THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY
South America has constituted a happy hunting-ground for the railway
engineer determined to carry out his conquest with steam and steel in
the face of all opposition on the part of Nature. The famous Oroya line
is described in another part of this volume, but on the eastern side of
the continent is another railway which is equally as remarkable, and
which constitutes one of the most interesting engineering achievements
in this particular field of endeavour south of the Equator. Indeed,
in many respects it ranks as one of the most interesting lines in the
world.
This is the Leopoldina railway, which, with its hub resting on the
Atlantic seaboard, has its tentacles spreading through the provinces
of Rio, Minaes and Espirito Santo to the extent of some 1,500 or more
miles. In reality it is a combination of many units. In the ’sixties of
the nineteenth century, Brazil resolved to criss-cross its territory
with steel, and short lengths of line were laid on all sides. But the
finances of the country became so strained from internal troubles and
the decline in the price of coffee that money could not be spared to
build or to operate railways successfully. An English company was
organised, therefore, to take over a number of these individual roads,
and they were combined into a homogeneous whole to form the Leopoldina
system.
When the Englishmen entered into possession they found a sorry state of
things. The finances were in a hopelessly involved tangle, and months
elapsed before they were straightened out. The tracks likewise were
in a pitiable condition of decay. They had been built cheaply, and
had suffered severely from the innumerable enemies to railways in a
tropical country. Lack of funds had militated against repairs being
carried out upon a comprehensive or thorough scale, with the result
that the whole system presented a patched and dilapidated appearance.
However, no time was lost in placing the undertaking upon a firm
footing. Within two months of the acquisition of the railways a
large staff of men for both the administration and engineering sides
of the enterprise were dispatched to South America, with Mr. F. W.
Barrow as general manager and Mr. Norman B. Dickson, M.INST.C.E., as
engineer-in-chief. The engineer was commanded to overhaul the whole
network, to reconstruct it if necessary, so that the lines might be
capable of meeting the exigencies of the traffic awaiting creation from
the development of the country.
At that time Rio de Janeiro was an insalubrious city--in fact, it was
almost a graveyard for Englishmen. Mr. Dickson found this out in a very
short space of time. The company lost three accountants and a number of
British assistants under the malignant scourge that prevailed--yellow
fever. Since those days Rio de Janeiro has made great strides and has
undergone extensive improvement. The city has been rebuilt, and has
been provided with a complete sanitation system, to bring it into
line with the other great ports of the world. But in those days it
was absolutely untenantable from the white man’s point of view, and
the railway authorities were compelled to provide accommodation for
their imported staff in a healthy spot outside the city, where the
men underwent what might be described as a process of acclimatisation
lasting over eighteen months.
The first few years were strenuous to the engineer-in-chief. He was
confronted with a formidable task on all sides. The line is of metre,
or 39.3 inches, gauge throughout, and had been built in a somewhat
flimsy and haphazard manner. The majority of the bridges and culverts
had been erected of timber, the greater part of which either had
reached, or were approaching closely, the span of life. These had to
be replaced by permanent structures in masonry or steel. The track,
too, had to be overhauled from end to end, reballasted, provided with
new sleepers and rails, and at frequent points where it was in an
exposed position, and liable to suffer from the peculiar visitations
which wreak such widespread destruction in that country, had to be
strengthened and protected by heavy retaining walls and revetments of
masonry.
Yet the Brazilian engineers had attempted a daring engineering work in
the first instance. The configuration of Brazil is somewhat peculiar.
A few miles from the coast, and running roughly parallel with the
water-line, is a rugged range of mountains dividing the low-lying
stretch of shore from the fertile highlands in the interior. The
mountain ridge is not regular, but is badly broken up, forming, as
it were, a succession of walls placed one behind the other. In order
to gain the interior, and owing to the abrupt nature of the ascent,
the line has to climb sharply, at the same time winding in and out
among the clumps of mountains in a bewildering manner. In fact, the
differences in level are so sudden that the track could be lifted only
by means of resort to the rack rail, and other devices such as are
adopted in Switzerland to ascend the steep mountain slopes.
For instance, after leaving the coast, the first ridge is met within
30 miles, and in the course of 5 miles the line has to rise some
3000 feet. This involved the use of grades varying from 15 to 18 per
cent.--from 1 in 6⅔ to 1 in 5-5/9--and when first laid down the line
was worked upon the Riggenbach system.
It is worth while to recall that it was on the low-level part of this
section to Petropolis that the iron horse made its first appearance in
South America. The short length of line, representing about 13 or 14
miles, between Maua and Raiz da Serra was the first stretch of railway
to be laid and used on the continent south of the Equator.
[Illustration: A STEEP BANK SHOWING THE CENTRAL RACK RAIL]
[Illustration: TRAIN ON THE RACK SECTION OF THE PETROPOLIS DIVISION,
SHOWING THE CURIOUS TYPE OF LOCOMOTIVE ADOPTED
HOW THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY OVERCOMES HEAVY GRADES]
On another part of the system--the line running inland from Nictheroy,
on the eastern side of the bay of Rio de Janeiro--the Brazilian
engineers were compelled to overcome one of the most searching problems
in railway engineering in the world. After traversing forty miles of
the level country, the mountain ridge barred their way. They realised
that it could be surmounted only by some exceptional system, and the
local authorities seized a unique opportunity. The Mont Cenis tunnel,
connecting Italy and France, had been bored successfully, and this new
steel highway through the heart of the range displaced the construction
railway operating on the Fell system which had been laid over the
crest of the Cenis range. The Brazilian engineers thereupon approached
the Swiss authorities for the purchase of this abandoned stretch of
mountain line, and their offer was accepted. Thereupon the Mont Cenis
“Fell” railway was torn up, transported to South America, and pressed
into service to help the Brazilian engineers over the obstacle that
confronted them.
[Illustration: REBUILDING A BRIDGE ON THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY
The masonry structure had to be built beside the original iron
structure so as not to disturb traffic.]
The solution proved completely successful, and the engines fulfilled
their task upon the eight per cent. grades with perfect satisfaction
for several years. Then the Baldwin Company, of Philadelphia, undertook
to eliminate the special locomotives required on the “Fell” system, and
to convert the railway to adhesion working. Recalling the fact that
for every twelve and a half feet of advance one makes a vertical rise
of twelve inches, such a conversion appears remarkably daring, but the
experiment justified the transformation, for the adhesion locomotives,
notwithstanding the extreme severity of the gradient and the sharpness
of the curves, which have a minimum radius of seventy-five feet, have
accomplished the work formerly completed by the “Fell” locomotives with
equal success. The result is that this represents the steepest length
of line upon a trunk railway to be worked by adhesion traction in the
world.
The locomotives weigh forty tons, and they are capable of hauling
a train weighing forty-five tons on the drawbar up this bank. In
comparison with such climbs the “Big Hill” which worried the Canadian
Pacific railway engineers for so many years, appears insignificant.
The disadvantage of the grade on the latter system was the frequency
with which trains ran away down the declivity to enter one or other of
the switches or catch-points, which deflected the train or locomotive
from the main track and piled it against a bank of earth. Such
accidents on the “Big Hill” were nothing to what have occurred on the
Leopoldina line. The great difficulty is not in regard to ascending
the grade with a load, although there is a possibility of the engine
failing to take the hill, and to let its driving wheels spin round idly
on the metals without forging a foot ahead. The traffic destined for
the interior is comparatively light. The heaviest loads are brought
from the highlands to the coast, and consequently the question is to
hold the train in check as it descends. Ordinary braking is useless,
as, although the wheels may be locked, the whole train is liable to
toboggan down the metal slide almost as furiously as if the wheels
were running freely. The situation has been met by firstly reversing
the engines and letting a small amount of steam into the cylinders
sufficient to act as a break, and by retaining the centre rail of
the Fell system and to grip it by means of a strong scissors brake.
Inasmuch as the engineers are extremely careful when descending the
hill, runaways are few and far between.
[Illustration: A FLOOD ON THE LINE
The track is submerged by the torrential rainfall.]
[Illustration: A DERAILMENT CAUSED BY THE TRAIN COLLIDING WITH A COW!
CURIOUS TROUBLES EXPERIENCED ON THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY]
Now and again, however, a train gets out of control, especially when
the rails are wet and slippery. To meet this condition of affairs the
driver, of course, makes liberal use of sand, but here again the fates
are against him, for owing to the sharp curves it is no easy matter to
induce the sand falling from the engine’s sand-boxes to drop on the
face of, and not between or outside, the rails. When a train does get
out of hand on the descent the driver has to trust to luck to gain
the bottom of the bank in safety, or to regain control of his charge.
Sometimes he succeeds and sometimes he fails. In the latter case
derailment generally ensues, with more or less disastrous results. Mr.
Dickson had a narrow escape from this danger himself one day. He was
carrying out his periodical inspection of the line from his special
carriage coupled to a locomotive. In coming down the bank something
went wrong, and the train got away. The engineer-in-chief admits that
he had an uncomfortably anxious few minutes. He felt the train gather
speed, and suffered violent oscillation as the train swung round the
bends. Just as he was wondering what would be the end, there was a
jump and a crash. The engine had left the track, rolled over, and
his car was astride the overturned locomotive. He crawled out of the
wreck, badly shaken and bruised, but otherwise little the worse for his
adventure, though the unfortunate driver was killed.
[Illustration: AN INTERESTING ENGINEERING ACHIEVEMENT
This 160-feet bridge span had to be erected and pulled into position
over rollers.]
[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE PARAHYBUNA RIVER, SHOWING HEIGHT OF
RIVER IN FLOOD AND FORCE OF WATER SURGING ROUND THE PIERS
THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY IN BRAZIL]
In order to negotiate the third mountain range another solution of the
difficulty was adopted. The precipice was so steep that the engineers
could not introduce the loops requisite to carry the line continuously
from one level to the other. So they had recourse to the switch-back,
wherein the line runs down-hill for a short distance to a dead-end.
This brings the engine of the descending train to the rear, and by
giving the latter a slight push it is sent down another similar
switch-back to another dead-end, where the engine is brought once more
to the front of the train. In this manner, alternately pulling and
pushing, the train gains the bottom or top of the level of the line,
according to the direction in which it is travelling. In reality it is
a zigzag, similar in character to that which was used for so many years
upon the New South Wales railways, as described elsewhere.
Although on the eastern side of the continent the engineer is spared
the ravages of snow and avalanches, he suffers from other disturbing
elements which perhaps are more to be dreaded. These are floods,
wash-outs and landslides. The rainfall in this territory averages
between 90 and 100 inches during the year, and when the rainstorms
break the downfall is tremendous. The rivers are converted into roaring
cataracts, huge cavities are torn in the flanks of the mountains, and
enormous quantities of debris are released. Should the line be in
the way of such a visitation it suffers severely. It is no uncommon
circumstance for a huge gap to be cut in the railway, showing where
the tearing water or descending mass of earth has crashed through the
track, sweeping everything before it. Nothing can withstand the force
of these onslaughts, and although heavy retaining walls of masonry
may serve to check their fury, they are not completely successful.
The result is that when the rains are expending their violence, the
engineer-in-chief is prepared for some heavy repairing work, for
possibly 100,000 tons or more of earthen embankment may be demolished.
Then the engineer hurriedly completes a new survey, and replaces the
track around the scene of the accident, because reconstruction, as a
rule, is more economical and quicker than attempting to repair the
injury inflicted.
This, at times, and in a cramped valley, is no easy task, for the
curvature has to be borne in mind. Consequently the destruction often
precipitates a pretty engineering problem, extrication from which
depends upon the engineer’s resources and ingenious ability entirely.
There is no doubt that the control of a South American railway, where
such conditions as these prevail, imposes a supreme task upon a man’s
capacity. Wash-outs and landslips will find the engineer out more
quickly than any other emergency, because he is called upon to keep
the track going at all hazards, and when a breach does occur, his own
enterprise and initiative alone determine the length of the period
of interruption to traffic. On such a line as the Leopoldina railway
this is a serious factor, because there is a constant heavy volume of
produce, especially coffee, maize, tobacco and sugar, pouring towards
the coast. During a recent year floods, wash-outs and landslides
cost the railway no less than, £24,500, or $122,500. This was a
year of abnormal disaster in this direction, but the item generally
approximates between £12,000 and £14,000, or $60,000 and $70,000, in
the course of the twelve months.
[Illustration: THE BRIDGE OVER THE PARAHYBUNA RIVER AT CAMPOS UNDER
CONSTRUCTION]
[Illustration: THE PARAHYBUNA RIVER BRIDGE COMPLETED. TOTAL LENGTH
1,113½ FEET
The crossing of this waterway by the Leopoldina Railway created a riot
in Campos.]
The replacement of the decrepit bridges occasioned Mr. Dickson
no little perplexity, but this work became all the more urgent, as
the original structures could not withstand the heavier locomotives
and trains that were introduced by the British company. One of the
most difficult undertakings of this character was the erection of
a massive masonry arch bridge in three spans upon the rack system
of the Petropolis branch. Each span is of 50 feet, and the work was
complicated by being on a curve of 80 metres, or about 266 feet radius.
It had to replace a trestle bridge, and reconstruction had to progress
without interfering with traffic. Another notable piece of work which
he completed successfully was the erection of a single steel girder
bridge of 160 feet span across the Parahybuna River. Owing to the
velocity of the current and the great depth of water, false-work was
quite out of the question, so the steel-work had to be erected on
shore, rolled out, and launched into position, being held in check by
cables, which proved a trying ordeal owing to the current. When brought
into position between the abutments, the steel-work was lifted by means
of jacks, the temporary nose was dismantled, and the span lowered until
it rested in the desired position upon its supports.
[Illustration:
[_See page 224_
THE ROCKBOUND SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR SEVERELY TAXED THE ENGINEERS IN
THE BUILDING OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY
At places, construction averaged as much as £70,000, or $350,000, per
mile.]
Occasionally the advance of the railway has been resented by the
inhabitants. For instance, when it was decided to carry the railway
across the Parahybuna River at Campos, the populace of the latter
town considered it an unwarranted intrusion. They were urged that
the railway bridge would cause their trade on the waterway to shrink
to infinitesimal proportions. Thereupon the inhabitants raided the
railway, and zealously set to work to destroy everything destined for
the bridge. The situation looked ugly, but the authorities took stern
measures and quelled the riot, though not before damage to the extent
of £40,000, or $200,000, had been wrought.
This bridge is one of the most important upon the whole system. From
end to end it measures 1,113½ feet, divided into six through truss
spans supported upon five pairs of piers in the waterway.
This outbreak of hostility, however, was quite exceptional. In the
interior the natives have welcomed the railway rather than attempted to
arrest its progress. This feeling has taken an unusual turn at places
where the communities have presented the land for the right-of-way,
and in other cases have built stations at their own expense. Since the
railway has been under British control the expansion of the country
has proceeded rapidly, and the exploitation of the soil has proved
highly profitable. The railway maintains an active progressive policy,
throwing out spur lines wherever the local conditions promise an
equitable return, to encourage development. These branches are not
built upon pioneer principles, but are equal in every respect to the
trunk roads.
The amount of earthwork incurred in the construction is enormous.
Ninety per cent. of the mileage of the line is carried out upon the
sides of the hills, necessitating cuttings sufficiently deep and
wide to carry the track. The location for the most part is along the
banks of the rivers, inasmuch as these offer the easiest channels to
penetrate the mountain ridges. As these waterways describe extremely
meandering courses, the railway is a maze of twists and turns. In
fact, the line might be described, after it leaves the flats along the
coast, as a continuous succession of curves and reverse curves, more
often than not, without an intervening stretch of tangent, or straight,
length of track. As a result fantastic “S” windings, horse-shoe bends,
and figure-eight loops abound, though the minimum curve is of 266 feet
radius.
Despite its remarkable serpentine character, however, the Brazilian
engineers displayed marked ability in the original location, bearing
in mind the state of railway engineering at the date these lines were
undertaken. When Mr. Dickson appeared on the scene to straighten out
the railway, the natives constituted his sole labour, and he found that
the Brazilian engineers were adapted eminently to the work of surveying
and locating, being possessed of a specially good eye for a railway
line through difficult country. The labour, too, in general, was
found to be of a high standard. The Chinaman is generally regarded as
the best navvy, but according to this engineer who has had experience
in railway construction in all parts of the world, his preference is
overwhelmingly in favour of the Brazilian Portugee. He takes a pride
in his work, is conscientious, and performs his task thoroughly.
These traits stood the engineer-in-chief in good stead in his work of
overhaul, for it enabled him to produce a line which, from the point of
excellence and solidity, would be difficult to rival in more advanced
countries. In the upkeep of the line the same characteristics are
observable. The men are tidy, keep the track in excellent condition,
and leave little cause for complaint in regard to the maintenance of
the railway buildings, taking pride in their individual sections. They
have proved first-class engine-drivers, displaying every care, for on a
railway of this character, bristling with sharp curves and steep banks,
accidents are liable to be caused from the slightest miscalculation.
When disasters have occurred, it has been found that the causes have
been quite beyond the men’s control.
Under British management the railway has been rescued completely from
its former moribund condition, greater stretches of fertile country
have been brought under cultivation, and a general air of prosperity
has been imparted to the territory which it serves. From the financial
point of view the investment has proved a complete success, with the
result that the Leopoldina railway to-day offers a most powerful
example of the beneficial influences of English management among the
railways of South America.