the death of Ta'citus, his half-brother took upon himself the
title of emperor, in Cile'sia: but being twice defeated by Pro'bus, he
killed himself in despair, when the whole army, as if by common
consent, cried out that Pro'bus should be emperor. 28. He was then
forty-four years old; was born of noble parentage, and bred a soldier.
He began early to distinguish himself for his discipline and valour:
being frequently the first man that scaled the walls, or that burst
into the enemy's camp. He was equally remarkable for single combat,
and for having saved the lives of many eminent citizens. Nor were his
activity and courage when elected to the empire less apparent than in
his private station. 29. Every year now produced new calamities to the
state; and fresh irruptions on every side threatened universal
desolation. Perhaps at this time no abilities, except those of
Pro'bus, were capable of opposing such united invasions. 30. However,
in the end, his own mutinous soldiers, taking their opportunity, as he
was marching into Greece, seized and slew him, after he had reigned
six years and four months with general approbation. He was
succeeded by Ca'rus.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. Did Philip succeed without opposition?
2. Was his reign of long duration?
3. What was the character of Decius?
4. Did he restore the empire to its former grandeur?
5. What was his end?
6. Who succeeded him?
7. What was his character?
8. What farther calamities distinguished this reign?
9. What effect had this news on Gallus?
10. Who succeeded Gallus?
11. What were his first acts and their effects?
12. What disaster befel him?
13. How was he treated in captivity?
14. Did he long survive this cruelty?
15. Who succeeded him?
16. Was Galienus the only pretender to the throne?
17. What measures did Galienus adopt on this?
18. Who succeeded Galienus?
19. What were his character and end?
20. Who succeeded Claudius?
21. Who was Aurelian?
22. Over whom did he triumph?
23. What occasioned his destruction?
24. Who succeeded Aurelian?
25. Did he govern well?
26. What distinguished his reign?
27. Who succeeded Tacitus?
28. What were the qualifications of Probus?
29. What was the state of the empire at this time?
30. What was the end of Probus?
SECTION V.
U.C. 1035.--A.D. 282.
Forbid it, gods! when barbarous Scythians come
From their cold north to prop declining Rome.
That I should see her fall, and sit secure at home.--_Lucan_.
1. Ca'rus, who was prætorian prefect to the deceased emperor, was
chosen by the army to succeed him; and he, to strengthen his
authority, united his two sons, Cari'nus and Nume'rian, with him in
command; the elder of whom was as much sullied by his vices, as the
younger was remarkable for his virtues, his modesty, and courage.
2. The next object of Ca'rus was to punish the murderers of
Pro'bus, and procure public tranquillity. Several nations of the west
having revolted, he sent his son Cari'nus against them, and advanced
himself against the Sarma'tians, whom he defeated, with the loss of
sixteen thousand men killed, and twenty thousand prisoners. Soon after
this he entered Persia, and removed to Mesopota'mia. Vera'nes the
second, king of Persia, advancing against him, was defeated, and lost
Ctes'iphon, his capital. This conquest gained Ca'rus the surname of
Per'sieus; but he had not enjoyed it long, when he was struck dead, by
lightning, in his tent, with many of his attendants, after a reign of
about sixteen months. Upon the death of Ca'rus, the imperial power
devolved on his sons Cari'nus and Nume'rian, who reigned jointly. In
the first year of their accession, having made peace with the
Persians, Cari'nus advanced against Ju'lian, who had caused himself to
be proclaimed in Vene'tia,[5] and whom he defeated; when he returned
again into Gaul.
3. Cari'nus was at this time in Gaul, but Nume'rian, the younger son,
who accompanied his father in his expedition was inconsolable for his
death, and brought such a disorder upon his eyes, with weeping, that
he was obliged to be carried along with the army, shut up in a close
litter. 4. The peculiarity of his situation, after some time, excited
the ambition of A'per, his father-in-law, who supposed that he could
now, without any great danger, aim at the empire himself. He therefore
hired a mercenary villain to murder the emperor in his litter; and,
the better to conceal the fact, gave out that he was still alive, but
unable to endure the light. 5. The offensive smell, however, of the
body, at length discovered the treachery, and excited an universal
uproar throughout the whole army. 6. In the midst of this tumult,
Diocle'sian, one of the most noted commanders of his time, was chosen
emperor, and with his own hand slew A'per, having thus, as it is said,
fulfilled a prophecy, that Diocle'sian should be emperor after he had
slain a boar.[6]
[Sidenote: U.C. 1057. A.D. 284.]
7. Diocle'sian was a person of mean birth; he received his name from
Dio'clea, the town in which he was born, and was about forty years old
when he was elected to the empire. He owed his exaltation entirely to
his merit; having passed through all the gradations of office with
sagacity, courage, and success.
8. In his time, the northern hive, as it was called poured down
its swarms of barbarians upon the Roman empire. Ever at war with the
Romans, they issued forth whenever that army that was to repress their
invasions was called away; and upon its return, they as suddenly
withdrew into their cold, barren, and inaccessible retreats, which
themselves alone could endure. 9. In this manner the Scyth'ians,
Goths, Sarma'tians, Ala'ni, Car'sii, and Qua'di, came down in
incredible numbers, while every defeat seemed but to increase their
strength and perseverance. 10. After gaining many victories over
these, and in the midst of his triumphs, Diocle'sian and Maxim'ian,
his partners in the empire, surprised the world by resigning their
dignities on the same day, and both retiring into private stations.
11. In this manner Diocle'sian lived some time, and at length died
either by poison or madness, but by which of them is uncertain. His
reign of twenty years was active and useful; and his authority, which
was tinctured with severity, was adapted to the depraved state of
morals at that time.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1057. A.D. 304.]
12. Upon the resignation of the two emperors, the two Cæsars, whom
they had before chosen, were universally acknowledged as their
successors, namely, Constan'tius Chlo'rus, so called from the paleness
of his complexion, a man virtuous, valiant, and merciful; and
Gele'rius, who was brave, but brutal, incontinent and cruel. 13. As
there was such a disparity in their tempers, they readily agreed, upon
coming into full power, to divide the empire. Constan'tius was
appointed to govern the western parts, and died at York, in Britain,
A.D. 396, appointing Con'stantine, his son, as his successor.
Gale'rius was seized with a very extraordinary disorder, which baffled
the skill of his physicians, and carried him off.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1064. A.D. 311.]
14. Con'stantine, afterwards surnamed the Great, had some competitors
at first for the throne.--Among the rest was Maxen'tius, who was at
that time in possession of Rome, and a stedfast assertor of Paganism.
15. It was in Constantine's march against that usurper, we are told,
that he was converted to Christianity, by a very extraordinary
appearance. 16. One evening, the army being on its march towards Rome,
Constantine was intent on various considerations upon the fate of
sublunary things, and the dangers of his approaching expedition.
Sensible of his own incapacity to succeed without divine assistance,
he employed his meditations upon the opinions that were then
agitated among mankind, and sent up his ejaculations to heaven to
inspire him with wisdom to choose the path he should pursue. As the
sun was declining, there suddenly appeared a pillar of light in the
heavens, in the fashion of a cross, with this inscription, EN TOTTO
NIKA, IN THIS OVERCOME. 17. So extraordinary an appearance did not
fail to create astonishment, both in the emperor and his whole army,
who reflected on it as their various dispositions led them to believe.
Those who were attached to Paganism, prompted by their aruspices,
pronounced it to be a most inauspicious omen, portending the most
unfortunate events; but it made a different impression on the
emperor's mind; who, as the account goes, was farther encouraged by
visions the same night. 18. He, therefore, the day following, caused a
royal standard to be made, like that which he had seen in the heavens,
and commanded it to be carried before him in his wars, as an ensign of
victory and celestial protection. After this he consulted with the
principal teachers of Christianity, and made a public avowal of that
holy religion.
19. Con'stantine having thus attached his soldiers to his interest,
who were mostly of the Christian persuasion, lost no time in entering
Italy, with ninety thousand foot and eight thousand horse, and soon
advanced almost to the very gates of Rome. Maxen'tius advanced from
the city with an army of a hundred and seventy thousand foot, and
eighteen thousand horse. 20. The engagement was fierce and bloody,
till the cavalry of the latter being routed, victory declared upon the
side of his opponent, and he himself was drowned in his flight by the
breaking down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the Tiber.
21. In consequence of this victory, Con'stantine entered the city, but
disclaimed all the praises which the senate and people were ready to
offer; and ascribed his successes to a superior power. He even caused
the cross, which he was said to have seen in the heavens, to be placed
at the right hand of all his statues, with this inscription: "That
under the influence of that Victorious Cross, Con'stantine had
delivered the city from the yoke of tyrannical power, and had restored
the senate, and people of Rome to their ancient authority." He
afterwards ordained that no criminal should, for the future, suffer
death upon the cross, which had formerly been the most usual way of
punishing slaves convicted of capital offences. 22. Edicts were soon
after issued, declaring that the Christians should be eased of
all their grievances, and received into places of trust and authority.
23. Things continued in this state for some time. Con'tantine
contributing every thing in his power to the interest of religion, and
the revival of learning, which had long been upon the decline, and was
almost wholly extinct in his dominions. 24. But, in the midst of these
assiduities, the peace of the empire was again disturbed by the
preparations of Maxim'ian, who governed in the east; and who, desirous
of a full participation of power, marched against Licin'ius with a
very numerous army. 25. In consequence of this step, after many
conflicts, a general engagement ensued, in which Maxim'ian suffered a
total defeat; many of his troops were cut to pieces, and those that
survived submitted to the conqueror. Having, however, escaped the
general carnage, he put himself at the head of another army, resolving
to try the fortune of the field; but his death prevented the design.
26. As he died by a very extraordinary kind of madness, the
Christians, of whom he was the declared enemy, did not fail to ascribe
his end to a judgment from heaven. But this was the age in which false
opinions and false miracles made up the bulk of every history.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. Who succeeded Probus?
2. Mention the actions of Carus, and the manner of his death.
3. How were his sons affected by this catastrophe?
4. What was the consequence?
5. How was this atrocious act discovered?
6. Did Aper reap the reward of his treachery?
7. Who was Dioclesian?
8. By whom was the empire now invaded?
9. Were they effectually repelled?
10. What remarkable event now occurred?
11. What was the end of Dioclesian?
12. Who succeeded Dioclesian and Maximian?
13. How did they conduct the administration?
14. Did Constantine succeed without any opposition?
15. Did not a remarkable occurrence happen about this time?
16. Repeat the particulars.
17. What effect had this appearance on the emperor and his men?
18. What orders did he issue in consequence?
19. What was the respective strength of the hostile armies?
20. What was the result of the engagement?
21. What use did Constantine make of his victory?
22. What edicts did he publish on the occasion?
23. How was Constantine employed after this?
24. Did the peace long continue?
25. What was the consequence?
26. To what was his death ascribed?
SECTION VI.
A crown? what is it?
It is to bear the miseries of a people!
To hear their murmurs, feel their discontents,
And sink beneath a load of splendid care!
To have your best success ascribed to Fortune.
And Fortune's failures all ascribed to you!
It is to sit upon a joyless height,
To every blast of changing fate exposed!
Too high for hope! too great for happiness!--_H. More_.
1. Con'stantine and Licin'ius thus remaining undisputed possessors of,
and partners in the empire, all things promised a peaceable
continuance of friendship and power. 2. However, it was soon found
that the same ambition that aimed after a part, would be content with
nothing less than the whole. Pagan writers ascribe the rupture between
these two potentates to Con'stantine; while the Christians, on the
other hand, impute it wholly to Licin'ius. 3. Both sides exerted all
their power to gain the ascendancy; and at the head of very formidable
armies came to an engagement near Cy'balis, in Panno'nia. 4.
Con'stantine, previous to the battle, in the midst of his Christian
bishops, begged the assistance of heaven; while Licin'ius, with equal
zeal, called upon the Pagan priests to intercede with the gods in
their favour. 5. The success was on the side of truth. Con'stantine,
after experiencing an obstinate resistance, became victorious, took
the enemy's camp, and after some time compelled Licin'ius to sue for a
truce, which was agreed upon. 6. But this was of no long continuance;
for, soon after, the war breaking out afresh, the rivals came once
more to a general engagement, and it proved decisive. Licin'ius was
entirely defeated, and pursued by Con'stantine into Nicome'dia, where
he surrendered himself up to the victor; having first obtained an oath
that his life should be spared, and that he should be permitted to
pass the remainder of his days in retirement. 7. This, however,
Con'stantine shortly after broke; for either fearing his designs, or
finding him actually engaged in fresh conspiracies, he commanded him
to be put to death, together with Mar'tian, his general, who some time
before had been created Cæsar.
8. Con'stantine being thus become sole monarch, resolved to establish
Christianity on so sure a basis that no new revolution should shake
it. He commanded that, in all the provinces of the empire, the orders
of the bishops should he implicitly obeyed. He called also a general
council, in order to repress the heresies that had already crept
into the church, particularly that of A'rius. 9. To this council, at
which he presided in person, repaired about three hundred and eighteen
bishops, besides a multitude of presbyters and deacons; who all,
except about seventeen, concurred in condemning the tenets of A'rius,
who, with his associates, was banished into a remote part of the
empire.
10. Thus he restored universal tranquillity to his dominions, but was
not able to ward off calamities of a more domestic nature. As the
wretched historians of this period are entirely at variance with each
other, it is not easy to explain the motives which induced him to put
his wife Faus'ta, and his son Cris'pus, to death.
11. But it is supposed, that all the good he did was not equal to the
evil the empire sustained by his transferring the imperial seat from
Rome to Byzan'tium, or Constantino'ple, as it was afterwards called.
12. Whatever might have been the reasons which induced him to this
undertaking; whether it was because he was offended at some affronts
he had received at Rome, or that he supposed Constantino'ple more in
the centre of the empire, or that he thought the eastern parts more
required his presence, experience has shown that they were all weak
and groundless. 13. The empire had long before been in a most
declining state: but this, in a great measure, gave precipitation to
its downfall. After this, it never resumed its former splendour, but,
like a flower transplanted into a foreign clime, languished by
degrees, and at length sunk into nothing.
14. At first, his design was to build a city, which he might make the
capital of the world: and for this purpose he made choice of a
situation at Chal'cedon, in Asia Minor; but we are told that, in
laying out the ground plan, an eagle caught up the line, and flew with
it over to Byzan'tium, a city which lay on the opposite side of the
Bosphorus. 15. Here, therefore, it was thought expedient to fix the
seat of empire; and, indeed, nature seemed to have formed it with all
the conveniences, and all the beauties which might induce power to
make it the seat of residence.
16. It was situated on a plain, that rose gently from the water: it
commanded that strait which unites the Mediterranean with the Euxine
sea, and was furnished with all the advantages which the most
indulgent climate could bestow.
[Sidenote: U.C. 1084. A.D. 330.]
17. The city, therefore, he beautified with the most magnificent
edifices; he divided it into fourteen regions; built a capitol,
an amphitheatre, many churches, and other public works; and having
thus rendered it equal to the magnificence of his first idea, he
dedicated it in a very solemn manner to the God of martyrs; and in
about two years after repaired thither with his whole court.
18. This removal produced no immediate alteration in the government of
the empire. The inhabitants of Rome, though with reluctance, submitted
to the change; nor was there, for two or three years, any disturbance
in the state, until at length the Goths, finding that the Romans had
withdrawn all their garrisons along the Danube, renewed their inroads,
and ravaged the country with unheard-of cruelty. 19. Con'stantine,
however, soon repressed their incursions, and so straitened them, that
nearly a hundred thousand of their number perished by cold and hunger.
20. Another great error ascribed to him is, the dividing the empire
among his sons. Con'stantine, the emperor's eldest son, commanded in
Gaul and the western provinces; Constan'tius, the second, governed
Africa and Illyr'icum; and Con'stans, the youngest, ruled in Italy.
21. This division of the empire still further contributed to its
downfall; for the united strength of the state being no longer brought
to repress invasion, the barbarians fought with superior numbers, and
conquered at last, though often defeated. When Con'stantine was above
sixty years old, and had reigned about thirty, he found his health
decline.
22. His disorder, which was an ague, increasing, he went to
Nicome'dia, where, finding himself without hopes of a recovery, he
caused himself to be baptised. He soon after received the sacrament,
and expired.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. What was the state of the empire at this period?
2. Was this peace lasting, and by whom was it broken?
3. Was the contest likely to be vigorous?
4. In what way did the two emperors prepare for the conflict?
5. What was the result?
6. Was this truce religiously observed?
7. Did Constantine fulfil his engagement?
8. What was Constantine's resolution on becoming sole monarch, and
what steps did he take?
9. By whom was it attended, and what was the result?
10. Was he happy in his domestic relations? 11. Was the removal
of the seat of the empire beneficial to the state?
12. Were his reasons for doing so well grounded?
13. What was the consequence?
14. What was his original intention, and what induced him to alter it?
15. Was it a Convenient spot?
16. Describe its situation.
17. What alteration did he make, and to whom was it dedicated?
18. What was the immediate effect of this transfer?
19. Were they vigorously opposed?
20. Of what error is Constantine accused besides?
21. What was the consequence of this division?
22. Relate the particulars of his death.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Com'modus was the first emperor that was born in his father's
reign, and the second that succeeded his father in the empire.
[2] Being offended by the Alexan'drians, he commanded them to be put
to the sword without distinction of sex, age, or condition; every
house was filled with carcases, and the streets were obstructed with
dead bodies; this was merely in revenge for some lampoons they had
published against him.
[3] A city of Bithyn'ia, in Asia Minor, opposite to Constantinople.
[4] A Term generally applied to the children of brothers or sisters.
[5] Now called Venice.
[6] A'per signifies a boar.
* * * * *
_Dr. Goldsmith having concluded his History too abruptly, it has been
thought advisable to cancel his last Chapter, and substitute the
following brief notice of the events which occurred from the death of
Constantine to the final extinction of the Empire of the West._
* * * * *
CHAPTER XXV.
SECTION I.
FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE TO THE RE-UNION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
UNDER THEODOSIUS THE GREAT.
Talents, angel bright.
If wanting worth, are shining instruments
In false ambition's hands, to finish faults
Illustrious, and give infamy renown.--_Young_.
1. The character of the prince who removed the seat of empire and made
a complete revolution in the civil and religious institutions of his
country, is naturally one on which the opinions of historians are
divided, according to their sentiments respecting the great changes
that he effected. The heathen writers describe him as a monster of
tyranny; the Christian fathers are anxious to conceal his faults and
exaggerate his virtues, as if the nature of Christianity was in some
degree affected by the character of its first and greatest patron. The
truth is, that the character of Constantine, like that of other great
conquerors, varied with the circumstances of his life. While engaged
in the contest for empire, while employed in making unparalleled
political changes, he displayed the fortitude of a hero, and wisdom of
a legislator; but when complete success reduced him to inactivity,
when his vigorous mind was no longer stimulated by fear or hope,
prosperity roused all his bad passions by affording an opportunity for
their indulgence; and the virtues which had insured victory
disappeared when there was no longer any stimulus to rouse them into
action. The fourteen years of profound peace that preceded the
emperor's death, form a period of great external splendour, but of
real and rapid decay; the court was distinguished at once by avarice
and prodigality; the money raised by heavy taxes, unknown in former
ages, was lavished on unworthy favourites or wasted in idle
exhibitions of magnificence. 2. A mind relaxed by prosperity is
peculiarly open to suspicion; the ears of the monarch were greedily
lent to every tale brought to him by malignant spies and informers;
such encouragement increased the number of those wretches; every
street and almost every house in the capital, contained some one ever
on the watch to pick up any unguarded expression which might be
distorted into treason or sedition. It was not likely that a monarch
who had consented to the murder of his own son, on the most groundless
charges, would be more merciful to those who had no natural claims
upon his forbearance; execution followed execution with fearful
rapidity, until the bonds of society were broken, and every man
dreaded his neighbour, lest by misinterpreting a word or look, he
should expose him to the indiscriminate cruelty of the sovereign.
3. The example of their father's tyranny produced an effect on the
minds of his sons, which no education, however excellent or judicious,
could remove. Pious Christian pastors, learned philosophers, and
venerable sages of the law, were employed to instruct the three
princes, Constanti'ne, Constan'tius, and Con'stans; but the effects of
their labours never appeared in the lives of their pupils.
4. For some reasons which it is now impossible to discover, the great
Constantine had raised two of his nephews to the rank of princes, and
placed them on an equality with his own children. Before the emperor's
body was consigned to the tomb, this impolitic arrangement brought
destruction on the entire Flavian family. A forged scroll was produced
by the bishop of Nicome'dia, purporting to be Constantine's last will,
in which he accused his brothers of having given him poison, and
besought his sons to avenge his death. 5. Constan'tius eagerly
embraced such an opportunity of destroying the objects of his
jealousy; his two uncles, seven of his cousins, the patrician
Opta'lus, who married the late emperor's sister, and the prefect
Abla'vius, whose chief crime was enormous wealth, were subjected to a
mock trial, and delivered to the executioner. Of so numerous a
family Gal'lus and Julian alone were spared; they owed their
safety to their concealment, until the rage of the assassins had
abated. 6. After this massacre, the three brothers, similar in name,
and more alike in crime, proceeded to divide their father's dominions:
Constantine took for his share the new capital and the central
provinces; Thrace and the East were assigned to Constan'tius;
Con'stans received Italy, Africa, and the western Illy'ricum.
7. The weakness produced by this division encouraged the enemies of
the Romans, whom the dread of Constantine's power had hitherto kept
quiet, to take up arms. Of these the most formidable was Sa'por king
of Persia. 8. The abilities of Sapor showed that he merited a throne;
he had scarcely arrived at maturity when he led an army against Tha'ir
king of Arabia, who had harassed Persia during his minority; the
expedition was completely successful. Tha'ir was slain, and the
kingdom subdued. The young conqueror did not abuse his victory; he
treated the vanquished with such clemency, that the Arabs gave him the
title of _Doulacnaf_ or protector of the nation.
[Sidenote: A.D. 338.]
9. On the death of Constantine, Sa'por invaded the eastern provinces
of the Roman empire; he was vigorously opposed by Constan'tius, and
the war was protracted during several years with varying fortune. At
the battle of Sin'gara, the Romans surprised the Persian camp, but
were in their turn driven from it with great slaughter by the troops
which Sapor had rallied. The eldest son of the Persian king was,
however, brought off as a prisoner by the Romans, and the barbarous
Constan'tius ordered him to be scourged, tortured, and publicly
executed. 10. Though Sa'por had been victorious in the field, he
failed in his chief design of seizing the Roman fortresses in
Mesopota'mia; during twelve years he repeatedly besieged Ni'sibis,
which had been long the great eastern bulwark of the empire, but was
invariably baffled by the strength of the place, and the valour of the
garrison. At length both parties became wearied of a struggle which
exhausted their resources, and new enemies appearing, they resolved to
conclude a peace. Sa'por returned home to repel an invasion of the
Scythians; Constan'tius, by the death of his two brothers, found
himself involved in a civil war which required his undivided
attention.
11. Constan'tine had scarcely been seated on his throne, when he
attempted to wrest from Con'stans some of the provinces which had
been assigned as his portion. He rashly led his army over the Julian
Alps, and devastated the country round Aquile'ia where, falling into
an ambuscade, he perished ingloriously. Con'stans seized on the
inheritance of the deceased prince, and retained it during ten years,
obstinately refusing to give any share to his brother Constan'tius.
12. But the tyranny of Con'stans at last became insupportable.
Magnen'tius, an enterprising general, proclaimed himself emperor, and
his cause was zealously embraced by the army. Con'stans was totally
unprepared for this insurrection; deserted by all except a few
favourites, whom dread of the popular hatred they had justly incurred
prevented from desertion, he attempted to escape into Spain, but was
overtaken at the foot of the Pyrenees, and murdered. 13. The
prefectures of Gaul and Italy cheerfully submitted to the usurpation
of Magnen'tius; but the legions of Illyr'icum elected their general,
Vetra'nio, emperor, and his usurpation was sanctioned by the princess
Constanti'na, who, regardless of her brother's rights, placed the
diadem upon his head with her own hands. 14. The news of these events
hastened the return of Constan'tius to Europe; on his arrival at the
capital, he received embassies from the two usurpers, offering terms
of accommodation; he rejected the terms of Magnen'tius with disdain,
but entered into a negociation with Vetra'nio. The Illyrian leader,
though a good general, was a bad politician; he allowed himself to be
duped by long discussions, until the greater part of his army had been
gained over by Constan'tius; he then consented to a personal
interview, and had the mortification to see his soldiers, with one
accord, range themselves under the banners of their lawful sovereign.
Vetra'nio immediately fell at the feet of Constan'tius, and tendered
his homage, which was cheerfully accepted; he was not only pardoned,
but rewarded; the city of Pru'sa, in Bythnia, was allotted to him as a
residence, and a pension assigned for his support. 15. The war against
Magnen'tius was maintained with great obstinacy, but at first with
little success; the emperor was confined in his fortified camp, while
the troops of the usurper swept the surrounding country, and captured
several important posts. Constan'tius was so humbled, that he even
proposed a treaty, but the terms on which Magnen'tius insisted were so
insulting, that the emperor determined to encounter the hazard of a
battle. Scarcely had he formed this resolution, when his army was
strengthened by the accession of Sylva'nus, a general of some
reputation, who, with a large body of cavalry, deserted from the
enemy.