16. The decisive battle between the competitors for the empire, was

fought under the walls of Mur'sa, a city on the river Drave.

Magnen'tius attempted to take the place by storm, but was repulsed;

and almost at the same moment, the imperial legions were seen

advancing to raise the siege. The army of Magnen'tius consisted of the

western legions that had already acquired fame in the wars of Gaul;

with battalions of Germans and other barbarous tribes, that had of

late years been incorporated with the regular forces. In addition to

the imperial guards, Constan'tius had several troops of those oriental

archers, whose skill with the bow was so justly celebrated; but far

the most formidable part of his army were his mail-clad cuirassiers,

whose scaly armour, and ponderous lances, made their charge almost

irresistible. The cavalry on the emperor's left wing commenced the

engagement, and broke through the Gallic legions in the first charge;

the hardy veterans again rallied, were again charged, and again

broken; at length, before they could form their lines, the light

cavalry of the second rank rode, sword in hand, through the gaps made

by the cuirassiers, and completed their destruction. Meantime, the

Germans and barbarians stood exposed, with almost naked bodies, to the

destructive shafts of the oriental archers; whole troops, stung with

anguish and despair, threw themselves into the rapid stream of the

Drave, and perished. Ere the sun had set, the army of Magnen'tius was

irretrievably ruined; fifty-four thousand of the vanquished were

slain, and the loss of the conquerors is said to have been even

greater.

17. From this battle the ruin of the Roman empire may be dated; the

loss of one hundred thousand of its best and bravest soldiers could

not be repaired, and never again did any emperor possess a veteran

army equal to that which fell on the fatal plains of Mur'sa. The

defeat of Magnen'tius induced the Italian and African provinces to

return to their allegiance; the Gauls, wearied out by the exactions

which distress forced the usurper to levy, refused to acknowledge his

authority, and at length his own soldiers raised the cry of "God save

Constan'tius." To avoid the disgrace of a public execution,

Magnen'tius committed suicide, and several members of his family

imitated his example. The victor punished with relentless severity all

who had shared in the guilt of this rebellion; and several who had

been compelled to join in it by force shared the fate of those by

whom it had been planned.

18. The Roman, empire was now once more united under a single monarch;

but as that prince was wholly destitute of merit, his victory served

only to establish the reign of worthless favourites. Of these the most

distinguished was the chamberlain, Euse'bius, whose influence was so

great that he was considered the master of the emperor; and to whose

instigation many of the crimes committed by Constan'tius must be

attributed.

19 Gal'lus and Ju'lian, who had escaped in the general massacre of the

Flavian family, were detained as prisoners of state in a strong

castle, which had once been the residence of the kings of Cappado'cia.

Their education had not been neglected, and they had been assigned a

household proportionate to the dignity of their birth. At length the

emergencies of the state compelled Constan'tius to nominate an

associate in the government of the empire; and Gal'lus now in the

twenty-fifth year of his age, was summoned from his retirement,

invested with the title of Cæsar, and married to the princess

Constan'tina. 20. The latter circumstance proved his ruin; stimulated

by the cruel ambition of his wife, he committed deeds of tyranny,

which alienated the affections of his subjects, and acts bordering on

treason, that roused the jealousy of Constan'tius. He was summoned to

appear at the imperial court to explain his conduct, but was seized on

his journey, made a close prisoner, and transmitted to Po'la a town in

Ist'ria, where he was put to death.

21. Julian, the last remnant of the Flavian family, was, through the

powerful intercession of the empress, spared, and permitted to

pursue his studies in Athens. In that city, where the Pagan philosophy

was still publicly taught, the future emperor imbibed the doctrines of

the heathens, and thus acquired the epithet of Apostate, by which he

is unenviably known to posterity. Julian was soon recalled from his

retirement, and elevated to the station which his unfortunate brother

had enjoyed. His investiture with the royal purple took place at

Milan, whither Constantius had proceeded to quell a new insurrection

in the western provinces.

22. Before the emperor returned to the east, he determined to revisit

the ancient capital; and Rome, after an interval of more than thirty

years, became for a brief space the residence the sovereign. He

signalized his visit by presenting to the city an obelisk, which at a

vast expense he procured to be transported from Egypt. 23. The

renewed efforts of the Persians and other enemies of the empire in the

East, recalled Constan'tius to Constantinople, while Julian was

employed in driving from Gaul the barbarous tribes by which it had

been invaded. The conduct of the young Cæsar, both as a soldier and a

statesman, fully proved that literary habits do not disqualify a

person from discharging the duties of active life; he subdued the

enemies that devastated the country, and forced them to seek refuge in

their native forests; he administered the affairs of state with so

much wisdom, temperance, and equity, that he acquired the enthusiastic

love of his subjects, and richly earned the admiration of posterity.

24. The unexpected glory obtained by Julian, awakened the jealousy of

Constan'tius; he sent to demand from him a large body of forces, under

the pretence that reinforcements were wanting in the East; but the

soldiers refused to march, and Julian, after some affected delays,

sanctioned their disobediance. A long negociation, in which there was

little sincerity on either side, preceded any hostile step; both at

length began to put their armies in motion, but the horrors of civil

war were averted by the timely death of Constan'tius, who fell a

victim to fever, aggravated by his impatience, at a small village near

Tar'sus in Cili'cia.

_Questions for Examination_.

1. What was the character of Constantine the Great?

2. Did any evil result from the employment of spies?

3. In what manner were the sons of Constantine educated?

4. What conspiracy was formed against part of the imperial family?

5. Did any of the Flavian family escape from the massacre?

6. How was the empire divided between the sons of Constantine?

7. Who was the most formidable enemy of the empire?

8. How did the king of Persia behave in the Arabian war?

9. What were the chief events in the war between Sapor and

Constantius? 10. How were Sapor and Constantius forced to make peace?

11. What was the fate of the younger Constantine?

12. By whom was Constans dethroned?

13. What parties embraced the cause of Vetranio?

14. How did Constantius treat the Illyrian general?

15. Was Magnentius deserted by any of his forces?

16. What were the circumstances of the battle of Mursa?

17. What important results were occasioned by this great battle?

18. Who was the prime minister of Constantius?

19. Whom did the emperor select as an associate?

20. How was Gallus brought to an untimely end?

21. Where was Julian educated?

22. Did Constantius visit Rome?

23. How did Julian conduct himself in Gaul?

24. What led to the war between Julian and Constantius?

SECTION II.

To him, as to the bursting levin,

Brief, bright, resistless course was given,

Till burst the bolt on yonder shore,

Burn'd, blaz'd, destroy'd--and was no more.--_Scott_.

1. Julian was in his thirty-second year when by the death of his

cousin he became undisputed sovereign of the Roman empire; his worst

error was his apostacy from Christianity; he hated the religion he had

deserted, and laboured strenuously to substitute in its place an idle

system which combined the most rational part of the old heathen system

with the delusive philosophy of the schools. Vanity was his besetting

sin; he chose to be considered a philosopher rather than a sovereign,

and to acquire that title he thought fit to reject the decencies of

this life, and the best guide to that which is to come. A treatise is

extant from Julian's pen, in which he expatiates with singular

complacency on the filth of his beard, the length of his nails, and

the inky blackness of his hands, as if cleanliness was inconsistent

with the philosophic character! In every other respect, the conduct of

Julian merits high praise; he was just, merciful, and tolerant; though

frequently urged to become a persecutor, he allowed his subjects that

freedom of opinion which he claimed for himself, unlike Constan'tius,

who, having embraced the Arian heresy, treated his Catholic subjects

with the utmost severity. 2. But, though Julian would not inflict

punishment for a difference of opinion, he enacted several

disqualifying laws, by which he laboured to deprive the Christians of

wealth, of knowledge, and of power; he ordered their schools to be

closed, and he jealously excluded them from all civil and military

offices. 3. To destroy the effects of that prophecy in the Gospel to

which Christians may appeal as a standing miracle in proof of

revelation,--the condition of the Jews,--Julian determined to rebuild

the temple of Jerusalem, and restore the children of Israel to the

land of their fathers. Historians worthy of credit inform us, that his

plan was defeated by a direct miraculous interposition, and there are

few historical facts supported by more decisive testimony; but even if

the miracle be denied, the prophecy must be considered as having

received decisive confirmation, from the acknowledged fact, that the

emperor entertained such a design, and was unable to effect its

accomplishment.

[Illustration: Julian the Apostate, ordering the Christian schools to

be closed.]

4. The mutual hatred of the Pagans and Christians would probably have

rekindled the flames of civil war, had not Julian fallen in an

expedition against the Persians. 5. The emperor triumphantly advanced

through the dominions of Sa'por as far as the Ti'gris; but the

Asiatics, though defeated in the field, adopted means of defence more

terrible to an invader than arms. They laid waste the country,

destroyed the villages, and burned the crops in the Roman line of

march; a burning sun weakened the powers of the western veterans, and

when famine was added to the severity of the climate, their sufferings

became intolerable. 6. With a heavy heart Julian at last gave orders

to commence a retreat, and led his exhausted soldiers back over the

desert plains which they had already passed with so much difficulty.

The retrograde march was terribly harassed by the light cavalry of the

Persians, a species of troops peculiarly fitted for desultory warfare.

The difficulties of the Romans increased at every step, and the

harassing attacks of their pursuers became more frequent and more

formidable; at length, in a skirmish which almost deserved the name of

a battle, Julian was mortally wounded, and with his loss the Romans

dearly purchased a doubtful victory.

7. In the doubt and dismay which followed the death of Ju'lian, a few

voices saluted Jo'vian, the first of the imperial domestics, with the

title of emperor, and the army ratified the choice. The new sovereign

successfully repelled some fresh attacks of the Persians, but

despairing of final success, he entered into a treaty with

Sa'por, and purchased a peace, or rather a long truce of thirty years,

by the cession of several frontier provinces.

[Illustration: Jovian issuing the edict in favour of Christianity.]

8. The first care of Jo'vian was to fulfil the stipulated articles;

the Roman garrisons and colonies so long settled in the frontier towns

that they esteemed them as their native soil, were withdrawn; and the

Romans beheld with regret the omen of their final destruction in the

first dismemberment of the empire. The first edict in the new reign

contained a repeal of Julian's disqualifying laws, and a grant of

universal toleration. This judicious measure at once showed how

ineffectual had been the efforts of the late emperor to revive the

fallen spirit of paganism; the temples were immediately deserted, the

sacrifices neglected, the priests left alone at their altars; those

who, to gratify the former sovereign assumed the dress and title of

philosophers, were assailed by such storms of ridicule, that they laid

aside the designation, shaved their beards, and were soon

undistinguished in the general mass of society. 9. Jo'vian did not

long survive this peaceful triumph of Christianity; after a reign of

eight months, he was found dead in his bed, having been suffocated by

the mephitic vapours which a charcoal fire extracted from the fresh

plaster, on the walls of his apartment.

[Sidenote: A.D. 364.]

10. During ten days the Roman empire remained without a sovereign, but

finally the soldiers elevated to the imperial purple, Valentinian, the

son of count Gratian, an officer of distinguished merit. He chose as

his associate in the government his brother Valens, whose only claim

seems to have rested on fraternal affection; to him he entrusted the

rich prefecture of the East, while he himself assumed the

administration of the western provinces, and fixed the seat of his

government at Milan. 11. Though in other respects cruel, Valentinian

was remarkable for maintaining a system of religious toleration; but

Valens was far from pursuing such a laudable course. He had imbibed

the errors of Arius, and bitterly persecuted all who remained faithful

to the Catholic doctrines. By this unwise conduct he provoked a

formidable rebellion, which was headed by Proco'pius, an able general,

whom unjust persecution had stimulated to revolt. 12. The success of

the usurper was at first so great, that Va'lens was ready to yield up

his throne; but being dissuaded from this inglorious resolution, he

entrusted the conduct of the war to the aged prefect Sallust, who had

twice refused the imperial diadem. The followers of Proco'pius soon

deserted to those leaders whose names were endeared to their

recollections by the remembrance of former glories; and the

unfortunate leader, forsaken by all, was made prisoner and delivered

to the executioner.

13. In the mean time, Valenti'nian was engaged in a desperate warfare

with the German and other barbarous nations, who had recovered from

the losses which they had suffered under Ju'lian. On every frontier of

the western empire hordes of enemies appeared, eager for plunder,

regardless of their own lives, and merciless to those of others. 14.

The Picts and Scots rushed from the mountains of Caledo'nia upon the

colonies of North Britain, and devastated the country with fire and

sword, almost to the walls of London. The task of quelling these

incursions was entrusted to the gallant Theodo'sius, and the event

proved that Valentinian could not have made a better choice. In the

course of two campaigns, the invaders were driven back to their

forests, and a Roman fleet sweeping the coasts of Britain, made them

tremble for the safety of their own retreats.

15. The success of the emperor against the Saxons, the Franks, the

Alleman'ni[1], the Qua'di, and other tribes on the Rhine and Danube,

was not less conspicuous than that of Theodo'sius in Britain. 16. The

Qua'di, humbled by a severe defeat, sent ambassadors to deprecate his

displeasure; but while Valenti'nian was angrily upbraiding the

deputies for their unprovoked hostility, he ruptured a blood-vessel

and died almost instantaneously. He was succeeded by his sons Gra'tian

and Valenti'nian II.

17. A much more important change took place in the eastern world; the

first admission of the barbarian tribes into the empire, which

they finally destroyed.

[Illustration: The body of Valens, found upon the field of battle.]

[Sidenote: A.D. 376.]

The nation of the Goths had been from remote ages settled on the banks

of the Danube, and were by that river divided into two nations, the

Ostrogoths on the east, and the Visigoths on the west. They had for

many years enjoyed the blessings of profound peace under the

government of their king Herman'ric, when they were suddenly alarmed

by the appearance of vast hordes of unknown enemies on their northern

and eastern frontiers. These were the Huns, a branch of the great

Mongolian race, which, from the earliest time, had possessed the vast

and wild plains of Tartary. Terrified by the numbers, the strength,

the strange features and implacable cruelty of such foes, the Goths

deserted their country, almost without attempting opposition, and

supplicated the emperor Va'lens to grant them a settlement in the

waste lands of Thrace. This request was cheerfully granted, and the

eastern empire was supposed to be strengthened by the accession of a

million of valiant subjects, bound both by interest and gratitude to

protect its frontiers.

18. But the avarice of Va'lens and his ministers defeated these

expectations; instead of relieving their new subjects, the Roman

governors took advantage of their distress to plunder the remains of

their shattered fortunes, and to reduce their children to slavery.

Maddened by such oppression, the Goths rose in arms, and spread

desolation over the fertile plains of Thrace. Va'lens summoned his

nephew, Gratian, to his assistance; but before the emperor of the west

arrived, he imprudently engaged the Goths near Adrianople, and with

the greater part of his army fell on the field. 19. This was the

most disastrous defeat which the Romans had sustained for several

centuries; and there was reason to dread that it would encourage a

revolt of the Gothic slaves in the eastern provinces, which must

terminate in the ruin of the empire. To prevent such a catastrophe,

the senate of Constantinople ordered a general massacre of these

helpless mortals, and their atrocious edict was put into immediate

execution. 20. The Goths attempted to besiege both Adrianople and

Constantinople, but, ignorant of the art of attacking fortified

places, they were easily repelled; but they however succeeded in

forcing their way through the Thracian mountains, and spread

themselves over the provinces to the west, as far as the Adriatic sea

and the confines of Italy. The march of the emperor Gratian had been

delayed by the hostility of the Alleman'ni, whom he subdued in two

bloody engagements; but as he advanced towards Adrianople, fame

brought the news of his uncle's defeat and death, which he found

himself unable to revenge.

21. Feeling that the affairs of the East required the direction of a

mind more energetic than his own, he determined to invest with the

imperial purple, Theodo'sius, the son of that general who had rescued

Britain from the barbarians. How great must have been his confidence

in the fidelity of his new associate, who had a father's death to

revenge; for the elder Theodo'sius, notwithstanding his splendid

services, had fallen a victim to the jealous suspicions of the

emperor!

22. The reign of Theodo'sius in the East lasted nearly sixteen years,

and was marked by a display of unusual vigour and ability. He broke

the power of the Goths by many severe defeats, and disunited their

leading tribes by crafty negociations. But the continued drain on the

population, caused by the late destructive wars, compelled him to

recruit his forces among the tribes of the barbarians, and a change

was thus made in the character and discipline of the Roman army, which

in a later age produced the most calamitous consequences. The

exuberant zeal, which led him to persecute the Arians and the pagans,

occasioned some terrible convulsions, which distracted the empire, and

were not quelled without bloodshed. He, however, preserved the

integrity of the empire, and not a province was lost during his

administration.

23. The valour which Gratian had displayed in the early part of his

life, rendered the indolence and luxury to which he abandoned himself,

after the appointment of Theodo'sius, more glaring. The general

discontent of the army induced Max'imus, the governor of Britain, to

raise the standard of revolt, and, passing over to the continent, he

was joined by the greater part of the Gallic legions. When this

rebellion broke out Gratian was enjoying the sports of the field in

the neighbourhood of Paris, and did not discover his danger until it

was too late to escape. He attempted to save his life by flight, but

was overtaken by the emissaries of the usurper, near Lyons, and

assassinated. 24. Theodo'sius was induced to make peace with Max'imus,

on condition that the latter should content himself with the

prefecture of Gaul, and should not invade the territories of the

younger Valentin'ian. 25. Ambition hurried the faithless usurper to

his ruin; having by perfidy obtained possession of the passes of the

Alps, he led an overwhelming army into Italy, and Valenti'nian, with

his mother Justi'na, were scarcely able, by a hasty flight, to escape

to the friendly court of Theodo'sius.

26. The emperor of the East readily embraced the cause of the

fugitives; the numerous troops of barbarian cavalry which he had taken

into pay, enabled him to proceed with a celerity which baffled all

calculation. 27. Before Maximus could make any preparations for his

reception, Theodosius had completely routed his army, and was already

at the gates of Aquilei'a, where the usurper had taken refuge. The

garrison, secretly disinclined to the cause of Maximus, made but a

faint resistance, the town was taken, and the unfortunate ruler led as

a captive into the presence of his conqueror, by whom he was delivered

to the executioner.

Theodo'sius, having re-established the authority of the youthful

Valentin'ian, returned home. But the emperor of the West did not long

enjoy his restored throne; he was murdered by Arbogas'tes, his prime

minister, who dreaded that the abilities displayed by the young prince

would enable him, when arrived to maturity, to shake off the authority

of an unprincipled servant. 28. The assassin was afraid himself to

assume the purple, but he procured the election of Euge'nius, a man

not wholly unworthy of empire. Theodo'sius was called by these events

a second time to Italy; he passed the Alps, but found his further

progress impeded by the judicious disposition which Arbogas'tes had

made of his forces. Defeated in his first attack, Theodo'sius renewed

the engagement on the following day, and being aided by the seasonable

revolt of some Italian legions, obtained a complete victory.

Euge'nius was taken prisoner, and put to death by the soldiers.

Arbogas'tes, after wandering some time in the mountains, lost all hope

of escape, and terminated his life by suicide.

29. The empire was thus once more reunited under the government of a

single sovereign; but he was already stricken by the hand of death.

The fatigues of the late campaign proved too much for a constitution

already broken by the alternate pleasures of the palace and the toils

of the camp; four months after the defeat of Euge'nius, he died at

Milan, universally lamented.

_Questions for Examination_.

1. What was the character of Julian?

2. To what disqualifications did he subject the Christians?

3. How was Julian frustrated in his attempt to weaken the prophetic

evidence of Christianity?

4. How was a civil contest between the Pagans and Christians averted?

5. What success had Julian in the Persian invasion?

6. How did Julian die?

7. Who succeeded Julian?

8. What were the most important occurrences in the reign of Jovian?

9. What caused Jovian's death?

10. Who were the successors of Jovian?

11. How did Valens provoke a revolt?

12. By what means was the rebellion of Procopius suppressed?

13. What barbarous nations attacked the Roman empire?

14. In what state was Britain at this period?

15. Over what enemies did the emperor triumph?

16. What occasioned the death of Valentinian?

17. What caused the introduction of the Goths into the Roman empire?

18. How did the imprudence of Valens cause his destruction?

19. What atrocious edict was issued by the senate of Constantinople?

20. How was Gratian prevented from avenging his uncle's death?

21. To whom did Gratian entrust the eastern provinces?

22. How did Theodosius administer the government of the East?

23. By whom was Gratian deposed and slain?

24. On what conditions did Theodosius make peace with Maximus?

25. Were these conditions observed?

26. How did the war between Theodosius and Maximus terminate?

27. Did Valentinian long survive his restoration?

28. How did Theodosius act on the news of Valentinian's murder?

29. What caused the death of Theodosius?

FOOTNOTE:

[1] From this powerful tribe Germany is still called, by the French,

_Allemagne_.

* * * * *

CHAPTER XXVI.

SECTION I.

FROM THE DEATH OF THEODOSIUS TO THE SUBVERSION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.

With eye of flame, and voice of fear,

He comes, the breaker of the spear,

The scorner of the shield!--_Anon._

1. The memory of their father's virtues protected the feeble youth of

Arca'dius and Hono'rius, the sons of Theodo'sius; by the unanimous

consent of mankind, they were saluted emperors of the East and West,

and between them was made the final and permanent division of the

Roman empire. Though both parts were never re-united under a single

ruler, they continued for several centuries to be considered as one

empire, and this opinion produced important consequences even in a

late period of the middle ages. The dominions of Arca'dius extended

from the lower Danube to the confines of Ethiopia and Persia;

including Thrace, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Hono'rius, a

youth in his eleventh year, received the nominal sovereignty of Italy,

Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the provinces of No'ricum,

Panno'nia, and Dalma'tia. The great and martial prefecture of

Illyr'icum was divided equally between the two princes, the boundary

line of whose dominions consequently nearly coincided with that which

separates the Austrian states from the Turkish provinces. 2. The

Western empire, to the history of which we must now confine ourselves,

though equal to the Eastern in extent, wealth, and population, was

incomparably weaker, and already appeared rapidly tending to decay.

The Caledonians in Britain, and the German tribes on the northern

frontiers, harassed the imperial troops by frequent incursions; on the

east, the Goths were hourly becoming more formidable, and the African

provinces were threatened by the Moors. 3. The internal state of the

empire furnished little ground for hope that these various enemies

could be subdued; the principle of union no longer existed; the proud

title of Roman citizen was an empty name, Rome itself had ceased to be

the metropolis, and was now only protected by the memory of her former

greatness.

4. Stil'icho, a general of superior abilities, and a statesman of

profound wisdom, acted as the guardian of Hono'rius. He was descended

from the perfidious race of the Vandals, and unfortunately possessed,

in an eminent degree, the cunning, treachery, and cruelty that

characterised his nation. The administration of the Eastern empire was

entrusted by Arca'dius, to Rufi'nus, who possessed all the bad

qualities of Stil'icho without his redeeming virtues. The ministers of

the two empires hated each other most cordially, and each secretly

sought to remove his powerful rival; but the superior craft of

Stil'icho, and his great influence over the soldiers, made him

conqueror. 5. He was ordered to lead into the East a fair proportion

of the army which Theodo'sius had assembled, and in obedience to the

requisition, he marched towards Constantinople, at the head of the

Gothic legions. The approach of his great rival with a powerful army

alarmed the timid Rufi'nus; he obtained a peremptory edict from

Arca'dius, commanding Stil'icho to return to Italy, and the

promptitude with which the order was obeyed lulled the Eastern

minister into fatal negligence. The troops arrived near

Constantinople, under the guidance of Gai'nas a Gothic leader, and the

emperor, accompanied by his minister, came out to welcome and review

the soldiers. As Rufi'nus rode along the ranks, endeavouring to

conciliate favour by studied courtesy, the wings gradually advanced,

and enclosed the devoted victim within the fatal circle of their arms.

Before he was aware of his danger, Gai'nas gave the signal of death; a

soldier rushing forward plunged his sword into his breast, and the

bleeding corpse fell at the very feet of the alarmed emperor. 6. His

mangled body was treated with shocking indignity, and his wife and

daughter would have shared his fate, had they not placed themselves

under the protection of religion, and sought refuge in the sanctuary.

7. Stil'icho derived no advantage from this crime which he had

planned, but not executed; Arca'dius chose for his new minister,

Eutro'pius, one of his servants, and Gai'nas declared himself the

determined enemy of his former general.

8. The national hatred between the Greeks and the Romans was excited

by the rival ministers, and thus at a moment when union alone would

delay ruin, the subjects of Arca'dius and Hono'rius were induced to

regard each other not only as foreigners, but as enemies. 9. The

revolt of Gil'do, in Africa, under the pretence of transferring his

allegiance from the Western to the Eastern empire, was sanctioned by

the court of Constantinople. Such an event was peculiarly alarming, as

Italy at the time imported most of the corn necessary to the

subsistence of the people, from the African provinces. The vigour of

Stil'icho warded off the danger; he sent a small but veteran army

into Africa, before which Gildo's hosts of unarmed and undisciplined

barbarians fled almost without a blow. The usurper was taken and

executed; his partizans were persecuted with merciless impolicy.

10. The Goths, who had remained quiet during the reign of the great

Theodo'sius, disdained submission to his unwarlike successors; under

the pretence that the subsidy prudently paid them by the late emperor

was withheld, they raised the standard of revolt, and chose for their

leader Al'aric, the most formidable enemy that the Romans had hitherto

encountered. Instead of confining his depredations to the northern

provinces, already wasted by frequent incursions, Alaric resolved to

invade Greece, where the din of arms had not been heard for centuries.

11. The barbarian encountered little or no resistance, the memorable

pass of Thermop'ylæ was abandoned by its garrison; Athens purchased

inglorious safety by the sacrifice of the greater part of its wealth;

the Corinthian isthmus was undefended, and the Goths ravaged without

opposition the entire Peloponne'sus. Unable to protect themselves, the

Greeks sought the aid of Stilicho, and that great leader soon sailed

to their assistance; he inflicted a severe defeat on the Goths, but

neglected to improve his advantages; and before he could retrieve his

error, news arrived that the faithless court of Constantinople had

concluded a treaty of peace with Al'aric. Stilicho, of course,

returned to Italy; while the eastern emperor, with incomprehensible

folly, nominated the Gothic leader, master-general of eastern

Illyr'icum.

12. Italy soon excited the ambition and cupidity of Alaric; he

determined to invade that country, and, after surmounting all

impediments, appeared with his forces before the imperial city of

Milan. The feeble Hono'rius would have fled with his effeminate court

into some remote corner of Gaul, had not the indignant remonstrances

of Stil'icho induced him to remain, until he could assemble forces

sufficient to protect the empire. For this purpose the brave general

hurried into Gaul, assembled the garrisons from the frontier towns,

recalled a legion from Britain, and strengthened his forces by taking

several German tribes into pay. 13. But before Stil'icho could return,

the empire had been brought to the very brink of ruin; Hono'rius,

affrighted by the approach of the Goths, fled from Milan to As'ta, and

was there closely besieged. When the town was on the point of

capitulating, the emperor was saved by the opportune arrival of

Stil'icho, before whom Alaric retired. He was closely pursued, and the

armies of the Romans and barbarians came to an engagement nearly on

the same ground where Marius had so many years before defeated the

Cimbri. 14. The Goths were completely beaten, and a second victory

obtained over them near Vero'na seemed to insure the deliverance of

Italy; but Al'aric was still formidable, and the favourable terms

granted him by Stil'icho, proved, that in the opinion of that general,

the Gothic king, though defeated, was unconquered.

15. The late invasion so alarmed the timid Hono'rius, that he resolved

to fix his residence in some remote and strong fortress; and for this

purpose he selected Raven'na, an ancient city, but which had not

previously obtained notoriety. 16. Before Italy had recovered from the

terrors of the Gothic invasion, a new host of barbarians rushed from

the shores of the Baltic, bore down before them all opposition in

Germany and Gaul; and had passed the Alps, the Po, and the Apennines,

ere an army could be assembled to resist them. 17. Radagai'sus, the

leader of these hordes, was a more formidable enemy even than Alaric;

the Goths had embraced Christianity, and their fierce passions were in

some degree moderated by the mild precepts of the gospel; but

Radagai'sus was a stranger to any religion but the cruel creed of his

fathers, which taught that the favour of the gods could only be

propitiated by human sacrifices. 18. The wealthy city of Florence was

besieged by the barbarians, but its bishop, St. Ambrose, by his

zealous exhortations, and by holding out the hope of divine

assistance, prevented the garrison from yielding to despair. Stil'icho

a second time earned the title of the deliverer of Italy; Radagai'sus

was defeated and slain; but the remains of his forces escaped into

Gaul, and spread desolation over that entire province, from which the

garrisons had been withdrawn for the defence of Italy. 19. An usurper,

named Constantine, about this time appeared in Britain, and soon

established his minority both in Gaul and Spain, which had been

virtually deserted by the emperor. Al'aric offered his services to

repress the rebellion, and to purchase either his assistance or his

forbearance, a large subsidy was voted to him by the senate, through

the influence of Stil'icho. 20. But the reign of this great man was

drawing fast to a close; Olym'pius, a miserable favourite, who owed

his first elevation to Stil'icho, filled the emperor's mind with

suspicion, and a secret resolution to destroy the minister was

adopted. 21. By exciting the jealousy of the legions against the

auxiliary forces that Stil'icho employed, Olym'pius was enabled to

gain the army to his side, and the last great supporter of the Roman

name fell by the swords of those soldiers whom he had so often led to

victory. His friends, including the best and bravest generals of the

army, shared his fate; many of them were racked, to extort from them a

confession of a conspiracy which never existed; and their silence

under the tortures at once proved their own innocence and that of

their leader.

_Questions for Examination_.

1. What division was made of the Roman empire between the sons of

Theodosius?

2. By what enemies was the Western empire assailed?

3. What was the internal condition of the state?

4. To what ministers did the emperors trust the administration?

5. How did Stilicho prevail over Rufinus?

6. What instances of savage cruelty were exhibited by the murderers of

Rufinus?

7. Did Stilicho derive any advantage from the death of his rival?

8. What rivalry broke out between the subjects of the eastern and

western empire?

9. How did the revolt of Gildo in Africa end?

10. Why did the Goths attack the eastern empire?

11. How did the Gothic invasion of Greece end?

12. Did the western emperor display any courage when Italy was

invaded?

13. How was Honorius saved from ruin?

14. Was this defeat destructive of the Gothic power?

15. Where did Honorius fix the seat of his government?

16. What new hordes invaded Italy?

17. Why were the northern barbarians more formidable than the Goths?

18. How was Florence saved?

19. On what occasion was a subsidy voted to Alaric?

20. Who conspired against Stilicho?

21. In what manner was Stilicho slain?

SECTION II.

Time's immortal garlands twine

O'er desolation's mournful shrine.

Like youth's embrace around decline.--_Malcolm_.

1. Al'aric, posted on the confines of Italy, watched the distractions

of the peninsula with secret joy; he had been unwisely irritated by

the delay of the subsidy which had formerly been promised him,

and when payment was finally refused, he once more led his followers

into Italy.

[Sidenote: A.D. 408.]

2. The feeble successors of Stil'icho had made no preparations for

resistance; they retired with their master into the fortress of

Raven'na, while the Goths, spreading ruin in their march, advanced to

the very walls of Rome. Six hundred years had now elapsed since an

enemy had appeared to threaten THE ETERNAL CITY; a worse foe than

Hannibal was now at their gates, and the citizens were more disabled

by luxury from attempting a defence, than their ancestors had been by

the carnage of Can'næ.[1] 3. The strength of the walls deterred the

Goth from attempting a regular siege, but he subjected the city to a

strict blockade. Famine, and its usual attendant, pestilence, soon

began to waste the miserable Romans; but even the extreme of misery

could not induce them to sally forth, and try their fortune in the

field. They purchased the retreat of Al'aric by the sacrifice of their

wealth; and the victorious Goth formed his winter quarters in Tuscany,

where his army was reinforced by more than forty thousand of his

countrymen who had been enslaved by the Romans.

4. The presence of a victorious leader, with one hundred thousand men,

in the very centre of Italy, ought to have taught the imperial court

at Raven'na prudence and moderation; but such was their incredible

folly that they not only violated their engagements with Al'aric, but

added personal insult to injury. Rome was once more besieged, and as

Al'aric had seized the provisions at Os'tia, on which the citizens

depended for subsistence, the Romans were forced to surrender at

discretion. 5. At the instigation of the Gothic king, At'talus, the

prefect of the city, was invested with the imperial purple, and

measures were taken to compel Hono'rius to resign in his favour. But

At'talus proved utterly unworthy of a throne, and after a brief reign

was publicly degraded; the rest of his life was passed in obscurity

under the protection of the Goths. 6. A favourable opportunity of

effecting a peace was now offered, but it was again insolently

rejected by the wretched Hono'rius, and a herald publicly proclaimed

that in consequence of the guilt of Al'aric, he was for ever excluded

from the friendship and alliance of the emperor.

7. For the third time Al'aric proceeded to revenge the insults of

the emperor on the unfortunate city of Rome. The trembling senate made

some preparations for defence but they were rendered ineffectual by

the treachery of a slave, who betrayed one of the gates to the Gothic

legions. That city which had been for ages the mistress of the world,

became the prey of ruthless barbarians, who spared, indeed, the

churches and sanctuaries, but placed no other bound to their savage

passions. For six successive days the Goths revelled in the sack of

the city; at the end of that period they followed Al'aric to new

conquests and new devastations. 8. The entire south of Italy rapidly

followed the fate of the capital, and Al'aric determined to add Sicily

to the list of his triumphs. Before, however, his army could pass the

Strait, he was seized with an incurable disease, and his premature

death protracted for a season the existence of the Western empire.[2]

9. Al'aric was succeeded by his brother Adol'phus, who immediately

commenced negociations for a treaty; the peace was cemented by a

marriage between the Gothic king and Placid'ia, the sister of the

emperor. The army of the invaders evacuated Italy, and Adol'phus,

leading his soldiers into Spain, founded the kingdom of the Visigoths.

10. Adolphus did not long survive his triumphs; Placid'ia returned to

her brother's court, and was persuaded to bestow her hand on

Constan'tius, the general who had suppressed the rebellion of

Constan'tine. Britain, Spain, and part of Gaul had been now

irrecoverably lost; Constan'tius, whose abilities might have checked

the progress of ruin, died, after the birth of his second child;

Placid'ia retired to the court of Constantinople, and at length

Hono'rius, after a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years, terminated

his wretched life.

11. The next heir to the throne was Valenti'nian, the son of

Placid'ia; but John, the late emperor's secretary, took advantage of

Placid'ia's absence in the east, to seize on the government. The

court of Constantinople promptly sent a body of troops against the

usurper, and John was surprised and taken prisoner at Raven'na. 12.

Valenti'nian III., then in the sixth year of his age, was proclaimed

emperor, and the regency entrusted to his mother, Placid'ia. The two

best generals of the age, Æ'tius and Bon'iface, were at the head of

the army, but, unfortunately, their mutual jealousies led them to

involve the empire in civil war.

13. Bon'iface was recalled from the government of Africa through the

intrigues of his rival, and when he hesitated to comply, was

proclaimed a traitor. Unfortunately the African prefect, unable to

depend on his own forces, invited the Vandals to his assistance.

Gen'seric, the king of that nation, passed over from Spain, which his

barbarous forces had already wasted, and the African provinces were

now subjected to the same calamities that afflicted the rest of the

empire. 14. Bon'iface became too late sensible of his error; he

attempted to check the progress of the Vandals, but was defeated, and

Africa finally wrested from the empire. He returned to Italy, and was

pardoned by Placid'ia; but the jealous Æ'tius led an army to drive

his rival from the court; a battle ensued, in which Æ'tius was

defeated; but Bon'iface died in the arms of victory. Placid'ia was at

first determined to punish Æ'tius as a rebel; but his power was too

formidable, and his abilities too necessary in the new dangers that

threatened the empire; he was not only pardoned, but invested with

more than his former authority.

15. The hordes of Huns that had seized on the ancient territory of the

Goths, had now become united under the ferocious At'tila, whose

devastations procured him the formidable name of "The Scourge of God."

The Eastern empire, unable to protect itself from his ravages,

purchased peace by the payment of a yearly tribute, and he directed

his forces against the western provinces, which promised richer

plunder. He was instigated also by secret letters from the princess

Hono'ria, the sister of the emperor, who solicited a matrimonial

alliance with the barbarous chieftain. Æ'tius being supported by the

king of the Goths, and some other auxiliary forces, attacked the Huns

in the Catalaunian plains, near the modern city of Chalons in France.

16. After a fierce engagement the Huns were routed, and it was not

without great difficulty that At'tila effected his retreat. The

following year he invaded Italy with more success; peace, however, was

purchased by bestowing on him the hand of the princess Hono'ria,

with an immense dowry. Before the marriage could be consummated,

At'tila was found, dead in his bed, having burst a blood-vessel during

the night.

17. The brave Æ'tius was badly rewarded by the wretched emperor for

his eminent services; Valentinian, yielding to his cowardly

suspicions, assassinated the general with his own hand. 18. This crime

was followed by an injury to Max'imus, an eminent senator, who, eager

for revenge, joined in a conspiracy with the friends of Æ'tius; they

attacked the emperor publicly, in the midst of his guards, and slew

him.

19. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of

Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Western empire, were

nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. 20. Even in the

age of Cicero, when the empire of Rome, seemed likely to last for

ever, it was stated by the augurs that the _twelve vultures_ seen by

Romulus,[3] represented the _twelve centuries_ assigned for the fatal

period of the city. This strange prediction, forgotten in ages of

peace and prosperity, was recalled to the minds of men when events, at

the close of the twelfth century, showed that the prophecy was about

to be accomplished. It is not, of course, our meaning, that the

ominous flight of birds, the prophetic interpretation, and its almost

literal fulfilment, were any thing more than an accidental

coincidence; but, it must be confessed, that it was one of the most

remarkable on record.

21. Maximus succeeded to the imperial throne, and found that the first

day of his reign was the last of his happiness. On the death of his

wife, whose wrongs he had so severely revenged, he endeavoured to

compel Eudox'ia, the widow of the murdered emperor, to become his

spouse. In her indignation at this insulting proposal, Eudox'ia did

not hesitate to apply for aid to Gen'seric, king of those Vandals that

had seized Africa; and the barbarian king, glad of such a fair

pretence, soon appeared with a powerful fleet in the Tiber. 22.

Max'imus was murdered in an insurrection, occasioned by these tidings;

and Gen'seric, advancing to Rome, became master of the city, which

was, for fourteen days pillaged by the Moors and Vandals. Eudox'ia had

reason to lament her imprudent conduct; she was carried off a captive

by the ferocious Vandal, along with her two daughters, the last

of the family of the great Theo'dosius and many thousand Romans were

at the same time dragged into slavery.

23. The army in Gaul saluted their general, Avi'tus, emperor, and the

Roman senate and people at first acquiesced in the choice. Rut Avi'tus

was soon found unfit to hold the reins of power at a time of so much

danger and difficulty; the senate, influenced by Ri'cimer, the

commander of the barbarian auxiliaries, voted his deposition. He died

shortly after, whether by disease or violence is uncertain.

24. The powerful Ri'cimer now placed upon the throne Ju'lian

Majo'rian, who united in an eminent degree the qualities of a brave

soldier and a wise statesman. The coasts of Italy had long been wasted

by Gen'seric, king of the Vandals, and in order to put an end to their

incursions, the emperor determined to attack the pirates in Africa,

the seat of their power. The judicious preparations which he made were

disconcerted by treason; Ri'cimer, who had hoped to rule the empire

while Majo'rian enjoyed the empty title of monarch, was disappointed

by the abilities which the new emperor displayed. Some of his

creatures betrayed the Roman fleet to the torches of the Vandals; and

Ri'cimer took advantage of the popular discontent occasioned by this

disaster, to procure the dethronement of his former friend. Majo'rian

died five years after his deposition, and the humble tomb which

covered his remains was consecrated by the respect and gratitude of

succeeding generations.

25. Ri'cimer's next choice was more prudent; at his instigation the

obsequious senate raised to the throne Lib'ius Sev'erus, of whom

history records little more than his elevation, and his death, which

occurred in the fifth year after his election. During the nominal

reign of Sev'erus and the interregnum that followed, the entire power

of the state was possessed by Ri'cimer, whom barbarian descent alone

prevented from being acknowledged emperor. He was unable, however, to

protect Italy from the devastations of the Vandals; and to obtain the

aid of Le'o, the Eastern emperor, he was forced to acknowledge

Anthe'mius, who was nominated to the throne of the West by the court

of Constantinople.

[Illustration: Fall of Constantinople.]

26. The perfidious Ricimer soon became dissatisfied with Anthe'mius,

and raised the standard of revolt. Marching to Rome he easily became

master of the city, and Anthe'mius was slain in the tumult. The

unhappy Romans were again subjected to all the miseries that military

licentiousness could inflict; for forty days Ricimer exulted in the

havoc and ruin of the imperial city; but a disease, occasioned by

excessive intemperance, seized on his vitals, and death freed Rome

from the tyrant.

27. Olyb'ius, the successor of Anthe'mius, dying after a short reign

of three months, Glyce'rius, an obscure soldier, assumed the purple at

Raven'na, but was soon dethroned by Ju'lius Ne'pos, whom the court of

Constantinople supported. A treaty by which the most faithful

provinces of Gaul were yielded to the Visigoths, produced so much

popular discontent, that Ores'tes, a general of barbarian auxiliaries,

was encouraged to revolt, and Ne'pos, unable to defend the throne,

abdicated, and spent the remainder of his unhonoured life in

obscurity.

[Sidenote: A.D. 476.]

28. Ores'tes placed the crown on the head of his son Rom'ulus

Momyl'lus, better known in history by the name of Augus'tulus. He was

the last of the emperors; before he had enjoyed his elevation many

months, he was dethroned by Odoa'cer, a leader, of the barbarian

troops, and banished to a villa that once belonged to the wealthy

Lucul'lus, where he was supported by a pension allowed him by the

conqueror[4]. 29. Odoa'cer assumed the title of king of Italy, but

after a reign of fourteen years, he was forced to yield to the

superior genius of Theod'oric, king of the Ostrogoths, under whose

prudent government Italy enjoyed the blessings of peace and

prosperity, to which the country had been long a stranger.

30. Thus finally fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the

east survived a thousand years, notwithstanding its fierce internal

dissensions, which alone would have sufficed to destroy any other; and

the hosts of barbarians by which it was assailed. The almost

impregnable situation of its capital, whose fate usually decides that

of such empires, joined to its despotism, which gave unity to the

little strength it retained, can alone explain a phenomenon

unparalleled in the annals of history. At length, on the 29th of May,

1453, Constantinople was taken by Mohammed the Second, and the

government and religion established by the great Constantine, trampled

in the dust by the Moslem conquerors.

_Questions for Examination._

1. What induced Alaric to invade Italy a second time?

2. Did the emperor and his ministers make adequate preparations for

resistance?

3. How was Alaric induced to raise the siege of Rome?

4. Why did Alaric besiege Rome a second time?

5. Whom did the Goths make emperor?

6. What favourable opportunity of making peace did Honorius lose?

7. By what means did the Goths become masters of Rome?

8. Where did Alaric die?

9. What events marked the reign of Adolphus?

10. What remarkable persons died nearly at the same time?

11. What was the fate of the usurper John?

12. To whom was the government entrusted during Valentinian's

minority?

13. By whom were the Vandals invited to Africa?

14. What was the fate of Boniface?

15. How were the Huns instigated to invade Italy?

16. Under what circumstances did Attila die?

17. Of what great crimes was Valentinian III. guilty?

18. How was Valentinian slain?

19. 20. What strange prophecy was now about to be fulfilled?

21. What terminated the brief reign of Maximus?

22. Had Eudoxia reason to lament her invitation to the Vandals?

23. Why was the emperor Avitus dethroned?

24. How did Ricimer procure the deposition of Majorian?

25. What changes followed on the death of Majorian?

26. How did Ricimer terminate his destructive career?

27. What changes took place after the death of Arthemius?

28. Who was the last Roman emperor?

29. What kingdoms were founded on the ruins of the western empire?

20. How was the existence of the eastern empire prolonged?

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Chapter xv. Sect. ii.

[2] The ferocious character of the barbarians was displayed in the

funeral of their chief. The unhappy captives were compelled to divert

the stream of the river Busenti'nus, which washed the walls of

Consen'tia, (now Cosenza, in farther Cala'bria, Italy,) in the bed of

which the royal sepulchre was formed: with the body were deposited

much of the wealth, and many of the trophies obtained at Rome. The

river was then permitted to return to its accustomed channel, and the

prisoners employed in the work were inhumanly massacred, to conceal

the spot in which the deceased hero was entombed. A beautiful poem on

this subject, entitled, The Dirge of Alaric the Visigoth, has

appeared, which is attributed to the honourable Edward Everett.

[3] See Chapter i.

[4] See Chapter xxvii.

* * * * *

CHAPTER XXVII.

HISTORICAL NOTICES OF THE DIFFERENT BARBAROUS TRIBES THAT AIDED IN

DESTROYING THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

Lo! from the frozen forests of the north,

The sons of slaughter pour in myriads forth!

Who shall awake the mighty? Will thy woe,

City of thrones, disturb the world below?

Call on the dead to hear thee! let thy cries

Summon their shadowy legions to arise,

Array the ghosts of conquerors on thy walls

Barbarians revel in their ancient halls!

And their lost children bend the subject knee,

Amidst the proud tombs and trophies of the free!--_Anon._

1. We have already mentioned that the barbarous nations which joined

in the destruction of the Roman empire, were invited to come within

its precincts through the weakness or folly of successive sovereigns

who recruited their armies from those hardy tribes, in preference to

their own subjects, enervated by luxury and indolence. The grants of

land, and the rich donations by which the emperors endeavoured to

secure the fidelity of these dangerous auxiliaries, encouraged them to

regard the Roman territories as their prey; and being alternately the

objects of lavish extravagance and wanton insult, their power was

increased at the same time that their resentment was provoked. 2.

Towards the close of the year 406, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the

Alans, first sounded the tocsin of invasion, and their example was

followed by the Goths, the Burgundians, the Alleman'ni, the Franks,

the Huns, the Angli, the Saxons, the Heruli, and the Longobar'di, or

Lombards. The chief of these nations, with the exception of the Huns

were of German origin. It is not easy in every instance to discover

the original seat of these several tribes, and trace their successive

migrations, because, being ignorant of letters, they only retained

some vague traditions of their wanderings.

THE VANDALS AND ALANS

3. This tribe was, like the Burgundians and Lombards, a branch of the

ancient Sue'vi, and inhabited that part of Germany which lies between

the Elbe and the Vis'tula. Being joined by some warriors from

Scandinavia, they advanced towards the south, and established

themselves in that part of Da'cia which included the modern province

of Transylva'nia, and part of Hungary. Being oppressed in their

new settlement by the Goths, they sought the protection of Constantine

the Great, and obtained from him a grant of lands in Pannonia, on

condition of their rendering military service to the Romans. 4. About

the commencement of the fifth century, they were joined by the ALANS,

a people originally from mount Cau'casus, and the ancient Scythia: a

branch of which having settled in Sarma'tia, near the source of the

Borysthenes _(Dnieper)_, had advanced as far as the Danube, and there

made a formidable stand against the Romans. In their passage through

Germany, the Vandals and Alans were joined by a portion of the Suevi,

and the confederate tribes entering Gaul, spread desolation over the

entire country.

5. From thence the barbarians passed into Spain and settled in the

province, from them named Vandalu'sia, since corrupted to Andalusia.

On the invitation of Count Boniface, the Vandals proceeded from Spain

to Africa, where they founded a formidable empire. After remaining

masters of the western Mediterranean for nearly a century, the eastern

emperor Justinian sent a formidable force against them under the

command of the celebrated Belisa'rius. This great leader not only

destroyed the power of these pirates, but erased the very name of

Vandals from the list of nations.

THE GOTHS.

6. The Goths, the most powerful of these destructive nations, are said

to have come originally from Scandina'via; but when they first began

to attract the notice of historians, we find them settled on the banks

of the Danube. Those who inhabited the districts towards the east, and

the Euxine sea, between the Ty'ras _(Dniester)_ the Borys'thenes

_(Dnieper)_ and the Tan'ais _(Don)_ were called Ostrogoths; the

Visigoths extended westwards over ancient Dacia, and the regions

between the Ty'ras, the Danube, and the Vistula.

7. Attacked in these vast countries by the Huns, as has been mentioned

in a preceding chapter, some were subjugated, and others compelled to

abandon their habitations. They obtained settlements from the

emperors, but being unwisely provoked to revolt, they became the most

formidable enemies of the Romans. After having twice ravaged Italy and

plundered Rome, they ended their conquests by establishing themselves

in Gaul and Spain.

8. The Spanish monarchy of the Visigoths, which in its flourishing

state comprised, besides the entire peninsula, the province of

Septima'nia (_Langucaoc_) in Gaul, and Mauritania, Tingeta'na,

(_north-western Africa_) on the opposite coasts of the Mediterranean,

lasted from the middle of the fifth to the commencement of the eighth

century, when it was overthrown by the Moors. 9. The Thuringians, whom

we find established in the heart of Germany, in the middle of the

fifth century, appear to have been a branch of the Visigoths.

THE FRANKS.

10. A number of petty German tribes having entered into a confederacy

to maintain their mutual independence, took the name of Franks, or

Freemen. The tribes which thus associated, principally inhabited the

districts lying between the Rhine and the Weser, including the greater

part of Holland and Westphalia. 11. In the middle of the third

century, they invaded Gaul, but were defeated by Aurelian, who

afterwards became emperor. In the fourth, and towards the beginning of

the fifth century, they permanently established themselves as a

nation, and gave the name of _Francia_, or _France_, to the provinces

lying between the Rhine, the Weser, the Maine, and the Elbe; but about

the sixth century that name was transferred to ancient Gaul, when it

was conquered by the Franks.

THE ALLEMANNI.

12. The Alleman'ni were another confederation of German tribes, which

took its name from including a great variety of nations. It is

scarcely necessary to remark, that the name is compounded of the words

_all_ and _man_ which still continue unchanged in our language. Their

territories extended between the Danube, the Rhine, and the Maine, and

they rendered themselves formidable to the Romans by their frequent

inroads into Gaul and Italy during the third and fourth centuries.

THE SAXONS AND ANGLES.

13. The Saxons began to be conspicuous about the close of the second

century. They were then settled beyond the Elbe, in modern Holstein;

having for their neighbours the ANGLI, or ANGLES, inhabiting Sleswick.

These nations were early distinguished as pirates, and their

plundering expeditions kept the shores of western Europe in constant

alarm. Being invited by the Britons to assist in repelling the

invasions of the Picts, they subdued the southern part of the island,

which has ever since retained the name of England, from its conquerors

the An'gli. When the Franks penetrated into Gaul, the Saxons passed

the Elbe, and seizing on the vacated territory, gave the name of

Saxony to ancient France.

THE HUNS.

14. The Huns were the most ferocious and sanguinary of the barbarians.

They seem to have been originally Kalmuck or Mongolian Tartars, and,

during the period of their supremacy, seem never to have laid aside

the savage customs which they brought from their native deserts. 15.

After having expelled the Goths from the banks of the Danube, they

fell upon the eastern empire, and compelled the court of

Constantinople to pay them tribute. They then, under the guidance of

Attila, invaded Italy, and after devastating the peninsula, captured

and plundered Rome. After the death of Attila, the Huns were broken up

into a number of petty states, which maintained their independence

until the close of the eighth century, when they were subdued by

Charlemagne.

THE BURGUNDIANS.

16. The Burgundians were originally inhabitants of the countries

situated between the Oder and the Vistula. They followed nearly the

track of the Visigoths, and at the beginning of the fifth century had

established themselves on the Upper Rhine and in Switzerland. On the

dissolution of the empire, they seized on that part of Gaul, which

from them retains the name of Burgundy.

THE LOMBARDS, THE GEPIDÆ, AND THE AVARS.

17. The Lombards, more properly called Longo-bardi, from the length of

their beards, are supposed by some to have been a branch of the

Sue'vi, and by others to have migrated from Scandina'via. They joined

with the Avars, a fierce Asiatic people, in attacking the Gep'idæ,

then in possession of that part of Dacia lying on the left bank of the

Danube, but who are supposed to have come thither from some more

northern country. The Avars and Lombards triumphed, but the former

soon turned their arms against their allies, and compelled them to

seek new habitations. 18. About the middle of the sixth century they

invaded Italy, which the Eastern emperors had just before wrested

from the Turks, and made themselves masters of the northern part;

which has since borne the name of Lombardy.

THE SLA'VI.

19. These were the last of the barbarian hordes, and are not mentioned

by any author before the sixth century. They first appeared in the

east of Europe, and spreading themselves over the central provinces,

occupied the greater part of the countries that now constitute the

dominions of Austria. The Sla'vi warred chiefly against the Eastern

empire, and their contest with the Grecian forces on the Danube, in

the sixth and seventh centuries, shook the throne of Constantinople.

The VENE'DI and the AN'TES were tribes of the Slavi.

THE NORMANS.

20. The piratical inhabitants of Norway and Denmark were called by the

Franks, Normans, or, Men of the North; in Ireland they were named

Ostmen, or, Men of the East. Their depredations began to attract

notice early in the seventh century, but did not become formidable

before the ninth: when they obtained possession of that part of France

now called Normandy. In the two following centuries they wrested

England from the Saxons, and established kingdoms in Sicily and

southern Italy.

THE BULGARIANS.

21. The Bulgarians were of Scythian or Tartar origin, and became

formidable to the Eastern empire in the latter part of the seventh

century. In the beginning of the ninth, Cruni'nus, their king,

advanced to the gates of Constantinople; but the city proving too

strong, he seized Adrianople, and returned home loaded with booty. The

successors of Cruni'nus did not inherit his abilities, and the

Bulgarians soon sunk into comparative insignificance.

THE SARACENS MOORS AND TURKS.

22. In concluding this chapter, it may be proper to give some account

of the subverters of the Eastern empire, and of their irruption into

Europe. The Arabs, called in the middle ages Saracens, are supposed to

be descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. During all

the changes of dynasties and empires in the eastern and western

world, they retained their independence, though almost constantly at

war with the surrounding states. "Their hand was against every man,

and every man's hand was against them." In the beginning of the

seventh century, Mohammed, a native of Mecca, descended from a noble

family, laid claim to the title of a prophet, and being aided by a

renegade Christian, formed a religious system, which, after

encountering great opposition, was finally adopted by the principal

tribes of Arabia. The successors of Mohammed, called Caliphs, resolved

to propagate the new religion by the sword, and conquered an empire,

more extensive than that of the Romans had been. The entire of central

and southern Asia, including Persia, India, and the provinces of the

Eastern empire owned their sway; northern Africa was soon after

subdued, and in the beginning of the eighth century, the Saracenic

Moors established their dominion in Spain. 23. It is probable, even,

that all Europe would have submitted to their yoke, if the French

hero, Charles Martel,[1] had not arrested their victorious career, and

defeated their numerous armies on the plains of _Poitiers_, A.D.

732.[2]

24. The empire of the Caliphs soon declined from its original

splendour, and its ruin finally proceeded from the same cause that

produced the downfall of Rome, the employment of barbarian

mercenaries. The soldiers levied by the Caliphs, were selected from

the Tartar tribes that had embraced the religion of Mohammed; they

were called Turcomans or Turks, from Turkistan, the proper name of

western Tartary. These brave, but ferocious warriors, soon wrested the

sceptre from the feeble caliphs, and completed the conquest of western

Asia. The crusades for a time delayed the fate of the Greek empire,

but finally the Turks crossed the Hellespont, and having taken

Constantinople, (A.D. 1453,) established their cruel despotism over

the fairest portion of Europe.

_Questions for Examination._

1. How were the barbarians first brought into the Roman empire?

2. When did the first great movement of the Northern tribes take

place?

3. Where did the Vandals first settle?

4. From whence did the Alans come?

5. In what countries did the Vandals establish their power?

6. Where did we first find the Goths settled?

7. To what countries did the Goths remove?

8. How long did the kingdom of the Visigoths continue?

9. What branch of the Goths settled in Germany?

10. From what did the Franks derive their name?

11. Which was the ancient, and which the modern France?

12. What is the history of the Allemanni?

13. In what countries did the Saxons and Angles settle?

14. Whence did the Huns come?

15. How far did their ravages extend?

16. What territory did the Burgundians seize?

17. How did the alliance between the Lombards and Avars injure the

former people?

18. Where was the kingdom of the Lombards established?

19. What is told respecting the Slavi?

20. Who were the Normans?

21. What is the history of the Bulgarians?

22. What great conquests were achieved by the Arabs under Mohammed and

his successors?

23. By whom was the Saracenic career of victory checked?

24. How was the empire of the Turks established?

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Taylor's History of France.

[2] Here also the heroic Black Prince took John, king of France,

prisoner. See Taylor's France.

* * * * *

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY.

Waft, waft, ye winds, his story,

And you, ye oceans, roll,

Till, like a sea of glory,

It spreads from pole to pole.--_Heber_.

1. Judea became a Roman province some years before the birth of Jesus

Christ, and the Jews, who had hitherto been conspicuous for their

attachment to their native land, were induced, by the spirit of trade,

to spread themselves over the empire. 2. The exclusive nature of their

religion kept them in a marked state of separation from their fellow

subjects; the worshipper of Osi'ris scrupled not to offer sacrifices

to Jupiter; the Persian, the Indian, and the German, bowed before the

Roman altars; but the sons of Abraham refused to give the glory of

their God to graven images, and were regarded by their idolatrous

neighbours at first with surprise, and afterwards with contempt. 3.

The appearance of the Messiah in Palestine, and the miraculous

circumstances of his life, death, and resurrection, did not fill the

world with their fame, because his preaching was principally addressed

to his countrymen, the first object of his mission being "the lost

sheep of the house of Israel."

4. The disciples, after their Divine Master was taken from them,

proceeded to fulfil his last commandments, by preaching the gospel "to

every nation," and an opportunity of spreading its blessings was

afforded by Jewish synagogues having been previously established in

most of the great cities through the empire. Independent of the

sustaining providence of its Almighty Author, there were many

circumstances that facilitated the progress and prepared the way for

the final triumph of Christianity. 5. In the first place, Paganism had

lost its influence; men secretly laughed at the fabulous legends about

Jupiter and Rom'ulus, the sacrifices had become idle forms, and the

processions a useless mockery. Philosophers had not scrupled to cover

with ridicule the whole system of Heathenism, and there were not a few

who professed themselves Atheists. 6. Without some system of religion

society cannot exist; for a sanction stronger than human laws is

necessary to restrain the violence of passion and ardent desires. The

innate feeling that our existence is not dependent on our mortal

frame, disposes men to search for some information respecting a future

state; the heathen system was at once obscure and absurd; the

philosophers avowedly spoke from conjecture; but by the Gospel, "life

and immortality were brought to light." 7. The influence of a purer

faith was discernible in the lives and actions of the first

Christians; they lived in an age of unparalleled iniquity and

debauchery, yet they kept themselves "unspotted from the world;" those

who were once conspicuous for violence, licentiousness, and crime,

became, when they joined the new sect, humble, temperate, chaste, and

virtuous; the persons who witnessed such instances of reformation were

naturally anxious to learn something of the means by which so great a

change had been effected. 8. A fourth cause was, that Christianity

offered the blessings of salvation to men of every class; it was its

most marked feature, that "to the poor the gospel was preached," and

the wretch who dared not come into the pagan temple, because he had no

rich offering to lay upon the altar, was ready to obey the call of him

who offered pardon and love "without money and without price."

9. In the course of the first century of the Christian era churches

were established in the principal cities of the empire, but more

especially in Asia Minor; and the progress of Christianity, which had

been at first disregarded, began to attract the notice of the ruling

powers. Too indolent to investigate the claims of Christianity,

and by no means pleased with a system which condemned their vices, the

Roman rulers viewed the rapid progress of the new religion with

undisguised alarm. The union of the sacerdotal and magisterial

character in the Roman policy, added personal interest to the motives

that urged them to crush this rising sect; and the relentless Ne'ro at

length kindled the torch of persecution. 10. But "the blood of the

martyrs proved the seed of the Church;" the constancy with which they

supported the most inhuman tortures, their devotion and firm reliance

on their God in the moments of mortal agony, increased the number of

converts to a religion which could work such a moral miracle.

Persecution also united the Christians more closely together, and when

the reign of terror ended with the death of Nero, it was found that

Christianity had derived additional strength from the means taken to

insure its destruction.

11. The successive persecutions inflicted by the policy or the bigotry

of the following emperors had precisely the same results; and at

length the Christians had acquired such strength, that their aid, as a

body, became a matter of importance in contests for the empire.

12. The mild administration of Constantino, while he was only prefect

of Gaul, the protection which he afforded to the Christians, and the

favour that he showed to their religion, induced them to aid him with

all their might in his struggle for the throne. Brought thus into

contact with the professors of the new doctrine, Constantine was

induced to examine the foundations of its high claims--perfect

conviction was the result, and on his accession to the imperial

purple, the Christian church was legally established. 13. During the

reign of the apostate Julian, Christianity was discouraged, but not

persecuted; his premature death, however, removed the last impediment

to its final triumph, which was consummated in the reign of the great

Theodo'sius. 14. Under that emperor the last vestiges of the pagan

worship were destroyed, its idols overthrown, its altars demolished,

and its temples closed. The world had become ripe for such a

revolution, as the temples had been long before almost universally

abandoned.

15. Since that period Christianity has prevailed in Europe, and formed

the great bond of the social happiness and the great source of the

intellectual eminence enjoyed in that quarter of the globe. Let us

hope that the exertions now made to diffuse its blessings over

the benighted portions of the earth will prove successful, and that

"peace and happiness, truth and justice, religion and piety" will

prevail from pole to pole.

_Questions for Examination._

1. What was the state of the Jews at the coming of Christ?

2. How were the Jews preserved separate from other nations?

3. What probable cause may be assigned for the neglect of the

Christian miracles?

4. How did the dispersion of the Jews afford an opportunity for the

propagation of Christianity?

5. What was the state of paganism when Christianity was first

preached?

6. What great mystery is brought to light by the gospel?

7. How did the lives of the first Christians contribute to the rapid

progress of Christianity?

8. To what class of people was the gospel more particularly addressed?

9. What induced the rulers of the Roman empire to persecute

Christianity?

10. Was Christianity crushed by persecution?

11. What proves the great strength early acquired by Christians?

12. By whom was Christianity legally established?

13. Under whose government did it receive a slight check?

14. When were the last vestiges of paganism abolished?

15. What have been the political effects of the establishment of

Christianity?

* * * * *

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX.

B.C.

1230 (Supposed) Pelasgic migration to Italy.

1184 (Supposed) Arrival of Æneas in Latium.

753 (Supposed) foundation of the city of Rome.

750 Union of the Romans and Sabines.

716 Death of Romulus.

714 Virtuous Administration of Numa.

671 Accession of Tullus Hostilius.

665 Duel between the Horatii and Curiatii--Destruction of Alba.

639 Accession of Ancus Martius.

616 {---- ---- Tarquinius Priscus.

{The Augurs acquire importance in the state.

578 {Death of Tarquinius Priscus.

{Accession of Servius Tullius.

{The establishment of the Centuries.

534 {Murder of Servius Tullius.

{Accession of Tarquinius Superbus.

{Gabii taken by stratagem.

509 {Expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus.

{Establishment of Consuls.

508 {Conspiracy for the restoration of the Tarquinii.

{Death of Brutus.

507 War with Porsenna.

498 Lartius the first Dictator created.

493 {The Roman populace retire to Mons Sacer.

{Tribunes of the people appointed.

487 {Exile of Coriolanus.

{Rome besieged by Coriolanus.

{His retreat and death.

484 Condemnation and death of Cassius.

459 First Dictatorship of Cincinnatus.

457 Second ditto.

454 The Romans send to Athens for Solon's laws.

451 The laws of the Twelve Tables--The Decemviri.

449 The expulsion of the Decemviri.

443 Military Tribunes chosen instead of Consuls.

442 The Censorship instituted.

439 Mælius murdered by Ahala.

406 The siege of Veii begun.

396 Veii taken by Camillus.

391 The Gauls invade Italy.

390 {The battle of Allia. Rome sacked by the Gauls.

{The Gauls defeated by Camillus.

383 Manlius put to death on a charge of treason.

361 Curtius devotes himself in the Forum.

342 Beginning of the Samnite war.

339 {Manlius puts his son to death for disobedience.

{Decius devotes himself for his country.

320 A Roman army forced to surrender to the Samnites in the

Caudine Forks.

280 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Italy.

272 ---- finally defeated by Curius Dentatus.

270 Tarentum surrendered to the Romans.

264 Commencement of the first Punic war.

260 The Carthaginian fleet defeated by Duilius.

256 Regulus defeated by Xantippus.

252 Regulus sent to negociate peace. His death.

241 End of the first Punic war.

234 {The temple of Janus shut, and Rome at peace, for

the first time since the death of Numa.

{Literature cultivated at Rome.

229 War with the Illyrians.

225 {The Gauls invade Italy a second time.

{---- ---- are defeated by Marcellus, who

gains the spolia opima.

218 {The second Punic war begins.

{Hanniball invades Italy.

{Battle of the Ticenus.

{ ---- of the Trebia.

217 ---- of the lake Thrasymene.

216 ---- of Cannæ.

214 The Romans begin an auxiliary war against Philip of Macedon.

212 Syracuse taken by Marcellus.

207 Asdrubal defeated and slain.

202 Battle of Zama and end of the second Punic war.

197 Philip conquered by the Romans.

192 The Romans wage war against Antiochus.

189 Death of Hannibal.

171 Commencement of the second Macedonian war.

168 Macedon became a Roman province.

149 The third Punic war begins.

147 Carthage destroyed by Scipio, and Corinth by Munimius.

132 Sedition of Trius Gracchus.

126 Revolt of the slaves in Sicily.

122 Seditions of Caius Gracchus.

121 Murder of Caius Gracchus. Persecution of the popular party.

111 The Jugurthine war begins, and lasts five years.

91 The social war begins, and lasts three years.

89 The Mithridatic war begins, and lasts twenty-six years.

88 The civil war between Marius and Sylla.

86 {Cruelties of Marius.

{Death of Marius.

82 Sylla created dictator.

78 Death of Sylla.

73 The insurrection of the slaves under Spartacus _note_.

66 Mithridates conquered by Pompey.

63 Catiline's conspiracy detected.

60 The first Triumvirate. Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus.

55 Cæsar invades Britain.

53 Crassus slain in Parthia.

50 Civil war between Cæsar and Pompey.

48 {The battle of Pharsalia.

{Death of Pompey.

47 Alexandria taken by Cæsar.

46 {The war in Africa.

{Death of Cato.

45 {The war in Spain.

{The battle of Munda.

44 Cæsar murdered in the senate house.

43 {Formation of the second Triumvirate--Antony.

Octavius (Augustus) and Lepidus.

{The Proscription. The murder of Cicero.

42 The battle of Philippi.

32 Octavius (Augustus) and Antony prepare for war.

31 The battle of Actium.

30 {The death of Antony.

{Alexandria surrendered.

{Death of Cleopatra.

27 The title of Augustus given to Octavius.

A.D.

4 Birth of JESUS CHRIST (four years before the vulgar era).

14 Death of Augustus.

19 Death of Germanicus by poison.

26 The retreat of Trius to Capreæ.

31 Disgrace and downfall of Sejanus.

33 The Crucifixion.

37 The Accession of Caligula.

41 Caligula murdered by Cherea.

43 Claudius invades Britain.

51 Caractacus carried captive to Rome.

54 Nero succeeds Claudius.

59 Nero murders his mother.

64 First general persecution of the Christians.

65 Seneca, Lucan, and others, executed for conspiracy.

68 Suicide of Nero. Accession of Galba.

69 {Death of Galba.

{Defeat and death of Otho.

{Defeat and death of Vitellius. Accession of Vespasian.

70 Siege and capture of Jerusalem.

79 {Death of Vespasian. Accession of Titus.

{Eruption of Vesuvius: destruction of Herculaneum.

81 Death of Titus. Accession of Domitian.

88 The Dacian war.

96 {Assassination of Domitian.

{Accession of Nerva.

98 Death of Nerva. Accession of Trajan.

107 Third general persecution of the Christians.

117 Death of Trajan. Accession of Adrian.

121 A wall to restrain the incursions of the Picts

and Scots erected in Britain by Adrian.

131 Great rebellion of the Jews.

136 Death of Adrian. Accession of Antoninus Pius.

161 Accession of Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus.

162 The Parthian war.

169 The war with the Marcomanni.

180 {Death of Marcus Aurelius.

{Accession of Commodus.

192 {Commodus murdered by Marcia and Lætus.

{Assassination of Pertinax.

200 {Roman empire offered for sale.

{Severus subdues the Parthians.

211 Death of Severus at York. Accession of Caracalla and Geta.

217 Assassination of Caracalla.

218 Accession of Heliogabalus.

222 {His miserable death.

{Accession of Alexander Severus.

235 Death of Alexander. Maximin elected emperor.

236 Assassination of Maximin.

238 Accession of Gordian.

244 His murder by Philip.

248 Philip killed by his soldiers: succeeded by Decius.

251 Decius slain in an ambuscade: succeeded by Gallus.

254 Death of Gallus: a disputed succession.

270 Accession of Aurelian.

275 Brief reign of Tacitus.

282 Assassination of the emperor Probus.

284 Accession of Dioclesian.

304 The reign of Constantius and Galerius.

312 Victory of Constantino over Maxentius.

319 Favour showed to the Christians.

324 Defeat of Licinius.

325 Legal establishment of Christianity.

328 The seat of government removed from Rome to

Byzantium, which city from thenceforward takes

the name of Constantinople, from the

emperor Constantine.

337 {Death of Constantine, and division of

the empire among his sons.

{Destruction of the Flavian Family.

338 War between Constantius and Sapor.

340 Constantine the younger defeated and slain by his

brother Constans.

350 Constans killed by Magnentius.

351 Magnentius totally defeated at the fatal battle of Mursa.

354 Gallas put to death by Constantius.

360 The civil war between Constantius and Julian

prevented by the death of the former.

362 Julian's attempt to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem defeated.

363 Death of Julian in the Persian war. Brief reign of Jovian.

364 The empire divided between Valenlinian and Valens.

376 {The Goths permitted to settle in Thrace.

{First appearance of the Huns in Europe.

378 The emperor Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrianople.

379 Theodosius becomes emperor of the East.

388 The usurper Maximus defeated and slain.

392 Reunion of the Eastern and Western empires, under Theodosius.

395 Death of Theodosius, and final separation of the

Eastern and Western empires.

398 Revolt of Gildo in Africa.

405 Stilicho obtains two victories over the Goths.

406 The Vandals and Alans settle in Gaul.

408 Alaric, king of the Goths, besieges Rome.

410 Rome taken and plundered by the Goths.

412 Beginning of the Vandal kingdom in Spain.

415 Commencement of the kingdom of the Visigoths.

423 Death of Honorius. Accession of Valentinian.

430 The Vandals invited to Africa by count Boniface.

447 The Huns under the guidance of Attila, ravage Europe.

449 The Britons, deserted by the Romans, invite the Sarons and Angles

to their assistance.

455 Rome taken and plundered by Genseric, the king of the African

Vandals.

476 Augustulus, the last emperor of the West deposed, Odoacer takes

the title of king of Italy.

453 Subversion of the Eastern empire.

THE END

* * * * *

MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.

[Illustration]

THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO.,

PUBLISH

MITCHELL'S AMERICAN SYSTEM

OF

STANDARD SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY,

IN A SERIES,

ADAPTED TO THE PROGRESSIVELY DEVELOPING CAPACITIES OF YOUTH.

The series comprise the following works, viz.

MITCHELL'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY. MITCHELL'S INTERMEDIATE GEOGRAPHY.

MITCHELL'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS. MITCHELL'S ATLAS OF OUTLINE MAPS.

MITCHELL'S KEY TO THE STUDY OF THE MAPS. MITCHELL'S ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY

AND ATLAS. MITCHELL'S ANCIENT ATLAS. MITCHELL'S BIBLICAL AND

SABBATH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. MITCHELL'S HIGH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.

_(Preparing.)_ MITCHELL'S VIEW OF THE HEAVENS.

ONE VOLUME QUARTO, HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED. _(Preparing.)_

MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.

There are no works published in this country that are more in demand, or

that have a wider circulation than those of Mr. Mitchell. There are

upwards of 350,000 copies of his geographical works sold annually, and

more than 250 workmen are constantly employed upon them. The

arrangements of the publishers are such, that they are enabled to give

the most correct and latest geographical discoveries and improvements of

any firm in the United States. They publish the only full series of

geographics in the country, and having in constant employ a strong

geographical force of map engravers, &c., and being very largely engaged

in the publication of the various State and other maps, they are enabled

to present the school series correct, both in maps and matter, up to the

date of publication.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SERIES

MITCHELL'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY.

SECOND REVISED EDITION.

AN EASY INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY.

DESIGNED FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.

Illustrated by 120 Engravings and 14 coloured Maps.

BY S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL.

The publishers have embraced the opportunity of a new revision of the

work to augment its size, so that the book is now a third larger than

any of the preceding editions.

The Maps for the present edition have all been redrawn and re-engraved.

They are on a much larger scale, more distinct, and fuller in

information than those of the previous editions, or any similar work

extant. The true boundaries of all the Western States and Territories

are exhibited, California, Utah, &c., and proper attention given to all

political changes up to the present time.

MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.

[Illustration]

MITCHELL'S INTERMEDIATE OR SECONDARY GEOGRAPHY.

A SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY;

Comprising a Description of the present state of the World, and its five

great Divisions,

AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, AND OCEANICA,

WITH THEIR SEVERAL EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, STATES, TERRITORIES, ETC.

ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY MAPS AND NUMEROUS WOOD-CUT ENGRAVINGS.

Designed for the instruction of Youth in Schools and Families.

BY S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL.

Mitchell's Intermediate Geography, the last published book of the

series, has been before the public but a short time, yet it has been

extensively introduced and is now largely used in public and private

schools throughout the Union. It has been adopted independently, or in

connection with other numbers of the series, by the Public School

Directors of the cities of

New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore,

Washington, St. Louis, Albany,

Rochester, Cleveland, Syracuse,

Utica, Schenectady, Oswego, &c. &c.

By numerous county boards in the various States, and a great number of

the towns and villages of the whole country.

MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.

This work is designed to occupy a medium place between the Author's

Primary, and the well known School Geography and Atlas, of which last

book it contains about two-thirds of the amount of matter.

Like the Primary Geography, the Map Questions are upon the same or

opposite page to the map itself, so that in no case have the leaves to

be turned to find an answer to the question.

Superior excellence is claimed for this book, on account of the natural

and progressive order of the lessons,--of the conciseness and

truthfulnes of the descriptive matter,--of the number, correctness, and

uniform excellence of the Maps,--from the fact that the book is

faithfully revised as often as political changes in our own or other

countries require it,--that the pronunciations of the difficult

geographical names are given,--and finally, on account of the superior

mechanical execution of the work.

As a specimen of numerous recommendations the publishers have received,

they submit the following:

_Copy of a petition of the Public School Teachers of the City of Troy,

New York, addressed to the Board of Education of said city._

GENTLEMEN,--Having examined Mitchell's Intermediate and Primary

Geographies, and faithfully compared them with Smith's, in regard to

accuracy of definitions, reliability of topography, and faithfulness of

the descriptive part, we, the undersigned, teachers, are respectively of

opinion that the interests of your public schools require that the

former geographies be substituted, to be used in our schools in the room

of the latter, and we respectfully request that this change may be made.

_Signed,_

EDWARD WILSON, JR.

HENRY ROBBINS,

HORACE BACON,

P.W. ROBERTSON,

N.H. BENSON,

P.S. CRANDALL,

JNO. PRENTICE,

J.A. PETERS,

ROXANA CARMICHAEL,

RICHARD DAVIDSON.

_Principals of the Public Schools of the City of Troy._

HISTORICAL SERIES.

[Illustration]

PINNOCK'S HISTORICAL SERIES.

PINNOCK'S ENGLAND.

REVISED EDITION.

PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND,

FROM THE INVASION OF JULIUS CÆSAR

TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE THE II.

WITH A CONTINUATION TO THE YEAR 1845:

WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION;

BESIDES A VARIETY OF VALUABLE INFORMATION ADDED THROUGHOUT THE WORK,

Consisting of Tables of Contemporary Sovereigns and eminent Persons,

copious Explanatory Notes, Remarks on the Politics, Manners and

Literature of the Age, and an Outline of the Constitution.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

FORTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, CORRECTED AND REVISED FROM THE THIRTY-FIFTH

ENGLISH EDITION.

BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,

Author of a Manual of Ancient and Modern History, &c. &c.

HISTORICAL SERIES.

PINNOCK'S FRANCE,

HISTORY OF FRANCE AND NORMANDY, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE

REVOLUTION OF 1848,

WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION,

BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,

Author of a Manual of Ancient and Modern History, &c. &c., and Editor of

Pinnock's Improved editions of Goldsmith's Greece, Rome, and England.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

FIRST AMERICAN FROM THE THIRD ENGLISH EDITION.

PINNOCK'S ROME,

REVISED EDITION,

PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ROME,

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ROMAN HISTORY,

AND A GREAT VARIETY OF INFORMATION THROUGHOUT THE WORK,

ON THE MANNERS, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE ROMANS;

WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.

TWENTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINETEENTH LONDON EDITION, IMPROVED

BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,

WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS BY ATHERTON AND OTHERS.

PINNOCK'S GREECE,

REVISED EDITION,

PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE,

REVISED, CORRECTED, AND VERY CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED, BY THE ADDITION OF

SEVERAL NEW CHAPTERS, AND NUMEROUS USEFUL NOTES.

WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.

TWENTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINETEENTH LONDON EDITION, IMPROVED

BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,

WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY ATHERTON AND OTHERS.

HISTORICAL SERIES.

Pinnock's England, Greece, Rome, and France, have become school

classics. In order to make this series more complete, the volumes have

been revised by that well-known historian, W.C. Taylor, LL.D., of

Trinity College, Dublin.

The popularity of these books is almost without a parallel. Teachers

unacquainted with them, will on examination give them a decided

preference to any other historical series published.

_From the Pennsylvania Inquirer, Philadelphia_.

PINNOCK'S GOLDSMITH'S GREECE, ROME, AND ENGLAND.--The popularity of

these histories is almost without a parallel among our school books.

Their use is co-extensive with the English language, and their names are

familiar to all who have received an English education. But if permitted

to remain as they came from the hands of the author, they would soon be

antiquated; for not only is the stream of modern history flowing onward,

but numerous scholars are constantly making researches into that of

ancient times. These works are therefore frequently revised, and thus

the labours of successive individuals are added to those of the gifted

man who wrote them. The present edition is quite an improvement on the

former ones. Several important matters which had before been omitted,

have been introduced into the text, numerous notes and several new cuts

have been added, and every chapter commences with one or more well

selected poetical lines, which express the subject of the chapter, and

will assist the memory as well as improve the taste of the student. We

feel assured that these additions will increase the reputation which

these works have hitherto so deservedly sustained.

_From_ JOHN M. KEAGY, _Friends' Academy, Philadelphia._

I consider Pinnock's edition of Goldsmith's History of England as the

best edition of that work which has as yet been published for the use of

schools. The tables of contemporary sovereigns and eminent persons, at

the end of each chapter, afford the means of many useful remarks and

comparisons with the history of other nations. With these views, I

cheerfully recommend it as a book well adapted to school purposes.

_From_ MR. J.F. GOULD, _Teacher, Baltimore._

Having examined Pinnock's improved edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History of

Rome, I unhesitatingly say, that the style and elegance of the language,

the arrangement of the chapters, and the questions for examination,

render it, in my estimation, a most valuable school book:--I therefore

most cheerfully recommend it to teachers, and do confidently trust that

it will find an extensive introduction into the schools of our country.

HISTORICAL SERIES.

_From the New York Evening Post._

A well written and authentic History of France possesses unusual

interest at the present time. It becomes especially valuable when, as in

the present case, it has been prepared with questions as a text-book for

common schools and seminaries, by a scholar so accomplished as Dr.

Taylor. The work has passed through three editions in England. The

American editor has added one chapter on the late revolutions, bringing

the history down to 1848, and has added to its value by illustrations

throughout, portraying the costume and the principal events of the

reigns of which it treats.

This treatise goes back to the origin of the Celtic race, or the

Cimbrians, as the offspring of Gomer, peopling the north and east of

Europe on the one hand, and to the descendants of Cush--under the names

of Scythians, Tartars, Goths, and Scots, warlike, wandering tribes, on

the other, tracing the migrations of the latter till they drove the

Celts westward, and the Rhine forms the boundary between the two

nations. From the Gauls it goes on to the reign of the Franks,

Charlemagne, the Carlovingian race, the history of Normandy, and the

history of France from the first crusade through its lines of monarchies

and its revolutions, to 1848. The style is clear and forcible, and from

the compactness of the work, forming, as it does, a complete chain of

events in a most important part of the history of Europe, it will be

found interesting and valuable for general readers, or as a text-book in

our schools. It is comprised in 444 pages, 12mo., and contains a

chronological index and genealogy of the kings of France.

Want of space prevents us from inserting all the recommendations

received: we however present the names of the following gentlemen, who

have given their recommendations to the Histories:

SIMEON HART, Jr., _Farmington, Conn._

REV. D.R. AUSTIN, _Principal of Monmouth Academy, Monson, Mass._

T.L. WRIGHT, A.M., _Prin. E. Hartford Classical and English School._

REV. N.W. FISKE, A.M., _Professor Amherst College, Mass._

E.S. SNELL, A.M., _Professor Amherst College, Mass._

REV. S. NORTH, _Professor Languages, Hamilton College, N.Y._

W.H. SCRAM, A.M., _Prin. Classical and English Academy, Troy, N.Y._

JAMES F. GOULD, _Principal of Classical School, Baltimore._

A.B. MYERS, _Principal of Whitehall, Academy, New York._

HORACE WEBSTER, _Professor Geneva College, N.Y._

W.C. FOWLER, _Professor Middlebury College, Vermont._

B.S. NOBLE, _Bridgeport, Conn._

REV. S.B. HOWE, _Late President of Dickenson College._

B.F. JOSLIN, _Professor Union College, N.Y._