ACROSS SIBERIA BY RAIL
The success with which San Francisco was brought within two or three
weeks of Europe by means of the Union and Central Pacific railways
prompted far-seeing individuals to aspire for a similar acceleration
of travel around the other half of the northern hemisphere. This could
be done by driving the iron road straight across Europe and Asia, and
it was pointed out, in support of the scheme, that the industrial and
commercial centres of western Europe would be brought within about a
fortnight’s journey of China.
The construction of a railway across Siberia was discussed for over
half a century. In 1851 Count Mouraviev-Amoursky, the Governor-General
of Eastern Siberia, suggested that he should be brought into more
immediate touch with the heart of the Russian Empire. He suggested
that first a highroad should be built across the continent, upon which
the iron rails should be laid later, thus converting the channel of
vehicular and pedestrian traffic into a railway.
It was a brilliant idea, but like many other great schemes suffered
from being premature. However, as Siberia developed, the building
of independent railway lines in various parts of the country, to be
connected together by short links, thereby forming a chain of railways
stretching from the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean, was mooted frequently.
The Government viewed the recommendations sympathetically, but nothing
definite was arranged.
In 1869 the administrative authorities scattered throughout Asiatic
Russia became so energetic in their demands for improved communication
with western Europe that the Government entertained seriously the
bonding of the empire. The question arose, however, as to the most
advantageous location. What direction should it follow in order to
serve the most promising interests from an economic point of view? This
was a problem that demanded searching investigation, but meanwhile the
railway commenced to move eastwards, the existing system of Russia in
Europe being driven more and more towards the Ural Mountains. By 1888
the railhead was within easy reach of the eastern frontier of Europe,
having gained Zlatoost.
A halt was called at this juncture. The outposts of steel were
three in number, Orenburg, Tioumen on the Asiatic side of the
Urals and connected with Ekaterinburg, and Zlatoost. A decision
was necessary to determine which of these three railheads should
be the jumping-off point for the long toil through Siberia. Three
surveys were made, and as a result of prolonged consideration of
the advantages and disadvantages of the respective routes from
every point of view, among the most important of which was the
question of cost, Zlatoost was selected as the most favourable
starting-point. From that point the location was by way of
Tcheliabinsk-Kourgan-Petropavlovsk-Omsk-Tomsk-Krasnoiarsk to
Nijneoudinsk, as this offered the shortest length of line, traversed
the most densely populated and most fertile country, and at the same
time could be built far cheaper than either of the alternative routes.
It was recognised that the line would entail the expenditure of a huge
sum of money, no matter how cheaply it was constructed, and that there
could be no hope of any return upon the investment for many years to
come owing to the unsettled character of the country. Accordingly it
was decided to avoid all pretentious engineering exploits--in fact, to
build the line upon pioneer principles. A five-foot gauge was adopted
to harmonise with European Russia, and in order to cut the cost of
construction down to the lowest possible figure the lightest material
was employed, the rails, for instance, only weighing 54 pounds per
yard. It was realised that the paramount condition was to open up the
land and its resources without delay, and to overhaul the line as
traffic increased, thereby bringing it gradually into conformity with
the generally accepted standards of a modern railway.
As the project was of such far-reaching significance to the Russian
Empire it was resolved that it should be carried out as a national
undertaking. Every ounce of material required was to be fashioned in
Russian workshops--there was only one important departure from this
decision, and that was the construction of the huge ice-breaking
ferries on Lake Baikal, which, being beyond the capacity of the Russian
builders, were designed and constructed at the Elswick works of Sir W.
G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Company, Limited--and that it should be built
by Russian labour under Russian engineers with Russian money. It was an
Imperial enterprise from end to end.
To govern the work of construction a national committee was
established, composed of interested ministers, under the presidency of
the Grand Duke Heritier, the present Tsar, who upon his ascent to the
throne retained his seat upon this commission. Indeed, the Emperor has
displayed the greatest interest in this undertaking from its inception,
and, in fact, inaugurated the work by laying the stone commemorating
the turning of the first sod at Vladivostok on May 18, 1891, during his
visit to the East.
Owing to the gigantic character of the work it was divided into several
distinct sections comprised as follows--
MILES
1. The Western Siberian Railway from
Tcheliabinsk to Obi 885·14
2. The Central Siberian Railway from Obi to
Irkutsk, subdivided into two parts, the
first from Obi to Krasnoiarsk, and the
second from Krasnoiarsk to Irkutsk 1143·75
3. The Baikal Railway from Irkutsk to
Myssovaia 192
4. The Trans-Baikal Railway from Myssovaia
to Stretensk 690·4
5. The Amur Railway from Stretensk to
Khabarovsk 1383·75
6. The Ossouri Railway from Khabarovsk
to Vladivostok 476·8
This was the manner in which the 4,771 miles of line constituting the
link between the Urals and the eastern seaboard of the Pacific was
split up. The difficulties that were likely to be encountered were
realised only too well. Though great engineering achievements were
not to be permitted from lack of funds, it was recognised that in
certain places heavy initial expenditure could not be avoided. The
rivers which flow northwards to the Arctic sea, and thus cut across the
direction of the railway at right angles, were to be feared the most,
owing to their great widths, velocity, and the ice-packs with which
they were obstructed during the early spring. Here metal only could
be employed, and as the waterways to be crossed were numerous, it was
seen that the expenditure under this heading would have to be enormous.
There was another factor which had to be taken into consideration.
These waterways during the summer season are the great highroads of
communication through the country, and consequently it was imperative
that the rails should be carried at a sufficient height above the
waterways as to offer no obstruction to steamboat navigation.
As a matter of fact, it may be conceded that the huge bridges across
such rivers as the Irtych, Obi and Yenisei constitute the outstanding
features of the work. They were built massively, and although
their erection in many cases taxed the skill of the engineers to a
superlative degree, owing to the difficult conditions prevailing, their
successful completion is a striking tribute to the men responsible for
their consummation. The fact that these waterways were frozen during
the winter, harassed the engineers in one, while it was a distinct
boon in another, direction. Rails could be laid upon the ice, over
which the construction trains could proceed from bank to bank, hauling
the requisite supplies and provisions for the workmen, whereas in the
summer such work had to be effected by ferries and boats demanding
transhipment at the banks, whereby considerable time was lost, as well
as incurring the liability of damage to the material handled.
Work was commenced on the various sections as soon as it was possible
to gather the requisite material and men on the spot. Owing to the
extreme difficulty attending access to the middle parts of the
country, these sections were not taken in hand until some two or three
years after the earth and rock had commenced to fly at the extreme
ends. As already mentioned, construction actually commenced first at
Vladivostok, but some months later, on July 7, 1892, the engineers
commenced to drive the steel highway eastwards from the European
terminus at Tcheliabinsk, to which point the line had been carried
forward from Zlatoost.
The country entered after the Urals were left behind was the fringe of
a vast steppe covered with tall bush, which continues until the Obi
is gained. Then the character of the country changes with startling
suddenness, desert giving way to dense forests, where heavy clearing
was necessary to secure the right-of-way. The timber, however, was
of slight use for building purposes, and this deficiency, together
with that of stone, proved a serious drawback. Timber had to be
hauled from long distances and pressed into service for spanning the
smaller waterways, creeks and streams, there being over 260 temporary
structures of this type upon this division. Difficulty was also
experienced in securing material for ballasting the line, and in some
instances it was necessary to haul the material for this purpose 20
miles across country.
Four large steel bridges had to be erected in order to carry the
railway across the Tobol, Ichime, Irtych and Obi rivers, all of which
are navigable. The last two waterways demanded the heaviest pieces of
work of this character, the Irtych bridge being about 2,130 feet in
length, divided into six spans, each of about 354½ feet. That over the
Obi measures some 2,650 feet from end to end, built up of seven spans,
three of which are of 594½ feet, and four of 291½ feet respectively.
The rigours of the climate were felt severely. The summer is short
and hot, while the winter is long and intensely cold, the temperature
ranging between -5 and -13 degrees, while at times the mercury was
found to descend to -40 degrees. Moreover, the steppe is swept by
terrific winds, and the conditions told heavily upon the labourers
working in such an exposed situation. In summer, after making
allowances for wet and fête days, only about 120 days were left for
operations, and consequently it was essential to continue work during
the winter as far as practicable. The sparsely-populated character
of the country militated against the engineers, and the labour for
the most part had to be brought from Europe, for the peasants were
unaccustomed to navvy work. The scarcity of water was another adverse
factor, that found in the more sterile reaches being brackish and unfit
for consumption. To meet this contingency water had to be brought over
long distances for the workmen, while in places artesian wells were
sunk which relieved the situation slightly. Under these conditions the
completion of the 885 miles of line comprised in this section within
four years was an excellent piece of work.
The Central Siberian railway, as it ran through two diametrically
different stretches of country--plain and mountainous respectively--was
subdivided into two divisions. The first section, stretching from the
banks of the Obi, where it connected with the Western Siberian railway,
was taken in hand in May 1893, and the work was pushed forward so
vigorously that it was completed in advance of the scheduled time.
Trains from St. Petersburg could not run over this section, however,
until two years later, as the struggles of the engineers upon the
mountains, in the second moiety, demanded the utilisation of the first
section for the handling of their supplies and material. The broken
country proved to be exceedingly troublesome. Moreover, a large number
of wide waterways had to be crossed, such as the Yenisei, where a
magnificent bridge 2,856 feet in length had to be erected. It is a
massive structure, and at present constitutes the largest and heaviest
work of its description in Siberia.
The traveller as he rolls over the iron road cannot resist contrasting
the solidity and permanent appearance of these noble bridges with the
temporary character of the line in other places. The difference is so
great as to be incongruous. Yet it was in accordance with the original
plans. The earthworks and permanent way can be replaced at leisure,
but the bridges, and the reputation of the rivers they span, led the
authorities to decide that in these instances first cost should be
last cost. When the whole railway is brought up to the standard of the
bridge-work, it will be comparable in solidity and travelling comfort
with the leading lines of other countries.
Rapidity in laying the track on the first section was due to the fact
that the line traversed an undulating plain where heavy works were
not demanded. The climate for the most part was found to be analogous
with that prevailing in Western Siberia, the mean temperature in
summer hovering about 70 degrees, to fall to about -7.6 degrees in
winter. In order that the workmen during the latter season might not
be interrupted in their tasks of fashioning the stone-work for the
bridges, special workshops were provided, heated with steam and stoves,
and similar shelters were built over the sites of erection on the ice,
where the workmen were enabled to lay the masonry in comfort. At the
same time these measures permitted the cement to dry slowly instead of
being frozen, only to fall to pieces with the approach of spring.
As the engineers pushed farther and farther away from the European
frontier, the country was found to be more and more thinly settled.
Along the line of the Central Siberian railway the average population
was one person per square mile, and the majority of these people
were colonists who had emigrated from European Russia to practise
agriculture in the East, and they were settled for the most part along
the postal road to Tomsk.
Under such conditions labour had to be brought from several hundreds
of miles to the rear. Huge depots had to be established to house
provisions and large camps formed for the employees. Furthermore,
thousands of horses and hundreds of wagons were required in addition
to sleighs. Roads had to be cut for the passage of these vehicles,
and at various points stores of provisions and other necessaries had
to be stored in deep pits dug in the ground, and covered with heavy
tree-trunks to secure protection against bears and other marauders.
The penetration of the dark and matted primeval forests was terrible.
The ground was swampy, and in order to facilitate the advance of
vehicles the soft soil had to be rendered firmer by tree-trunks laid
down to form a kind of timber road. The men engaged in this essential
undertaking suffered extreme privations, not only bodily, but mentally
as well. The terrible solitude preyed upon their minds, while the
rainfall and entire absence of the rudiments of comfort told upon their
constitutions.
In order to facilitate the transportation of the provisions and
material from European Russia to the main depots along the line, the
great waterways were utilised to the fullest extent. Boats of all
descriptions took on these stores at convenient points near the Urals,
such as Tioumen, and by traversing the various tributaries of the
mighty Obi were able to gain numerous points along the location, where
they discharged their cargoes. Thence the goods were dispatched to the
scattered depots and camps by road.
When Irkutsk was gained, the first serious troubles arising from
the mountains confronted the engineers. The survey showed that the
line here would have to describe a huge detour to round the southern
extremity of Lake Baikal, a sheet of water as large as England. The
country was broken up to an extreme degree, and among other works of a
heavy nature involved was a tunnel nearly 12,500 feet long through the
Zyrkousounsk mountain chain, which towers to a height of 12,000 feet
above sea-level. But the tunnel was only one obstacle which would have
to be overcome, for heavy cuttings through rock and big fills to cross
depressions were indicated on all sides. Some idea of the outlook was
afforded from the estimated cost of this 182 miles of line which was
ciphered at £2,700,000, or $13,500,000. As, after compassing the lake,
the line swung sharply north-eastwards to gain Myssovaia, practically
opposite the point on the west bank, a bold temporary expedient was
suggested. This was the installation of a large vessel combining the
features of an ice-breaker and ferry, which should carry the trains
intact across the lake, a distance of about 45 miles. By this means
construction from the eastern bank could be hastened, leaving the
line around the end of the sheet of water to be built at leisure at a
subsequent date.
The construction of this vessel was entrusted to Sir W. G. Armstrong,
Whitworth & Co., Limited, who had undertaken the ice-breaker _Ermak_
which had proved such a unique success in the Baltic Sea. It measures
280 feet in length and has a displacement of 4,200 tons. It is
propelled by twin screws driven by triple expansion engines developing
3,750 horse-power. A third screw is placed in the front, which not only
serves to assist propulsion, but also to crush the ice, the vessel, as
it were, cutting its own channel.
Rails are laid upon the deck of this steamer so that the train, when it
comes to the water’s edge on one bank, proceeds under its own power on
to the steamer, and upon reaching the opposite bank of the lake runs on
to dry land. In addition, there is accommodation for a large number of
passengers.
The vessel was built on the Tyne and then dismantled, every part
being numbered to show its relative position. It was shipped to St.
Petersburg, and from that point dispatched to Krasnoiarsk. Here on the
shores of Lake Baikal the parts were reassembled and the vessel was
launched. This ship-building operation was no mean feat in itself,
bearing in mind the remote situation of the lake and the complete
absence of those thousand-and-one facilities which are to be found in a
shipyard on the Tyne.
The vessel proved a complete success, and the authorities were so
gratified at this solution of a difficult problem that they secured a
second ice-breaker, together with a floating dock where these craft
could be repaired and overhauled as occasion demanded, together with
sufficient equipment for such work. The total expenditure upon this
trans-Baikal marine work alone amounted to £684,190, or $3,420,950.
The line around the shore of the lake, however, has been completed,
providing through continuous railway communication across Siberia.
Passengers can still enjoy the lake trip if they desire or are in a
hurry, as the steamers are still in service, not only for this special
purpose, but also to serve various other points along the shores of
Lake Baikal, thereby bringing a great territory within easy reach of
the railway.
The forging of the link around the lake, however, proved the most
difficult part of the whole undertaking. Bridges across yawning deep
gulches had to be introduced freely and projecting spurs had to be
tunnelled. Heavy gradients and sharp curves could not be avoided owing
to the configuration of the country, and at many places the work is
extremely daring. Despite the difficulties with which the engineer had
to grapple, this trying section was completed two years before the
anticipated date, a result in the main due to the energy and initiative
of one man--Prince Khilkoff.
This scion of one of the oldest and most noble families in Russia was
an extraordinary man, and probably the most famous railway engineer
that Russia has produced. His career was as extraordinary as his
character. When a young man he determined to see things for himself.
For several months he worked at a bench in Liverpool in order to
become familiar with the trade of a mechanic. Then when one of the
early trans-continental railways was being driven across the United
States, he proceeded to that country and joined the navvying gangs at
the railhead, becoming acquainted in turn with the difficulties of
penetrating the mountains, railway-building and a thousand-and-one
other details pertaining to such operations in a new country of a
diversified character. In this way he gained valuable first-hand
knowledge from practical experience. Afterwards he turned his
attention to the operating side, serving first as stoker and then as
driver. Still climbing the ladder, he became traction manager and was
responsible for the running of the line. Few men ever have gained such
an all-round knowledge of the intricate art of controlling a railway as
did Prince Michael Ivanovitch Khilkoff, and one of his most treasured
possessions was an old certificate of character that was given to
him by his superior when he severed his connection with an American
railway, in order to facilitate his securing another post.
The knowledge he thus acquired stood him in valuable stead when
he returned to Russia, where the development of various means of
communication throughout the empire was in a state of transition. On
account of his wide and varied experience he was appointed to the
directorship and control of various railways, and soon brought them to
a high state of efficiency. He achieved the topmost rung of the ladder
when he was appointed minister of all the roads, canals, rivers and
railways of the empire.
The Trans-Siberian road thus came under his control, and he set to
work energetically upon the completion of this tremendous enterprise.
His influence was demonstrated on every hand. Lackadaisical methods
made way for strict business routine, and in a short time the
whole organisation was running with the precision of a clock. His
subordinates when in a quandary never hesitated from seeking his advice
and assistance, which were granted always with sympathetic interest;
and when the obstacle assumed more than normal proportions he did not
attempt its negotiation from an arm-chair thousands of miles away, but
hurried to the spot to study it at first-hand, and to recommend and
assist himself in the breaking down of the difficulty. He had become so
saturated with American railway methods that he travelled up and down
the line continuously; no detail, no matter how slight, missed his eye.
At the time the Circum-Baikal line was in progress he scarcely ever
left the railhead, as it was just one of those complex and exasperating
fights with Nature in which he revelled. At seventy-five he was as
active and as keen as ever, and it was a distinct misfortune for Russia
that he was struck down by a paralytic stroke from which he never
recovered. Still, he left a host of recommendations for the improvement
of the Trans-Siberian and other railways, including the double tracking
of the great trans-continental steel way, which are now being fulfilled.
When Lake Baikal was crossed, the engineers experienced a grim struggle
for supremacy through every foot of the way. There is an up-hill pull
from the shore of the lake over the Yablonovoi range, where the railway
attains its highest point on the continent, viz. 3,412 feet above
sea-level, and then makes a descent to gain the valley of the Amur. The
country traversed is of a varied character, and was found to be tightly
in the grip of frost, for the winter is terribly severe. The land, in
fact, may be described as eternally frozen, for in summer, although the
temperature rises to about 62 degrees, it does not thaw the ground to
a depth of more than 7 feet below the surface. In the forested parts
where the branches shut out the genial rays of the sun, ice is found at
about 20 inches below the surface in midsummer.
Under these circumstances advance was trying. The top-soil was as hard
as rock, and could not be displaced except by dynamite, so that in the
deep cuttings in mid-summer it was just as arduous to cut a way through
the frozen loam as through the solid rock. The rivers, although they
flow with a fierce velocity, freeze up quickly, and the ice assumes a
great depth--a train can cross on the congealed surface with perfect
safety.
In this country, strange to say, it was found to be easier to work
during the winter, notwithstanding the extreme cold, than during the
summer, for a higher rate of advance could be maintained when the
country was frost-bound. There is an almost total absence of snow, but,
on the other hand, during the summer the rainfall is tremendous. The
wet season lasts continuously for nearly two months--from the middle of
June to the middle of August. The downpour is so terrific that floods
are precipitated on every hand, and the resultant situation, as may
be surmised, is of the most miserable character. In 1897 the effect
of this deluge was experienced to an abnormal degree, for several
villages were overwhelmed, and widespread misery was inflicted among
the peasants. The railway did not escape, for large stretches of line
were washed away and large quantities of material were lost.
The scarcity of labour was felt very severely. Sufficient men could not
be recruited locally, and to import navvies from Europe was hopeless.
To meet this contingency the Administration authorities sanctioned
the employment of exiles, while criminals were requisitioned to build
the grade under a military guard. Though recourse to prison labour
has been often advocated for railway construction, this is one of
the rare instances where it has been brought into actual application
through absolute force of circumstances. Assistance was rendered by
Chinese labourers, and though at first they proved indifferent in the
manipulation of tools, their assistance ultimately proved invaluable,
as the majority developed into expert workmen.
As in other parts of the country, the inhabitants were favoured so
far as possible in regard to the acquisition of horses, which were
necessary for teaming and haulage work generally, in a district where
steam traction engines were quite out of the question. The camps
were provided also, so far as practicable, with local produce. In
this territory, however, a serious situation was precipitated. The
harvest failed, and the peasants were faced with starvation. Then the
dreaded disease known locally as “Siberia” ravaged the country. It is
a plague analogous to the rinderpest of South Africa, and has wrought
tremendous havoc throughout the eastern corner of the Russian Empire,
its effects being experienced along the shores of the Pacific. In 1898,
this calamity assumed such proportions that work had to be brought to
a standstill for lack of transportation facilities. The Government
attempted to alleviate the situation by organising a special veterinary
service to study the plague on the spot, with a view to elaborating
some palliative measures. In order to meet the local deficiency the
engineers were compelled to dispatch emissaries into Mongolia to
purchase the hardy beasts of burden peculiar to that country. Large
herds were acquired in this manner and were driven several hundred
miles to the grade.
By means of this section the railway was carried so far east as
Stretensk, from which point the line was to be continued to Khabarovsk.
A modification in the arrangements, however, took place. Under the
original scheme the line was to traverse Russian territory entirely,
although Manchuria thrust its border so far to the north as to demand a
wide detour in order to gain Vladivostok. At last, however, it became
possible to carry the railway into Manchuria, and as a link was being
built across this country, affording a short-cut to the seaboard, the
Amur railway was abandoned, a short length being built to the Chinese
frontier to connect with the Eastern Chinese railways instead.
The result is that the extreme eastern end of the line comes to a
dead-end at Khabarovsk, and in itself is far from being remunerative.
At the time the engineers appeared on the scene the territory had not
been explored, signs of settlement were very few and far between, there
were no roads, and the population was composed mostly of exiles and
prisoners deported from Europe. Construction had to be carried out
almost exclusively by convicts, assisted by the military, Chinese and
Corean labour. The climate being extremely humid in summer, the work
during that period proved terribly exacting, and the difficulties were
enhanced by the ravages of the cattle plague. All material, being
manufactured in European Russia, had to be brought to the extreme
eastern end by water, either via the Suez Canal or the Cape of Good
Hope, and consequently delays were frequent and often serious for both
grade and men.
The primeval forest was terrible to penetrate owing to the huge trees,
which, although they provided ample material for constructional
purposes, demanded considerable effort and time for their removal
from the right-of-way. As the conquest of Manchuria commenced while
this work was in progress, and a shorter cut to Vladivostok was being
provided, a spur was driven westwards from Nikolsk to the Chinese
frontier to meet the Manchurian railway.
Owing to the rearrangement of the railway chess-board in the East in
consequence of the Russo-Japanese war, it is quite possible that the
Trans-Siberian railway will be completed as originally planned--that
is, through Russian territory entirely, by the completion of the Amur
railway from Stretensk to Khabarovsk.
The total cost of the through main line as now in operation was
approximately £33,000,000, or $165,000,000. When the various other
works incidental to the scheme, such as the connections with the
Chinese frontier, are included, the total approaches the enormous
figure of £40,000,000, or $200,000,000. This merely represents the
building of the track itself between Kotlass in European Russia--now
considered a part of the scheme--and Vladivostok, without a single
railway car, wagon or engine. As originally designed, the capacity of
the line was fixed at three trains each way per day, but the lightness
of the construction did not permit this being maintained when the
railway was subjected to great pressure, such as attended the transport
of troops to the East.
The overhaul of the line was commenced immediately, and the question
of doubling the track taken into serious consideration. This latter
work is now in progress, and it is estimated that this task alone will
represent a prodigious expenditure.
The effect of the railway upon the movement of traffic around the
northern hemisphere became manifested immediately. There were two ways
in which China and the East generally could be gained from Europe.
One route was by steamer all the way via the Suez Canal, the second
was by way of the Atlantic, across America by rail, and by steamship
across the Pacific. But the Trans-Siberian route was far and away the
shortest and quickest, and as the campaign of overhaul is proceeding,
acceleration is taking place. Now it is possible to reach Shanghai from
London within 16 days, and one can encircle the northern half of the
world in less than 40 days.
The extreme precautions observed to preserve communication on the
line are noteworthy. The whole railway is divided into sections, each
measuring 1,174 yards in length. Each station is provided with a
cottage housing the station-master, his family and the employees. Some
4000 of these officials are scattered along the route between the Ural
Mountains and the city of Tomsk. The men have a common uniform, which
is rather of a military appearance, and it is no uncommon experience to
hear passengers unfamiliar with this feature remark that the line is
guarded from end to end by soldiers. As a matter of fact, it is just
the same as if the various employees of our railways, such as porters,
signalmen, guards, ticket-collectors, and so forth, were attired in
khaki.