What wretch would groan
Beneath the galling load of power, or walk
Upon the slippery pavements of the great!--_Somerville._
1. The success of Agric'ola in Britain affected Domit'ian, with an
extreme degree of envy. This excellent general pursued the advantages
which he had already obtained; he subdued the Caledo'nians, and
overcame Gal'gacus, the British chief, who commanded an army of thirty
thousand men; afterwards sending out a fleet to scour the coast, he
discovered Great Britain to be an island. He likewise discovered and
subdued the Orkneys; and thus reduced the whole into a civilized
province of the Roman empire. 2. When the account of these successes
was brought to Domitian, he received it with a seeming pleasure, but
real uneasiness. He thought Agric'ola's rising reputation a tacit
reproach upon his own inactivity; and instead of attempting to
emulate, he resolved to suppress the merits of his services. 3. He
ordered him, therefore, external marks of approbation, and took care
that triumphal ornaments, statues, and other honours should be decreed
him; but at the same time he removed him from his command, under a
pretence of appointing him to the government of Syria. 4. By these
means Agric'ola surrendered up his province to Sallus'tius Lucul'lus,
but soon found that Syria was otherwise disposed of. Upon his return
to Rome, which was privately and by night, he was coolly received by
the emperor; and dying some time after in retirement, it was generally
supposed that his end was hastened by Domi'tian's direction.
5. Domi'tian soon found the want of so experienced a commander, in the
many irruptions of the barbarous nations that surrounded the empire.
The Sarma'tians in Europe, joined with those of Asia, made a
formidable invasion, at once destroying a whole legion, and a general
of the Romans. The Da'cians, under the conduct of Dece'balus, their
king, made an irruption, and overthrew the Romans in several
engagements. 6. At last, however, the barbarians were repelled, partly
by force, and partly by the assistance of money, which only served to
enable them to make future invasions with greater advantage. 7. But in
whatever manner the enemy might have been repelled, Domi'tian was
resolved not to lose the honours of a triumph. He returned in great
splendour to Rome; and, not contented with thus triumphing twice
without a victory, he resolved to take the surname of German'icus,
for his conquests over a people with whom he never contended.
8. In proportion as the ridicule increased against him, his pride
seemed every day to demand greater homage. He would permit his statues
to be made only of gold and silver; he assumed to himself divine
honours; and ordered that all men should address him by the same
appellations which they gave to the Divinity. 9. His cruelty was not
inferior to his arrogance; he caused numbers of the most illustrious
senators and others to be put to death, upon the most trifling
pretences. One Æ'lius La'ma was condemned and executed only for
jesting, though there was neither novelty nor poignancy in his humour.
Occea'nus was murdered only for celebrating the nativity of O'tho.
Pomposia'nus shared the same fate, because it was foretold by an
astrologer that he should be emperor. Sallus'tius Lucul'lus his
lieutenant in Britain, was destroyed only for having given his name to
a new sort of lances of his own invention. Ju'nius Rus'ticus died for
publishing a book, in which he commended Thra'sea and Pris'cus, two
philosophers, who opposed Vespa'sian's coming to the throne.
10. Lu'cius Anto'nius, governor of Upper Germany, knowing how much the
emperor was detested at home, resolved upon striking for the throne;
and accordingly assumed the ensigns of imperial dignity. 11. As he was
at the head of a formidable army, his success remained a long time
doubtful; but a sudden overflow of the Rhine dividing his army, he was
set upon at that juncture by Norman'dus, the emperor's general, and
totally routed. The news of this victory, we are told, was brought to
Rome by supernatural means, on the same day that the battle was
fought. 12. Domi'tian's severity was greatly increased by this
short-lived success. In order to discover the accomplices of the
adverse party, he invented new tortures: sometimes cutting off the
hands--at other times thrusting fire into the bodies of those whom he
suspected of being his enemies. 13. In the midst of these severities,
he aggravated his guilt by hypocrisy--never pronouncing sentence
without a preamble full of gentleness and mercy. The night before he
crucified the comptroller of his household, he treated him with the
most flattering marks of friendship, and ordered him a dish of meat
from his own table. He carried Areti'nus Cle'mens with him in his own
litter the day he resolved upon his death. 14. He was particularly
terrible to the senate and nobility, the whole body of whom he
frequently threatened to extirpate entirely. At one time he surrounded
the senate-house with his troops, to the great consternation of the
senators. At another, he resolved to amuse himself with their terrors
in a different manner. 15. Having invited them to a public
entertainment, he received them all very formally at the entrance of
his palace, and conducted them into a spacious hall, hung round with
black, and illuminated by a few melancholy lamps, that diffused no
more light than was just sufficient to show the horrors of the place.
All around were to be seen coffins, with the names of each of the
senators written upon them, together with other objects of terror, and
instruments of execution. 16. While the company beheld all these
preparations with silent agony, several men having their bodies
blackened, each with a drawn sword in one hand, and a flaming torch in
the other, entered the hall, and danced round them. 17. After some
time, when, from the knowledge of Domi'tian's capricious cruelty, the
guests expected nothing less than instant death, the doors were set
open, and one of the servants came to inform them, that the emperor
gave all the company leave to withdraw.
18. His cruelties were rendered still more odious by his avarice. 19.
The last part of the tyrant's reign was more insupportable than any of
the preceding. Ne'ro exercised his cruelties without being a
spectator; but a principal part of the Roman miseries, during his
reign, was to behold the stern air and fiery visage of the tyrant,
which he had armed against sensibility by continued intemperance,
directing the tortures, and maliciously pleased with adding poignance
to every agony.
20. But a period was soon to be put to this monster's cruelties. Among
the number of those whom he at once caressed and suspected, was his
wife, Domi'tia, whom he had taken from Æ'lius La'ma, her former
husband. 21. It was the tyrant's method to put down the names of all
such as he intended to destroy, in his tablets, which he kept about
him with great circumspection. Domi'tia fortunately happening to get a
sight of them, was struck at finding her own name in the catalogue of
those destined to destruction. 22. She showed the fatal list to
Norba'nus and Petro'nius, præfects of the prætorian bands, who found
themselves among the number of devoted victims; as likewise to
Steph'anus, the comptroller of the household, who came into the
conspiracy with alacrity. They fixed upon the eighteenth day of
September for the completion of their great attempt. 23. Upon the
emperor's preparing to go to the bath on the morning of that day,
Petro'nius his chamberlain came to inform him that Steph'anus desired
to speak upon an affair of the utmost importance. The emperor having
given orders that his attendants should retire, Steph'anus entered
with his hand in a scarf, which he had worn thus for some days, the
better to conceal a dagger, as none were permitted to approach the
emperor with arms. 24. He began by giving information of a pretended
conspiracy, and exhibited a paper, in which the particulars were
specified. While Domi'tian was reading the contents with eager
curiosity, Steph'anus drew his dagger and struck him with much
violence; but the wound not being mortal, Domi'tian caught hold of the
assassin and threw him upon the ground, calling out for assistance.
But Parthe'nius, with his freedman, a gladiator, and two subaltern
officers, now coming in, they ran furiously upon the emperor and
dispatched him: Steph'anus, however, was slain by the guards, but the
other conspirators escaped in the tumult.
25. It is rather incredible, what some writers relate concerning
Apollo'nius Tyane'us, who was then at Ephesus. This person, whom some
call a magician, and some a philosopher, but who more probably was
only an impostor, was, just at the minute in which Domi'tian was
slain, lecturing in one of the public gardens of the city; but
stopping short, on a sudden he cried out, "Courage, Steph'anus, strike
the tyrant!" then, after a pause, "Rejoice, my friends, the tyrant
dies this day;--this day do I say?--the very moment in which I kept
silence he suffered for his crimes! He dies!"
26. Many prodigies are said to have portended his death; and if the
Roman historians are to be credited, more preternatural appearances
and predictions announced this event, than its importance
deserved.[30] The truth seems to be, that a belief in omens and
prodigies was again become prevalent, as the people were evidently
relapsing into pristine barbarity, ignorance being ever the proper
soil for a harvest of imposture.
_Questions for Examination_.
1. What advantages did Agricola gain in Britain?
2. How did Domitian receive the account of Agricola's success?
3. In what way did the emperor treat him?
4. To whom did Agricola surrender up his province?
5. What nations afterwards made irruptions into the Roman provinces?
6. By what means were the barbarians at length repelled?
7. What surname did Domitian assume?
8. To what extravagance did his pride lead him?
9. What trifling pretexts were made use of by Domitian to put to death
some of the most illustrious Romans?
10. Who now assumed the ensigns of the imperial dignity?
11. By what general was Lucius Antonius defeated?
12. What new cruelties were resorted to by the emperor?
13. By what hypocritical conduct was he distinguished?
14. To whom was he particularly terrible?
15, 16, 17. What terrific ceremonies did he invent on one occasion?
18. Was the result fatal to them?
19. Did not his cruelties become still more insupportable at the
latter part of his reign?
20. Who was among the number that he at the same time caressed and
suspected?
21. Whose name did Domitia discover among his list of victims?
22. To whom did she show the fatal list, and what was resolved on?
23. What means were used by Stephanus to assassinate the emperor?
24. Relate the particulars of the assassination.
25. What exclamation is Apollonius Tyaneus said to have made at
Ephesus, at the time of Domitian's death?
26. Did not the Romans relapse into their pristine state of barbarity
about this period?
FOOTNOTES:
[1] In his sixth consulship Augustus commanded a census to be made,
when there was found the astonishing number of 4,060,000 inhabitants
in Rome, which was fifty miles in circumference.
[2] M. Primus, while governor of Macedon, had made an irruption into
the country of the Odrysians; for this he was prosecuted, and pleaded
that it was by the emperor's orders. Augustus denying this, L. Murena
put the impudent question to him mentioned in the text.
[3] An island on the coast of Lucania, in Italy; now called Santa
Maria.
[4] The date of Augustus's reign is here reckoned from the death of
Antony, when he became sole monarch; but if it be reckoned from his
first coming into power, soon after the death of Julius Cæsar, it is
nearly 56 years. Augustus carried on his wars principally by his
lieutenants, but he went personally into Spain and Gaul. His bravery,
however, has been greatly called in question, and many flagrant
instances of his cowardice recorded. How true they may be is not easy
to determine.
[5] The temple of Janus was now shut for the third time since the
foundation of the city.
[6] He began his reign, however, with the murder of Agrippa Posthumus,
the grandson of Augustus.
[7] Varus had been surprised by the Germans, defeated, and his whole
army cut to pieces. Augustus was so grieved at this disgrace and loss,
that, for a long time, he wore mourning, and frequently was heard to
cry out, in the agony of his grief, "Restore me my legions, Varus."
[8] Germanicus died in the 34th year of his age, and was universally
mourned for, not only by the Roman people, but by the princes in
alliance with Rome, and even by the proud monarch of Parthia. (Suet.
l. 4. c. 5.)
[9] He was found in the morning with his throat cut, and his sword
lying by him; but whether this was done by his own hand, or by the
orders of Tiberius, is not known. (Tacitus.)
[10] Sejanus, though simply a Roman knight, was descended from an
illustrious family, and was, in the very beginning of Tiberius's
reign, associated with his father in the command of the prætorian
guards. By removing these from their usual quarters in the city, and
uniting them in one body in a camp, he laid the foundation of that
power, which they afterwards usurped, of disposing of the empire at
their pleasure.
[11] To such a pitch of meanness were the Roman senators arrived, that
when the emperor's letter arrived, the senators, thinking it contained
orders for bestowing on Sejanus the tribunitial power, crowded around
him, each striving to be foremost in congratulating him on his new
dignity; but they no sooner learned the real contents of the fatal
letter than all forsook him; even those who sat near him removed to
another part of the house, lest they should be accounted his friends.
(Dio.) The populace likewise broke in pieces those very statues which,
a few hours before, they had adored.
[12] It has been well said of Tiberius, "This great prince--this
sovereign of Rome--with his numerous armies, his prætorian bands, and
his unlimited power, was in hourly fear of secret assassins,
incessantly prompted by his own apprehensions; with all the eclat of
empire, the most miserable being in his dominions. His power, indeed,
was unlimited, but so was his misery; the more he made others suffer,
the faster he supplied his own torments. Such was his situation and
life, and such were the natural consequences of the abuse of power."
[13] He was so named from _caliga_, a sort of military boot which he
usually wore.
[14] A promontory, port, and town in Italy, near Naples.
[15] The Prætorian bands were instituted by Augustus, to guard his
person, and maintain his authority. Under bold and warlike emperors,
they were kept in tolerable subjection: but when the reins of
government were held by feeble hands, they became the disturbers,
instead of preservers, of the public peace; and, at length, deposed
and set up emperors at their pleasure.
[16] Some still more extraordinary accounts are given of this horse:
it is said that he appointed it a house, furniture, and kitchen, in
order to treat all its visitors with proper respect. Sometimes he
invited Incita'tus to his own table, and presented it with gilt oats,
and wine in a golden cup. He would often swear, "by the safety of his
horse!" and it is even said that it was his intention to have
appointed it to the consul-ship, had not his death prevented it.
[17] One day on visiting the amphitheatre, finding there were no
criminals condemned to fight with wild beasts, he ordered numbers of
the spectators to be thrown to them, previously causing their tongues
to be cut out, that they might not, by their cries, disturb his
inhuman diversions.
[18] It is said that the tower which stands at the entry of the port
of Bologne, called La tour d'ordre, is that built by Calig'ula on this
occasion.
[19] Palatine games were so called from their being celebrated on the
Palatine Hill, which was the most considerable of the seven hills on
which Rome was built. This was the first hill occupied by Rom'ulus,
and where he fixed his residence, and kept his court; as also did
Tul'lus, Hostil'ius, Augus'tus, and all the succeeding emperors; and
hence it is that the residence of princes is called Palatium or
Palace.
[20] He is by some called Am'pronus.
[21] His mother Anto'nia, used to call him a human monster; and his
nephew, Calig'ula, when he had butchered many of his kindred, saved
him merely for a laughing-stock. The kindest word Agustus gave him was
that of Misel'lus, (poor wretch.) This example was followed by others.
If he happened to come to table when the guests had taken their
places, no one showed him the least civility; and when he slept, as he
sometimes did, after meals, they would divert themselves by throwing
the stones of fruit at him, or by wakening him with a blow of a rod or
whip.
[22] Her'od Agrip'pa was the grandson of Herod the Great; who, at the
birth of our Saviour, caused all the infants of Bethlehem to be
massacred, in hopes that he would fall in the number. Her'od Agrip'pa
to please the Jews, also persecuted the Christians; and put to death
St. James the Great.
[23] He put to death Cher'ea and some others of the murderers of his
nephew.
[24] Sen'eca, a celebrated philosopher, and a son of Sen'eca the
orator, was born at Corduba, in Spain, A.D. 8. This town was also the
birthplace of his father. (Strabo and Lucan.) Corduba was founded by
the Romans, B.C. 150, and in process of time it became the residence
of the Moorish kings, and where they continued till their expulsion
into Africa. It was in the vicinity of this city that Cæsar fought his
last battle with the sons of Pompey.
[25] Vespasian was at that time conducting the war in Jude'a, in Asia.
[26] The destruction of Jerusalem happened in the year of our Lord 70.
[27] Hercula'neum, Pompe'ii, &c. This eruption happened August 24,
A.D. 79. These towns, after having been buried under the lava for more
than 1600 years, were discovered in the beginning of the last century:
Hercula'neum, in 1713, about 24 feet under ground, by labourers
digging a well, and Pompe'ii 40 years after, about 12 feet below the
surface; and from the houses and streets which, in a great measure,
remain perfect, have been drawn busts, statues, manuscripts,
paintings, &c. which contribute much to enlarge our notions concerning
the ancients, and develope many classical obscurities. (Mala.) In the
year following this dreadful eruption, a fire happened at Rome, which
consumed the capitol, the pantheon, the library of Augustus, the
theatre of Pompey, and a great many other buildings. In the ruins of
Hercula'neum there have lately been found loaves which were baked
under the reign of Titus, and which still bear the baker's mark,
indicating the quality of the flour, which was probably prescribed by
the regulation of the police. There have also been found utensils of
bronze, which, instead of being tinned, like ours, are all silvered;
the ancients doubtless preferred this method, as more wholesome and
more durable. The excavations at Pompe'ii continue to furnish the
royal museum at Naples with all kinds of valuable objects: some
buildings have lately been discovered at Pompe'ii, remarkable for the
richness of their architecture. At Paggo'ia, another town buried by
the lava from Vesuvius, some sepulchres have been found, which are
stated to be magnificently adorned with sculpture of the finest kind.
[28] Impera'tor, a title of honour among the Romans, conferred on
victorious generals by their armies, and afterwards by the senate.
[29] It is a remarkable fact, that the most odious tyrants that ever
sat on the Roman throne, commenced their reigns with a display of all
the virtues that adorn humanity: on the contrary, Augustus, who was
truly the father of his people, began his reign with cruelties that
afforded but a melancholy presage of his future administration.
[30] In the reign of Domi'tian, a violent persecution raged against
the Christians. During this persecution St. John was confined to the
Isle of Patmos, in the Archipelago, where he wrote the Apoc'alypse, or
Revelation.
* * * * *