THE IRON HORSE IN AUSTRALASIA
II
Whereas the Southern Australian and Queensland railways are called upon
to meet the demands of agriculture, the roads of Western Australia,
on the other hand, have been laid out to satisfy the extensive mining
movements along the western shore of the island continent. The
engineers, however, have not been called upon to face particularly
stern grapples with Nature, owing to the country traversed being, for
the most part, of a give-and-take character, and to there being an
entire absence of high mountains and wide, rushing rivers. There is
only one chain of hills of any magnitude that has to be crossed by the
lines. This is the Darling range, which runs parallel with the coast
from near Geraldton to the southern extremity of the country.
In order to gain the gold-fields around Coolgardie, as well as
the eastern and southern stretches of the State, the difficulties
confronting the engineer in connection with this low ridge were not so
great as those prevailing in New South Wales. For instance, only one
tunnel, 1,096 feet in length, has had to be bored. Indeed, the engineer
seized the opportunity to build the line cheaply to such an extent that
the lowest watermark in this respect, bearing in mind the configuration
of the country, may be said to have been attained. True, the grades and
curvature are heavy, the former running up to as high as 1 in 50 (2
per cent.), while the curves are of 266 feet radius. Some of the most
difficult spurs in this range are traversed by the line which taps the
extensive coal-fields in the Collie district--the bulk of the coal used
in the State is obtained here--where sharp curves of 176 feet radius,
and banks rising 1 in 40, have been introduced.
The first railway built in Western Australia was a short line from the
coast to Northampton. This was completed in 1879. In those early days
the finances of the country were at a very low ebb, and the engineer
was forced to carry his track through the hilly country with the
minimum of earthwork. The result was that curves so sharp as 88 feet
radius were adopted.
The Upper Darling Range railway also deserves more than passing
notice. It leaves Midland junction at the foot of the hills, and 10
miles from Perth. The precipitous character of the spurs so puzzled
the engineer that he was driven to imitate the method of extrication
from a difficulty of this description practised in New South Wales.
He had to “zigzag” the line up the face of the bluff. Another feature
of interest is on the spur from the eastern railway, known as the
Smith’s Mill branch. A deep cut had to be driven through a hill, which
the excavators, when they set to work, found to be a solid mass of
pipe-clay!
Though the engineering trials on the railways in this State may not
compare in calibre with those in other countries, there is one other
difficulty which is far more significant from the railway’s point of
view. I refer to the question of water supply. On the coast, where
the rainfall varies between 15 and 40 inches per annum, this does not
occasion any apprehension, but rain becomes scarcer and scarcer as the
great interior deserts are approached. This condition prevails along
a belt 150 miles or so wide, extending from Albany to Geraldton. When
the discovery of gold at Coolgardie, some twenty years ago, sent a wave
of excitement round the world, the miners and others who rushed to
the El Dorado suffered terribly from the dearth of this indispensable
commodity, and when the mines were set to work it hampered operations
to a very pronounced degree. In the gold country the rainfall does not
exceed six inches per annum, and consequently water had to be husbanded
carefully.
The mining activity, however, brought about a remarkable expansion
in the iron road, which pushed inland for nearly 600 miles. Then the
water question became one of vital importance, because the locomotives
required copious and frequent drinks to slake their tremendous thirsts.
To bring this article up from the coast was costly. The scanty rainfall
was collected so far as possible by impounding, but the water thus
secured was found to be useless for the railway’s purposes. It became
so heavily charged with deleterious substances, as it flowed over a
salt-impregnated soil, that it set up heavy incrustation in the boilers.
This was a serious drawback, because it reduced the life of the
engine’s internal organs very materially, and militated against the
iron horse’s efficiency. To remedy this state of affairs, the earthen
dams constructed at various points along the route, which formed
small reservoirs, were supplemented by condensing plants. The most
notable installation of this description was completed at Coolgardie.
This plant was designed primarily to utilise the salt water from the
adjacent mines. The Coolgardie condenser was capable of supplying
about 60,000 gallons of fresh water per day, at a cost of 37_s._
6_d._, or say $9 per 1000 gallons, and to furnish this requirement
entailed an expenditure of £15,000, or $75,000, on the apparatus. A
large distilling apparatus was set up also at Geraldton to supply the
Northern railway running into the Murchison gold-fields, where the
water question was also a serious factor.
[Illustration: THE ENTRANCE TO THE TUNNEL, 1,096 FEET LONG, THROUGH THE
DARLING RANGE
This is the only tunnel on the West Australian Government Railways.]
While this palliative met the situation up to a certain point, it was
far from satisfactory. Consequently, a few years ago a huge project
was evolved to supply the Coolgardie gold-fields with unlimited
quantities of excellent water. A large dam was thrown across a rift
on the western slope of the Darling range about 20 miles from Perth,
whereby 4,600,000,000 gallons of water are banked up. The water is
dispatched from this reservoir to the gold-fields 350 miles away
through a pipe 30 inches in diameter, which is sufficient to ensure the
inhabitants in the gold country receiving a steady and continuous
supply of 5,000,000 gallons per day. At intervals along the line large
intermediate tanks are provided, together with pumping plants. As the
pipe-line runs alongside, and the pumping stations are situate beside
the railway, the latter can now secure ample supplies of pure water,
so that the Eastern Gold-fields railway is concerned no longer with
troubles in this direction.
[Illustration: THE DEARTH OF SUITABLE WATER WAS THE SERIOUS PROBLEM IN
THE EARLY DAYS OF THE COOLGARDIE GOLDFIELDS. AS THE RAILWAY COULD NOT
HAUL SUPPLIES FROM THE COAST, THIS NOVEL CONDENSING PLANT WAS ERECTED
The above photograph shows one-half of the installation. In this way
60,000 gallons of fresh water were supplied per day at a cost of 37_s._
6_d._, or $9, per 1000 gallons.]
Great activity is being displayed now in opening up the country in
suitable districts alongside the main line, where fruit-growing can be
practised with distinct success. These agricultural roads are built
lightly in the first instance to reduce capital outlay, the average
cost being about £1,200, or $6,000, per mile, but these lines will be
replaced by heavier metals as the land becomes settled.
The Western Australian railways now extend for about 2,500 miles
through the State, and, in addition, private enterprise is represented
by the Midland Railway Company, which runs from a point 10 miles out of
Perth northwards for 276 miles to Walkaway, whence Geraldton is reached
by a Government line. In addition, there are numerous short roads
belonging to companies working the resources of the country, especially
of timber, but one and all have adopted the narrow 3½ feet gauge so
as to secure uniformity and intercommunication. Bearing in mind the
undulating and easy nature of the country, railway constructional costs
have not been heavy. On the trunk lines outside the Darling range the
cost has varied from £3,000 to £4,000--$15,000 to $20,000--per mile,
according to the distance from the coast. The heaviest expenditure was
incurred in traversing the Darling Mountains, where the expenditure
ranged between £4,000 and £7,500--$20,000 and $37,500--per mile.
During the past few years the question of building an Australian
trans-continental railway has been brought to the fore, the idea being
to link up the railways on the eastern, with those on the western,
sides of the continent. Such a railway would be of far-reaching
strategical importance, and Lord Kitchener, during his visit to the
Antipodes, urged its necessity. The proposal comprises the connection
of Kalgoorlie in the Coolgardie district with Fort Augusta in the
neighbouring State of South Australia, whence Adelaide, Melbourne,
Sydney and Rockhampton on the Queensland coast could be reached by rail
from Perth. To complete such a scheme would entail the crossing of
the edge of the Victoria desert, but as the physical character of the
country does not offer any great difficulties, it is estimated that the
1,070 miles of line could be built for £5,000,000, or $25,000,000.
When the States were federated, Western Australia, feeling that
it was cut off from its sister States, concluded that if it
co-operated to form a homogeneous commonwealth, the construction of
a trans-continental highway would follow as a matter of course. This
anticipation caused the western state to throw in its lot with the
other territories. Western Australia for a long time previous had
cherished the idea of connecting itself physically with the east by
means of the iron road, but it was not financially in the position
to undertake the project unaided. Still it authorised one of its
engineers, Mr. John Muir, to run through the country it was intended to
traverse, and to report generally upon the feasibility of the scheme.
The journey undertaken by this engineer gives an interesting sidelight
as to the task of surveying a new road in Australia, especially in the
lesser-known hinterland. Mr. Muir organised a small party, with camels
as the vehicles of transport. The beasts numbered twelve in all, five
being utilised for riding purposes and the remainder as pack-animals,
carrying the restricted requirements for the little party. They set out
from the most easterly point to which the Western Australian railways
had penetrated in the requisite direction. Leaving the gold-field
country, they entered the great Victoria Desert. Water was the one
difficulty they apprehended, for they knew from the experiences of
various explorers in this arid belt that this commodity could be found
only here and there. The camels, consequently, were restricted to
short rations--one drink every five days, the party carrying sufficient
of the liquid to meet its own needs during the intervals. The animals
evidently did not appreciate these strict regulations, because the
party, whenever they left a water-hole, had the greatest difficulty
in persuading the camels to continue the journey, and even when they
did resume the trail the beasts frequently stopped to turn their heads
longingly in the direction of the last water station.
This small party covered 1000 miles, collecting valuable data,
which, upon return, was investigated searchingly and compared with
the information that other travellers had gathered when piercing the
country at different times. As a result a comprehensive scheme was
drawn up, and the possibilities of such through communication were
revealed in no uncertain manner.
Some years later the Commonwealth sanctioned the completion of
a more exhaustive survey, Mr. H. Deane, M.INST.C.E., formerly
engineer-in-chief to the New South Wales railways, being placed in
charge of the whole undertaking. The enterprise was divided into two
sections, the Federal Government undertaking to complete the task from
Coolgardie to the eastern frontier of Western Australia, while South
Australia decided to complete the work so far as it affected its own
territory. Mr. John Muir, who had been through the country previously
for the Western Australian Government, was selected by the chief
engineer as first lieutenant on the former division, and he enrolled
four other surveyors.
For this task no less than 91 camels were acquired. Of this total 36
animals were deputed to haul three team-wagons, a like number were
subdivided into three strings of pack-animals, three carried stakes for
locating the line, while the others were used for various purposes.
An important task was the distribution of stores to the extent of 18
tons along the route for the survey party, together with ample supplies
of water for both man and beast, the water stations being spaced at
intervals of 7 miles.
To plot the route the chief surveyor set out ahead of the main party.
He ran the line by the aid of a compass, and checked his work by means
of stellar observations. The last camel in his train was required to
haul a heavy bullock-chain, the free extremity of which was knotted,
and as this dragged over the ground it left a trail which could be
picked up and followed easily by the main party following in the rear.
The latter measured the distance by chains and took levels at frequent
points, and these were checked constantly. This survey party moved
forward at the rate of 6 miles per day, and it covered the Western
Australian section of 455 miles in 89 days.
The South Australian Government engineers experienced greater
difficulty in completing their part of the work, for on their section,
extending over 608 miles, the scarcity of water was felt acutely. They
were caught by the intensely hot summer, which dried up all available
founts of supply speedily, and consequently the men and the 80 camels
could not advance very rapidly, their daily movement averaging about 3
miles. In due course they gained the inter-state boundary and picked
up the last stake indicating the route left by the party which had
advanced westwards from Kalgoorlie.
A sum of £20,000, or $100,000, was expended upon this preliminary work.
In addition to location, other valuable details were secured, the most
important of which was in regard to the economic possibilities of the
territory traversed. Far from much of the country being sterile, as
previous reports had indicated, it was ascertained that, under proper
scientific farming, it could be brought to a high standard of fertility
and productiveness. There is one long doubtful stretch of 107 miles
through a waterless plain, but if it were possible to adopt irrigation,
there are great hopes that this country might be found excellent for
grazing purposes.
The standard gauge was advocated for the trans-continental highway,
and it was pointed out that if this connection were forged, not only
would the line prove of distinct military value, but that it would
possess great commercial attractions as well. For instance, there is a
considerable and increasing trade between the Coolgardie gold-fields
country and the eastern States, which has to be carried out by steamer
at present, involving a long, tedious journey, whereas by rail the
two centres would be brought within direct and accelerated connection
of one another. Another feature was emphasised also, and that was the
great saving in time possible by dispatching the European mails and
passenger traffic overland from east to west, instead of by sea as at
present.
The Commonwealth appears resolved to carry the scheme to fulfilment,
especially in view of Lord Kitchener’s strong advocacy of the project,
and when this is accomplished passengers landing at Fremantle will be
able to travel by rail so far as Rockhampton in Queensland, a distance
of 3,800 miles. Owing to the varying gauges in Australia, such a
journey would involve no less than five changes of carriages at least,
and this is the one great disadvantage connected with the scheme.
In order to observe railway engineering in its most spectacular form
in the Antipodes one must cross the Tasman Sea into New Zealand. The
England of the South is provided with a backbone of lofty and extremely
broken ridges. Indeed, the advance of the railway-builder through
this country has been beset with abnormal obstacles which recall the
conquests of the Rocky and Cascade mountains in North America. The
most outstanding feature on the whole network of railways operated by
the Government is the amazing number of bridges, the cost of which
must represent a huge sum. In the early days chasms and gorges which
the railway was forced to cross were spanned by wooden structures, but
these have since been replaced by substantial and often lofty steel
structures. Whenever the engineer has essayed to leave the coast on
either side of the island, the mountains have reared up to dispute his
advance, and it has been only by dint of great effort that the metals
have been carried over these great barriers.
At the present time the country has one gigantic project in hand
which is without a parallel south of the Equator. This is the Otira
tunnel, which is being driven for 5½ miles under the gorge of the same
name. This great work occurs on the line which is destined to connect
Christchurch on the east, with Greymouth on the west, coast of the
South Island. The two points are separated by the Southern Alps, many
peaks of which jut 12,000 feet into the clouds. This undertaking was
commenced by private enterprise, but when 35 miles of the line had
been completed, the physical difficulties to be overcome were found
to be so great that the company shrank from attempting the apparently
impossible, and accordingly the ambitious idea was abandoned.
The result was that the Government took the railway over and determined
to penetrate the mountain chain at all hazards. The Otira tunnel,
though the most notable feature, is but one of many notable works,
for the bridges and smaller tunnels compel just as much attention. To
give some idea of their frequency and character it may be mentioned
that, in a short length of 9 miles, there are 4 high steel viaducts,
one of which carries the rails 236 feet above the floor of the gorge,
and no less than 17 short tunnels, the longest of which is about 2000
feet, while there is scarcely a mile of level line! The grades on this
railway in some cases are very severe, that through the Otira tunnel
itself being 2 per cent., or 1 in 50.
[Illustration: HOW THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN EASTERN RAILWAY CUTS THROUGH
THE DARLING RANGE]
From the earliest days one dream had occupied the attention of, all
concerned in New Zealand’s welfare and progress. This was a trunk
railway from Wellington to Auckland. The fact that only some 450
miles separated the two cities by a feasible route was hammered home
vehemently by enthusiasts, but it was some time before the requisite
courage and determination to effect the connection could be summed
up. Pessimists pointed out the great mountains and deep, wide gorges
that would have to be conquered, and the enormous expenditure their
subjugation by the steel highway would entail. To-day, however, the
North Island Trunk railway connects the two points, but it proved a
prodigious undertaking, calling for the display of remarkable ingenuity.
[Illustration:
[_See page 214_
THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY IS A MAZE OF CURVES, TWISTS AND BENDS, OWING TO
THE RUGGED CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY TRAVERSED
This photograph shows a sharp loop.]
The early surveyors pointed out that Mount Ruapehu would demand much
hard and heavy thinking on the part of the engineers. So it proved. The
railway skirts the base of this peak, but has to make a stiff ascent in
a short distance. The engineer did not resort to a zigzag to overcome
the difficulty, but profited from the example of Hellwag on the St.
Gotthard, who had to extricate that line from a similar tight corner.
Recourse was made to a spiral. The result is that the railway emerges
from a tunnel burrowed through a crest, and shortly after sweeps round
in a graceful curve to cross the tunnel through the same obstruction;
the railway overcomes the steep ascent by means of a stretch of
corkscrew track.
Near the base of the same mountain there is a deep gorge over which
the line was forced to pass. From the point at which the track gained
the brink it was about 800 feet to the opposite cliff edge, and the
precipice delved down to nearly 300 feet. This is the famous Makatote
Gorge, and the engineer decided to spring across the gap.
The contract was secured by Messrs. J. & A. Anderson of Christchurch,
and they lost no time in attacking the task. When they appeared on the
scene there was no road to the site of the viaduct, and the railway was
still 20 miles distant, so the prospect was not inviting. The sides of
the mountain were covered with dense primeval jungle-like bush, which
had to be hacked back to permit of investigations of the situation, and
six months passed before the wagon road for the purposes of the railway
was driven through the district. This constituted the only channel over
which the requisite steel material could be transported.
The constructional engineers concluded that the best means of meeting
the situation was to erect a workshop on the spot where the necessary
steel-work could be prepared. Electricity was generated to operate the
various tools demanded. The rainfall averaged about 96 inches per year,
and at times the insignificant stream flowing through the V-shaped
fissure was nothing but a foaming torrent, sweeping everything away in
its mad rush.
The constructional engineers were faced with the erection of one
tower springing from the bank of the waterway beneath to a height of
270 feet, while other towers of 249, 208, 175 and 110 feet in height
respectively were demanded. The spans were of equal length, viz. 100
feet, flanked on either side by approaches, and the undertaking called
for the use of about 1000 tons of steel.
The foundations comprise concrete pedestals which were sunk into the
ground, and these carry steel towers somewhat after the American
pattern, giving lightness, with rigidity and strength. Every piece of
steel was riveted to its neighbour by means of pneumatic tools, which
not only expedited the task of securing the sections together, but
eliminated the possibility of accidents arising from the swinging of
sledge-hammers, especially at the greatest heights. The spans of steel
connecting each tower with its neighbour were erected from the rail
level, without recourse to false-work. Owing to the many and careful
precautionary methods adopted, the erecting work was carried through
without the slightest hitch or the loss of a single life. When the task
was completed the strength of the constructional engineers’ handiwork
was tested thoroughly by a train of the heaviest locomotives used upon
the New Zealand railway being run across the bridge at varying speeds,
until the maximum attained in practice was reached. The Makatote
Viaduct stands as one of the finest pieces of its work of this type
that ever has been completed in the Antipodes.
Another striking engineering achievement was the building of the
Central Otago railway which runs from Dunedin to the interior of Otago.
The line not only threads knots of mountains, but also spans numerous
rifts. Indeed, so much bridging became necessary that the railway has
become known as “The Bridge Line.” In completing this road nearly
every type of structure known to the engineer was adopted. The largest
structure is the Wingatui Viaduct, where the rail is carried about
146 feet above the floor of a broken, winding gorge on a creation of
steel comprising three spans, each measuring 196 feet in length, and
five smaller spans, each of 66 feet, supported on pyramidal steel
towers. Another work of a similar character is the Flat Creek Viaduct,
where the rail runs across the rift about 100 feet above its deepest
part in six spans of 66 feet each. These mountain creeks, it may be
pointed out, are simply masses of rocky boulders in the dry season,
but when they are called upon to carry away the accumulation of water,
they are nothing but torrents tearing along with fiendish turbulence,
and bearing down considerable quantities of heavy stones, against the
batterings of which the erections of the engineer would be futile were
they not carried out upon the most substantial lines. In contrast to
the permanent metallic structures is the Waian timber trestle on the
South Island main trunk line, which measures no less than 613 feet from
end to end. Verily, New Zealand may be described as the land of the
bridge-builder _in excelsis_, owing to such varied opportunities to
demonstrate his skill.