Avula, Balijas, Kapus, and Yerukalas.
Chinthala, Devangas, Komatis, Malas, and Madigas.
Gorantla, Padma Sales.
Gorrela, Kammas, Kapus.
Gurram, Malas, Padma Sales, and Togatas.
Nakkala, Kattu Marathis, and Yanadis.
Those who belong to the Raghindala (Ficus religiosa) gotra are not
allowed to use the leaves of the sacred fig or pipal tree as plates
for their food. Members of the Palavili gotra never construct palavili,
or small booths, inside the house for the purpose of worship. Those who
belong to the Akshathayya gotra are said to avoid rice coloured with
turmeric or other powder (akshantalu). Members of the Kommi, Jammi,
and Mushti gotras avoid using the kommi tree, Prosopis spicigera,
and Strychnos Nux-vomica respectively.
Of the various sub-divisions, the Puja Gollas claim superiority over
the others. Their origin is traced to Simhadri Raju, who is supposed
to have been a descendant of Yayathi Raja of the Mahabaratha. Yayathi
had six sons, the last of whom had a son named Kariyavala, whose
descendants were as follows:--
Penubothi (his son),
|
Avula Amurthammayya,
|
Kalugothi Ganganna,
|
Oli Raju,
|
Simhadri Raju.
|
+------------+-------+------+-------------+
| | | |
Peddi Erunuka Noranoka Poli
Raju. Raju. Raju. Raju.
The Gollas are believed to be descended from the four last kings.
According to another legend, there were five brothers, named Poli Raju,
Erranoku Raju, Katama Raju, Peddi Raju, and Errayya Raju, who lived
at Yellamanchili, which, as well as Sarvasiddhi, they built. The
Rajas of Nellore advanced against them, and killed them, with all
their sheep, in battle. On this, Janagamayya, the son of Peddi Raju,
who escaped the general slaughter, made up his mind to go to Kasi
(Benares), and offer oblations to his dead father and uncles. This
he did, and the gods were so pleased with him that they transported
him in the air to his native place. He was followed by three persons,
viz., (1) Kulagentadu, whose descendants now recite the names of the
progenitors of the caste; (2) Podapottu (or juggler), whose descendants
carry metal bells, sing, and produce snakes by magic; (3) Thevasiyadu,
whose descendants paint the events which led to the destruction of
the Golla royalty on large cloths, and exhibit them to the Gollas
once a year. At the time when Janagamayya was translated to heaven,
they asked him how they were to earn their living, and he advised them
to perform the duties indicated, and beg from the caste. Even at the
present day, their descendants go round the country once a year, after
the Telugu New Year's day, and collect their dues from Golla villages.
By religion the Gollas are both Vallamulu (Vaishnavites) and
Striramanthulu (Saivites), between whom marriage is permissible. They
belong to the group of castes who take part in the worship of
Ankamma. A special feature of their worship is that they place in
a bamboo or rattan box three or four long whip-like ropes made of
cotton or Agave fibre, along with swords, sandals and idols. The
ropes are called Virathadlu, or heroes' ropes. The contents of the
box are set beneath a booth made of split bamboo (palavili), and
decorated with mango leaves, and flowers. There also is placed a pot
containing several smaller pots, cowry shells, metal and earthenware
sandals, and the image of a bull called bolli-avu (bull idol). When
not required for the purpose of worship, the idols are hung up in a
room, which may not be entered by any one under pollution.
Some Karna Gollas earn their living by selling poultry, or by going
about the country carrying on their head a small box containing idols
and Virathadlu. Placing this at the end of a street, they do puja
(worship) before it, and walk up and down with a rope, with which
they flagellate themselves. As they carry the gods (Devarlu) about,
these people are called Devara vallu.
As the Gollas belong to the left-hand section, the Pedda Golla,
or headman, has only a Madiga as his assistant.
At the marriages of Mutrachas, Madigas, and some other classes, a
form of worship called Virala puja is performed with the object of
propitiating heroes or ancestors (viralu). A kindred ceremony, called
Ganga puja, is carried out by the Gollas, the expenses of which amount
to about a hundred rupees. This Ganga worship lasts over three days,
during which nine patterns, called muggu, are drawn on the floor in
five colours, and represent dhamarapadmam (lotus flower), palavili
(booth), sulalu (tridents), sesha panpu (serpent's play?), alugula
simhasanam (throne of Sakti), Viradu perantalu (hero and his wife),
Ranivasam (Rani's palace), bonala (food), and Ganga. The last is
a female figure, and probably represents Ganga, the goddess of
water, though one of the Golla ancestors was named Gangi Raju. The
patterns must be drawn by Madigas or Malas. Three Pambalas, or Madigas
skilled in this work, and in reciting the stories of various gods and
goddesses, commence their work on the afternoon of the third day,
and use white powder (rice flour), and powders coloured yellow
(turmeric), red (turmeric and chunam), green (leaves of Cassia
auriculata), and black (charred rice husk). On an occasion when my
assistant was present, the designs were drawn on the floor of the
courtyard of the house, which was roofed over. During the preparation
of the designs, people were excluded from the yard, as some ill-luck,
especially an attack of fever, would befall more particularly boys
and those of feeble mind, if they caught sight of the muggu before
the drishti thiyadam, or ceremony for removing the evil eye has been
performed. Near the head of the figure of Ganga, when completed, was
placed an old bamboo box, regarded as a god, containing idols, ropes,
betel, flowers, and small swords. Close to the box, and on the right
side of the figure, an earthen tray, containing a lighted wick fed
with ghi (clarified butter) was set. On the left side were deposited
a kalasam (brass vessel) representing Siva, a row of chembus (vessels)
called bonalu (food vessels), and a small empty box tied up in a cloth
dyed with turmeric, and called Brammayya. Between these articles and
the figure, a sword was laid. Several heaps of food were piled up
on the figure, and masses of rice placed near the head and feet. In
addition, a conical mass of food was heaped up on the right side of
the figure, and cakes were stuck into it. All round this were placed
smaller conical piles of food, into which broomsticks decorated with
betel leaves were thrust. Masses of food, scooped out and converted
into lamps, were arranged in various places, and betel leaves and nuts
scattered all over the figure. Towards the feet were set a chembu
filled with water, a lump of food coloured red, and incense. The
preparations concluded, three Gollas stood near the feet of the figure,
and took hold of the red food, over which water had been sprinkled,
the incense and a fowl. The food and incense were then waved in front
of the figure, and the fowl, after it had been smoked by the incense,
and waved over the figure, had its neck wrung. This was followed by the
breaking of a cocoanut, and offering fruits and other things. The three
men then fell prostrate on the ground before the figure, and saluted
the goddess. One of them, an old man, tied little bells round his legs,
and stood mute for a time. Gradually he began to perspire, and those
present exclaimed that he was about to be possessed by the spirit
of an ancestor. Taking up a sword, he began to cut himself with it,
especially in the back, and then kept striking himself with the blunt
edge. The sword was wrested from him, and placed on the figure. The
old man then went several times round the muggu, shaking and twisting
his body into various grotesque attitudes. While this was going on,
the bridegroom appeared on the scene, and seated himself near the
feet of the figure. Throwing off his turban and upper cloth, he fell
on the floor, and proceeded to kick his legs about, and eventually,
becoming calmer, commenced to cry. Being asked his name, he replied
that he was Kariyavala Raju. Further questions were put to him, to
which he made no response, but continued crying. Incense and lights
were then carried round the image, and the old man announced that the
marriage would be auspicious, and blessed the bride and bridegroom
and the assembled Gollas. The ceremony concluded with the burning of
camphor. The big mass of food was eaten by Puni Gollas.
It is stated in the Manual of the Nellore district that, when a Golla
bridegroom sets out for the house of his mother-in-law, he is seized
on the way by his companions, who will not release him until he has
paid a piece of gold.
The custom of illatom, or application of a son-in-law, obtains among
the Gollas, as among the Kapus and some other Telugu-classes. [149]
In connection with the death ceremonies, it may be noted that the
corpse, when it is being washed, is made to rest on a mortar, and
two pestles are placed by its side, and a lighted lamp near the head.
There is a proverb to the effect that a Golla will not scruple to
water the milk which he sells to his own father. Another proverb
refers to the corrupt manner in which he speaks his mother-tongue.
The insigne of the caste at Conjeeveram is a silver churning
stick. [150]
Gollari (monkey).--An exogamous sept of Gadaba.
Gomma.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain as the name for Koyis who live
near the banks of the Godavari river. Villages on the banks thereof
are called gommu ullu.
Gonapala (old plough).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Gondaliga.--The Gondaligas are described, in the Mysore Census Report,
1901, as being mendicants "of Mahratta origin like the Budabudikes,
and may perhaps be a sub-division of them. They are worshippers of
Durgi. Their occupation, as the name indicates, is to perform gondala,
or a kind of torch-light dance, usually performed in honour of Amba
Bhavani, especially after marriages in Desastha Brahman's houses,
or at other times in fulfilment of any vow."
Gone (a sack).--An exogamous sept of Maala. The Gone Perikes have been
summed up as being a Telugu caste of gunny-bag weavers, corresponding
to the Janappans of the Tamil country. Gunny-bag is the popular and
trading name for the coarse sacking and sacks made from jute fibre,
which are extensively used in Indian trade. [151] Gone is further an
occupational sub-division of Komati.
The Gonigas of Mysore are described, in the Census Report, 1901,
as sack-weavers and makers of gunny-bags, agriculturists, and grain
porters at Bangalore; and it is noted that the abnormal fall of 66
per cent. in the number of the caste was due to their being confounded
with Ganigas.
Gonjakari.--A title of Haddi.
Gonji (Glycosmis penlaphylla).--An exogamous sept of Mala.
Gopalam (alms given to beggars).--An exogamous sept of Togata.
Gopalan (those who tend cattle).--A synonym of Idaiyan.
Gopopuriya.--A sub-division of Gaudo.
Gorantla (Lawsonia alba: henna).--An exogamous sept of Golla and
Padma Sale. The leaves of this plant are widely used by Natives as
an article of toilet for staining the nails, and by Muhammadans for
dyeing the hair red.
Gorava.--A synonym of Kuruba.
Goravaru.--A class of Canarese mendicants.
Gore.--Recorded, at times of census, as a synonym of Lambadi. Gora
means trader or shop-keeper, and trading Lambadis may have assumed
the name.
Gorige (Cyamopsis psoralioides).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Gorrela (sheep).--An exogamous sept of Golla, Kamma, and Kapu. Konda
gorri (hill sheep) occurs as an exogamous sept of Jatapu.
Gosangi.--A synonym for Madiga, recorded as Kosangi, in the Madras
Census Report, 1901. The Gosangulu are described in the Vizagapatam
Manual (1869), as "beggars who style themselves descendants of
Jambavanta, the bear into which Brahma transformed himself, to
assist Rama in destroying Ravana. The Gosangis are considered to be
illegitimate descendants of Madigas, and a curious thing about them
is that their women dress up like men, and sing songs when begging. As
mendicants they are attached to the Madigas."
Gosayi or Goswami.--The Gosayis are immigrant religious mendicants
from Northern and Western India. I gather from the Mysore Census
Reports that "they mostly belong to the Dandi sub-division. The Gosayi
is no caste; commonly any devotee is called a Gosayi, whether he
lives a life of celibacy or not; whether he roams about the country
collecting alms, or resides in a house like the rest of the people;
whether he leads an idle existence, or employs himself in trade. The
mark, however, that distinguishes all who bear this name is that
they are devoted to a religious life. Some besmear their bodies
with ashes, wear their hair dishevelled and uncombed, and in some
instances coiled round the head like a snake or rope. They roam
about the country in every direction, visiting especially spots
of reputed sanctity, and as a class are the pests of society and
incorrigible rogues. Some of them can read, and a few may be learned;
but for the most part they are stolidly ignorant. Most of them wear
a yellowish cloth, by which they make themselves conspicuous. The
Gosayis, although by profession belonging to the religious class,
apply themselves nevertheless to commerce and trade. As merchants,
bankers and tradesmen, they hold a very respectable position. They
never marry. One of the chief peculiarities of this caste is that
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, the two former especially,
may, if they choose, become Gosayis; but if they do so, and unite
with the members of this fraternity in eating and drinking, holding
full and free intercourse with them, they are cut off for ever from
their own tribes. It is this circumstance which constitutes Gosayis
a distinct and legitimate caste, and not merely a religious order. At
death a horrible custom is observed. A cocoanut is broken on the head
of the deceased by a person specially appointed for the purpose, until
it is smashed to pieces. The body is then wrapped in a reddish cloth,
and thrown into the Ganges. A partial explanation of this practice is
furnished in Southern India. The final aim of Hindu religious life is
Nirvana or Moksham in the next life, and this can only be attained by
those holy men, whose life escapes, after smashing the skull, through
the sushumna nadi, a nerve so called, and supposed to pervade the
crown of the head. The dying or dead Sanyasi is considered to have
led such a holy life as to have expired in the orthodox manner, and
the fiction is kept up by breaking the skull post mortem, in mimicry
of the guarantee of his passage to eternal bliss. Accordingly, the
dead body of a Brahman Sanyasi in Southern India undergoes the same
process and is buried, but never burned or thrown into the river."
A few Gosayis, at the Mysore census, returned gotras, of which the
chief were Achuta and Daridra (poverty-stricken). In the Madras
Census Report, 1901, Mandula (medicine man) and Bavaji are returned
as a sub-division and synonym of Gosayi. The name Guse or Gusei is
applied to Oriya Brahmans owing to their right of acting as gurus or
family priests.
Gosu (pride).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Goundan.--It is noted, in the Salem Manual, that "some of the
agricultural classes habitually append the title Goundan as a sort
of caste nomenclature after their names, but the word applies,
par excellence, to the head of the village, or Ur Goundan as he is
called." As examples of castes which take Goundan as their title,
the Pallis, Okkiliyans, and Vellalas may be cited. A planter, or
other, when hailing a Malayali of the Shevaroy hills, always calls
him Goundan.
Goyi (lizard: Varanus).--An exogamous sept of Bottada.
Gramani.--The title of some Shanans, and of the headman of the
Khatris. In Malabar, the name gramam (a village) is applied to a
Brahmanical colony, or collection of houses, as the equivalent of
the agraharam of the Tamil country. [152]
Gudala.--The Gudalas are a Telugu caste of basket-makers in Vizagapatam
and Ganjam. The name is derived from guda, a basket for baling
water. For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana
Rao. The original occupation of the caste is said to have been the
collection of medicinal herbs and roots for native doctors and sick
persons, which is still carried on by some Gudalas at Saluru town. The
principal occupations, however, are the manufacture of bamboo baskets,
and fishing in fresh water.
Like other Telugu castes, the Gudalas have exogamous septs or
intiperulu, e.g., korra (Setaria italica), paththi (cotton), nakka
(jackal) and ganti (hole pierced in the ear-lobe). The custom of
menarikam, whereby a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter,
is practiced. Marriage generally takes place before a girl reaches
puberty. A Brahman officiates at weddings. The bride-price (voli)
consists of a new cloth for the bride, and seven rupees for her
parents, which are taken by the bridegroom's party to the bride's
house, together with some oil and turmeric for the bridal bath, and
the sathamanam (marriage badge). A feast is held, and the sathamanam
is tied on the bride's neck. The newly married pair are conducted
to the house of the bridegroom, where a further feast takes place,
after which they return to the bride's home, where they remain for
three days. Widows are permitted to remarry thrice, and the voli on
each successive occasion is Rs. 3, Rs. 2, and Rs. 2-8-0. When a widow
is remarried, the sathamanam is tied on her neck near a mortar.
The members of the caste reverence a deity called Ekkaladevata,
who is said to have been left behind at their original home. The
dead are cremated, and the chinna rozu (little day) death ceremony
is observed. On the third day, cooked rice is thrown over the spot
where the corpse was burnt.
Gudavandlu.--Recorded, in the Nellore Manual, as Vaishnavites,
who earn their livelihood by begging. The name means basket people,
and probably refers to Satanis, who carry a basket (guda) when begging.
Gudi (temple).--A sub-division of Okkiliyan, an exogamous sept of Jogi,
and a name for temple Dasaris, to distinguish them from the Donga or
thieving Dasaris.
Gudigara.--In the South Canara Manual, the Gudigaras are summed up as
follows. "They are a Canarese caste of wood-carvers and painters. They
are Hindus of the Saivite sect, and wear the sacred thread. Shivalli
Brahmans officiate as their priests. Some follow the aliya santana
mode of inheritance (in the female line), others the ordinary
law. They must marry within the caste, but not within the same gotra
or family. Infant marriage is not compulsory, and they have the dhare
form of marriage. Among those who follow the aliya santana law, both
widows and divorced women may marry again, but this is not permitted
among the other sections. The dead are either cremated or buried,
the former being the preferential mode. The use of alcoholic liquor,
and fish and flesh is permitted. Their ordinary title is Setti."
"The Gudigars, or sandal-wood carvers," Mr. D'Cruz writes, [153]
"are reported to have come originally from Goa, their migration
to Mysore and Canara having been occasioned by the attempts of the
early Portuguese invaders to convert them to Christianity. The fact
that their original language is Konkani corroborates their reputed
Konkanese origin. They say that the derivation of the word Gudigara
is from gudi, a temple, and that they were so called because they
were, in their own country, employed as carvers and painters in the
ornamentation of temples. Another derivation is from the Sanskrit
kuttaka (a carver). They assert that their fellow castemen are
still employed in turning, painting, and other decorative arts at
Goa. Like the Chitrakaras (ornamenters or decorative artists), they
claim to be Kshatriyas, and tradition has it that, to escape the
wrath of Parasu Rama in the sixth incarnation of Vishnu, who vowed
to destroy all Kshatriyas, they adopted the profession of carvers
and car-builders. They are also expert ivory-carvers, and it has been
suggested that they may be distantly connected with the Kondikars, or
ivory-carvers of Bengal. The art of sandalwood carving is confined
to a few families in the Sorab and Sagar taluks of the Shimoga
district, in the north-west corner of the province. There are two
or three families in Sagar, and about six in Sorab, which contribute
in all about thirty-five artisans employed in the craft. The art is
also practiced by their relations, who found a domicile in Hanavar,
Kumpta, Sirsi, Siddapur, Biligi, and Banavasi in the North Canara
district. But the work of the latter is said to be by no means so fine
as that executed by the artisans of Sorab and Sagar. The artisans
of North Canara, however, excel in pith-work of the most exquisite
beauty. They usually make basingas, i.e., special forehead ornaments,
richly inlaid with pearls, and worn on the occasion of marriage. The
delicate tools used by the wood-carvers are made from European umbrella
spokes, ramrods, and country steel. The main stimulus, which the art
receives from time to time at the present day, is from orders from the
Government, corporate public bodies, or Maharajas, for address boxes,
cabinets, and other articles specially ordered for presentations,
or for the various fine-art exhibition, for which high prices are
paid." In conversation with the workmen from Sorab and Sagar for work
in the palace which is being built for H. H. the Maharaja of Mysore,
it was elicited that there are some Gudigars, who, from want of a due
taste for the art, never acquire it, but are engaged in carpentry and
turning. Others, having acquired land, are engaged in cultivation,
and fast losing all touch with the art. At Udipi in South Canara,
some Gudigars make for sale large wooden buffaloes and human figures,
which are presented as votive offerings at the Iswara temple at
Hiriadkap. They also make wooden dolls and painted clay figures.
The following extracts from Mr. L. Rice's 'Mysore Gazetteer' may be
appropriately quoted. "The designs with which the Gudigars entirely
cover the boxes, desks, and other articles made, are of an extremely
involved and elaborate pattern, consisting for the most part of
intricate interlacing foliage and scroll-work, completely enveloping
medallions containing the representation of some Hindu deity or subject
of mythology, and here and there relieved by the introduction of animal
forms. The details, though in themselves often highly incongruous,
are grouped and blended with a skill that seems to be instinctive in
the East, and form an exceedingly rich and appropriate ornamentation,
decidedly oriental in style, which leaves not the smallest portion
of the surface of the wood untouched. The material is hard, and the
minuteness of the work demands the utmost care and patience. Hence
the carving of a desk or cabinet involves a labour of many months,
and the artists are said to lose their eyesight at a comparatively
early age. European designs they imitate to perfection." And again:
"The articles of the Gudigar's manufacture chiefly in demand are
boxes, caskets and cabinets. These are completely covered with minute
and delicate scroll-work, interspersed with figures from the Hindu
Pantheon, the general effect of the profuse detail being extremely
rich. The carving of Sorab is considered superior to that of Bombay
or Canton, and, being a very tedious process requiring great care, is
expensive. The Gudigars will imitate admirably any designs that may be
furnished them. Boards for album-covers, plates from Jorrock's hunt,
and cabinets surrounded with figures, have thus been produced for
European gentlemen with great success." A gold medal was awarded to
the Gudigars at the Delhi Durbar Exhibition, 1903, for a magnificent
sandal-wood casket (now in the Madras Museum), ornamented with panels
representing hunting scenes.
When a marriage is contemplated, the parents of the couple, in the
absence of horoscopes, go to a temple, and receive from the priest some
flowers which have been used for worship. These are counted, and, if
their number is even, the match is arranged, and an exchange of betel
leaves and nuts takes place. On the wedding day, the bridegroom goes,
accompanied by his party, to the house of the bride, taking with him
a new cloth, a female jacket, and a string of black beads with a small
gold ornament. They are met en route by the bride's party. Each party
has a tray containing rice, a cocoanut, and a looking-glass. The
females of one party place kunkuma (red powder) on the foreheads
of those of the other party, and sprinkle rice over each other. At
the entrance to the marriage pandal (booth), the bride's brother
pours water at the feet of the bridegroom, and her father leads
him into the pandal. The new cloth, and other articles, are taken
inside the house, and the mother or sister of the bridegroom, with
the permission of the headman, ties the necklet of black beads on the
bride's neck. Her maternal uncle takes her up in his arms, and carries
her to the pandal. Thither the bridegroom is conducted by the bride's
brother. A cloth is held as a screen between the contracting couple,
who place garlands of flowers round each other's necks. The screen is
then removed. A small vessel, containing milk and water, and decorated
with mango leaves, is placed in front of them, and the bride's mother,
taking hold of the right hand of the bride, places it in the right
hand of the bridegroom. The officiating Brahman places a betel leaf
and cocoanut on the bride's hand, and her parents pour water from a
vessel thereon. The Brahman then ties the kankanams (wrist-threads)
on the wrists of the contracting couple, and kindles the sacred fire
(homam). The guests present them with money, and lights are waved
before them by elderly females. The bridegroom, taking the bride by
hand, leads her into the house, where they sit on a mat, and drink
milk out of the same vessel. A bed is made ready, and they sit on it,
while the bride gives betel to the bridegroom. On the second day,
lights are waved, in the morning and evening, in front of them. On
the third day, some red-coloured water is placed in a vessel, into
which a ring, an areca nut, and rice are dropped. The couple search
for the ring, and, when it has been found, the bridegroom puts it on
the finger of the bride. They then bathe, and try to catch fish in
a cloth. After the bath, the wrist-threads are removed.
Gudisa (hut).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Kapu.
Gudiya.--The Gudiyas are the sweet-meat sellers of the Oriya
country. They rank high in the social scale, and some sections of
Oriya Brahmans will accept drinking water at their hands. Sweet-meats
prepared by them are purchased for marriage feasts by all castes,
including Brahmans. The caste name is derived from gudo (jaggery). The
caste is divided into two sections, one of which is engaged in selling
sweet-meats and crude sugar, and the other in agriculture. The former
are called Gudiyas, and the latter Kolata, Holodia, or Bolasi Gudiyas
in different localities. The headman of the caste is called Sasumallo,
under whom are assistant officers, called Behara and Bhollobaya. In
their ceremonial observances on the occasion of marriage, death, etc.,
the Gudiyas closely follow the Gaudos. They profess the Paramartho
or Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism, and also worship Takuranis (village
deities).
The Gudiyas are as particular as Brahmans in connection with the
wearing of sect marks, and ceremonial ablution. Cloths worn during the
act of attending to the calls of nature are considered to be polluted,
so they carry about with them a special cloth, which is donned for
the moment, and then removed. Like the Gudiyas, Oriya Brahmans always
carry with them a small cloth for this purpose.
The titles of the Gudiyas are Behara, Sahu, and Sasumallo. In the
Madras Census Report, 1901, the caste name is given as Godiya.
Gudugudupandi.--A Tamil synonym for Budubudukala.
Guha Vellala.--The name assumed by some Sembadavans with a view
to connecting themselves with Guha (or Kuha), who rowed the boat
of Rama to Ceylon, and, as Vellalas, gaining a rise in the social
scale. Maravans also claim descent from Guha.
Gujarati.--A territorial name, meaning people from Gujarat, some
of whom have settled in the south where they carry on business
as prosperous traders. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Gujjar
is returned as a synonym. At a public meeting held in Madras, in
1906, to concert measures for establishing a pinjrapole (hospital
for animals) it was resolved that early steps should be taken to
collect public subscriptions from the Hindu community generally,
and in particular from the Nattukottai Chettis, Gujaratis, and other
mercantile classes. The mover of the resolution observed that Gujaratis
were most anxious, on religious grounds, to save all animals from pain,
and it was a religious belief with them that it was sinful to live in
a town where there was no pinjrapole. A pinjrapole is properly a cage
(pinjra) for the sacred bull (pola) released in the name of Siva. [154]
It is noted by Mr. Drummond [155] that every marriage and mercantile
transaction among the Gujaratis is taxed with a contribution ostensibly
for the pinjrapole. In 1901, a proposal was set on foot to establish
a Gujarati library and reading-room in Madras, to commemorate the
silver jubilee of the administration of the Gaekwar of Baroda.
Gulimi (pickaxe).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
Gullu (Solanum ferox).--A gotra of Kurni.
Gulti.--A section of Boya, members of which are to be found in Choolay,
Madras City.
Gummadi (Cucurbita maxima).--An exogamous sept of Tsakalas, who will
not cultivate the plant, or eat the pumpkin thereof.
Guna.--Guna or Guni is a sub-division of Velama. The name is derived
from the large pot (guna), which dyers use.
Guna Tsakala (hunchbacked washerman).--Said to be a derisive name
given to Velamas by Balijas.
Gundala (stones).--An exogamous sept of Golla.
Gundam (pit).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu.
Gundu (cannon-ball).--A gotra of Kurni.
Guni.--Guni is the name of Oriya dancing-girls and prostitutes. It
is derived from the Sanskrit guna, meaning qualifications or skill,
in reference to their possession of qualification for, and skill
acquired by training when young in enchanting by music, dancing, etc.
Gunta (well).--A sub-division of Boyas, found in the Anantapur
district, the members of which are employed in digging wells.
Guntaka (harrow).--An exogamous sept of Kapu.
Guntala (pond).--An exogamous sept of Boya.
Gupta.--A Vaisya title assumed by some Muttans (trading caste) of
Malabar, and Tamil Pallis.
Guri.--Recorded, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as a caste of Paiks or
fighting men. Gurikala (marksman) occurs, in the Madras Census Report,
1901, as a sub-division of Patra.
Gurram (horse).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu, Golla, Mala, Padma Sale,
and Togata. The Gurram Togatas will not ride on horseback. Kudire,
also meaning horse, occurs as a gotra or exogamous sept of Kurni
and Vakkaliga.
Gurukkal.--For the following note on the Gurukkals or Kurukkals of
Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The Kurukkals
are priests of castes, whose religious rites are not presided over
by Ilayatus. They are probably of Tamil origin. Males are often
called Nainar and females Nachchiyar, which are the usual titles
of the Tamil Kurukkals also. In the Keralolpatti the caste men are
described as Chilampantis, who are the adiyars or hereditary servants
of Padmanabhaswami in Trivandrum. They seem to have been once known
also as Madamutalis or headmen of matts, and Tevara Pandarams,
or Pandarams who assisted the Brahman priest in the performance
of religious rites in the Maharaja's palace. It is said that the
Kurukkals originally belonged to the great Vaisya branch of Manu's
fourfold system of caste, and migrated from the Pandyan country, and
became the dependants of the Kupakkara family of Pottis in Trivandrum,
whose influence, both religious and secular, was of no mean order in
mediæval times. These Pottis gave them permission to perform all the
priestly services of the Ambalavasi families, who lived to the south
of Quilon. It would appear from the Keralolpatti and other records
that they had the kazhakam or sweeping and other services at the inner
entrance of Sri Padmanabha's temple till the time of Umayamma Rani in
the eighth century of the Malabar era. As, however, during her reign,
a Kurukkal in league with the Kupakkara Potti handed over the letter
of invitation, entrusted to him as messenger, for the annual utsavam
to the Tarnallur Nambudiripad, the chief ecclesiastical functionary of
the temple, much later than was required, the Kurukkal was dismissed
from the temple service, and ever afterwards the Kurukkals had no
kazhakam right there. There are some temples, where Kurukkals are the
recognised priests, and they are freely admitted for kazhakam service
in most South Travancore temples. To the north of Quilon, however, the
Variyars and Pushpakans enjoy this right in preference to others. Some
Kurukkals kept gymnasia in former times, and trained young men in
military exercises. At the present day, a few are agriculturists.
The Kurukkals are generally not so fair in complexion as other
sections of the Ambalavasis. Their houses are known as bhavanams
or vidus. They are strict vegetarians, and prohibited from drinking
spirituous liquor. The females (Kurukkattis) try to imitate Nambutiri
Brahmans in their dress and ornaments. The arasilattali, which closely
resembles the cherutali, is worn round the neck, and the chuttu in
the ears. The mukkutti, but not the gnattu, is worn in the nose. The
minnu or marriage ornament is worn after the tali-kettu until the death
of the tali-tier. The females are tattooed on the forehead and hands,
but this practice is going out of fashion. The sect marks of women are
the same as those of the Nambutiris. The Kurukkals are Smartas. The
Tiruvonam asterism in the month of Avani (August-September) furnishes
an important festive occasion.
The Kurukkals are under the spiritual control of certain men in their
own caste called Vadhyars. They are believed to have been originally
appointed by the Kuppakkara Pottis, of whom they still take counsel.
The Kurukkals observe both the tali-kettu kalyanam and sambandham. The
male members of the caste contract alliances either within the caste,
or with Marans, or the Vatti class of Nayars. Women receive cloths
either from Brahmans or men of their own caste. The maternal uncle's
or paternal aunt's daughter is regarded as the most proper wife for
a man. The tali-kettu ceremony is celebrated when a girl is seven,
nine or eleven years old. The date for its celebration is fixed by her
father and maternal uncle in consultation with the astrologer. As many
youths are then selected from among the families of the inangans or
relations as there are girls to be married, the choice being decided
by the agreement of the horoscopes of the couple. The erection of
the first pillar of the marriage pandal (booth) is, as among other
Hindu castes, an occasion for festivity. The ceremony generally
lasts over few days, but may be curtailed. On the wedding day, the
bridegroom wears a sword and palmyra leaf, and goes in procession to
the house of the bride. After the tali has been tied, the couple are
looked on as being impure, and the pollution is removed by bathing,
and the pouring of water, consecrated by the hymns of Vadhyars, over
their heads. For the sambandham, which invariably takes place after a
girl has reached puberty, the relations of the future husband visit
her home, and, if they are satisfied as to the desirability of the
match, inform her guardians of the date on which they will demand the
horoscope. When it is received on the appointed day, the astrologer
is consulted, and, if he is favourably inclined, a day is fixed for
the sambandham ceremony. The girl is led forward by her maternal
aunt, who sits among those who have assembled, and formally receives
cloths. Cloths are also presented to the maternal uncle. Divorce is
common, and effected with the consent of the Vadhyar. Inheritance is in
the female line (marumakkathayam). It is believed that, at the time of
their migration to Travancore, the Kurukkals wore their tuft of hair
(kudumi) behind, and followed the makkathayam system of inheritance
(in the male line). A change is said to have been effected in both
these customs by the Kupakkara Potti in the years 1752 and 1777 of
the Malabar era.
The Kurukkals observe most of the religious ceremonies of the
Brahmans. No recitation of hymns accompanies the rites of namakarana
and annaprasana. The chaula and upanayana are performed between the
ninth and twelfth years of age. On the previous day, the family priest
celebrates the purificatory rite, and ties a consecrated thread round
the right wrist of the boy. The tonsure takes place on the second day,
and on the third day the boy is invested with the sacred thread, and
the Gayatri hymn recited. On the fourth day, the Brahmacharya rite
is closed with a ceremony corresponding to the Samavartana. When a
girl reaches puberty, some near female relation invites the women of
the village, who visit the house, bringing sweetmeats with them. The
girl bathes, and reappears in public on the fifth day. Only the
pulikudi or drinking tamarind juice, is celebrated, as among the
Nayars, during the first pregnancy. The sanchayana, or collection
of bones after the cremation of a corpse, is observed on the third,
fifth, or seventh day after death. Death pollution lasts for eleven
days. Tekketus are built in memory of deceased ancestors. These are
small masonry structures built over graves, in which a lighted lamp
is placed, and at which worship is performed on anniversary and other
important occasions (See Brahman.)
Gutob.--A sub-division of Gadaba.
Gutta Koyi.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain as a name for hill Koyis.
Guvvala (doves).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Mutracha.
H
Haddi.--The Haddis are a low class of Oriyas, corresponding to
the Telugu Malas and Madigas, and the Tamil Paraiyans. It has been
suggested that the name is derived from haddi, a latrine, or hada,
bones, as members of the caste collect all sorts of bones, and trade in
them. The Haddis play on drums for all Oriya castes, except Khondras,
Tiyoros, Tulabinas, and Sanis. They consider the Khondras as a very
low class, and will not purchase boiled rice sold in the bazaar,
if it has been touched by them. Castes lower than the Haddis are the
Khondras and Jaggalis of whom the latter are Telugu Madigas, who have
settled in the southern part of Ganjam, and learnt the Oriya language.
The Haddis may be divided into Haddis proper, Rellis, and Chachadis,
which are endogamous divisions. The Haddis proper never do sweeping
or scavenging work, which are, in some places, done by Rellis. The
Relli scavengers are often called Bhatta or Karuva Haddis. The
Haddis proper go by various names, e.g., Sudha Haddi, Godomalia
Haddi, etc., in different localities. The Haddis work as coolies and
field labourers, and the selling of fruits, such as mango, tamarind,
Zizyphus Jujuba, etc., is a favourite occupation. In some places, the
selling of dried fish is a monopoly of the Rellis. Sometimes Haddis,
especially the Karuva Haddis, sell human or yak hair for the purpose
of female toilette. The Haddis have numerous septs or bamsams, one
of which, hathi (elephant) is of special interest, because members
of this sept, when they see the foot-prints of an elephant, take some
dust from the spot, and make a mark on the forehead with it. They also
draw the figure of an elephant, and worship it when they perform sradh
(memorial service for the dead) and other ceremonies.
There are, among the Haddi communities, two caste officers entitled
Behara and Nayako, and difficult questions which arise are settled
at a meeting of the officers of several villages. It is said that
sometimes, if a member of the caste is known to have committed an
offence, the officers select some members of the caste from his
village to attend the meeting, and borrow money from them. This is
spent on drink, and, after the meeting, the amount is recovered from
the offender. If he does not plead guilty at once, a quarrel ensues,
and more money is borrowed, so as to increase the debt. In addition
to the Behara and Nayako, there are, in some places, other officials
called Adhikari or Chowdri, or Bodoporicha and Bhollobhaya. The caste
title is Nayako. Members of higher castes are sometimes, especially if
they have committed adultery with Haddi women, received into the caste.
Girls are married after puberty. Though contrary to the usual Oriya
custom, the practice of menarikam, or marriage with the maternal
uncle's daughter, is permitted. When the marriage of a young man
is contemplated, his father, accompanied by members of his caste,
proceeds to the home of the intended bride. If her parents are
in favour of the match, a small space is cleared in front of the
house, and cow-dung water smeared over it. On this spot the young
man's party deposit a pot of toddy, over which women throw Zizyphus
Jujuba leaves and rice, crying at the same time Ulu-ula. The village
officials, and a few respected members of the caste, assemble in
the house, and, after the engagement has been announced, indulge
in a drink. On an auspicious day, the bridegroom's party go to the
home of the bride, and place, on a new cloth spread on the floor, the
bride-price (usually twenty rupees), and seven betel leaves, myrabolams
(Terminalia fruits), areca nuts, and cakes. Two or three of the nuts
are then removed from the cloth, cut up, and distributed among the
leading men. After the wedding day has been fixed, an adjournment
is made to the toddy shop. In some cases, the marriage ceremony is
very simple, the bride being conducted to the home of the bridegroom,
where a feast is held. In the more elaborate form of ceremonial, the
contracting couple are seated on a dais, and the Behara or Nayako,
who officiates as priest, makes fire (homam) before them, which he
feeds with twigs of Zizyphus Jujuba and Eugenia Jambolana. Mokuttos
(forehead chaplets) and wrist-threads are tied on the couple, and their
hands are connected by the priest by means of a turmeric-dyed thread,
and then disconnected by an unmarried girl. The bride's brother arrives
on the scene, dressed up as a woman, and strikes the bridegroom. This
is called solabidha, and is practiced by many Oriya castes. The ends
of the cloths of the bride and bridegroom are tied together, and they
are conducted inside the house, the mother-in-law throwing Zizyphus
leaves and rice over them.
Like other Oriya castes, the Haddis observe pollution for seven days
on the occasion of the first menstrual period. On the first day, the
girl is seated, and, after she has been smeared with oil and turmeric
paste, seven women throw Zizyphus leaves and rice over her. She is
kept either in a corner of the house, or in a separate hut, and has
by her a piece of iron and a grinding-stone wrapped up in a cloth. If
available, twigs of Strychnos Nux-vomica are placed in a corner. Within
the room or hut, a small framework, made of broom-sticks and pieces of
palmyra palm leaf, or a bow, is placed, and worshipped daily. If the
girl is engaged to be married, her future father-in-law is expected
to give her a new cloth on the seventh day.
The Haddis are worshippers of various Takuranis (village deities),
e.g., Kalumuki, Sathabavuni, and Baidaro. Cremation of the dead is more
common than burial. Food is offered to the deceased on the day after
death, and also on the tenth and eleventh days. Some Haddis proceed,
on the tenth day, to the spot where the corpse was cremated or buried,
and, after making an effigy on the ground, offer food. Towards night,
they proceed to some distance from the house, and place food and fruits
on a cloth spread on the ground. They then call the dead man by his
name, and eagerly wait till some insect settles on the cloth. As soon
as this happens, the cloth is folded up, carried home, and shaken over
the floor close to the spot where the household gods are kept, so that
the insect falls on sand spread on the floor. A light is then placed
on the sanded floor, and covered with a new pot. After some time,
the pot is removed, and the sand examined for any marks which may be
left on it. This ceremony seems to correspond to the jola jola handi
(pierced pot) ceremony of other castes (see Bhondari).
"The Rellis," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [156] "are a caste of
gardeners and labourers, found chiefly in the districts of Ganjam
and Vizagapatam. In Telugu the word relli or rellis means grass,
but whether there is any connection between this and the caste name
I cannot say. They generally live at the foot of the hills, and sell
vegetables, mostly of hill production."
For the following note on the Rellis of Vizagapatam, I am indebted
to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The Rellis are also known as Sachchari, and
they further call themselves Sapiri. The caste recognises the custom
of menarikam, by which a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter. A
girl is usually married after puberty. The bride-price is paid sometime
before the day fixed for the marriage. On that day, the bride goes,
with her parents, to the house of the bridegroom. The caste deities
Odda Polamma (commonly known as Sapiri Daivam) and Kanaka Durgalamma
are invoked by the elders, and a pig and sheep are sacrificed to
them. A string of black beads is tied by the bridegroom round the
bride's neck, and a feast is held, at which the sacrificed animals
are eaten, and much liquor is imbibed. On the following morning,
a new cloth, kunkumam (red powder), and a few pieces of turmeric
are placed in a small basket or winnow, and carried in procession,
to the accompaniment of music, through the streets by the bride,
with whom is the bridegroom. The ceremony is repeated on the third
day, when the marriage festivities come to an end. In a note on the
Rellis of Ganjam, Mr. S. P. Rice writes [157] that "the bridegroom,
with the permission of the Village Magistrate, marches straight into
the bride's house, and ties a wedding necklace round her neck. A
gift of seven and a half rupees and a pig to the castemen, and of
five rupees to the bride's father, completes this very primitive
ceremony." Widows are allowed to remarry, but the string of beads is
not tied round the neck. The caste deities are usually represented by
crude wooden dolls, and an annual festival in their honour, with the
sacrifice of pigs and sheep, is held in March. The dead are usually
buried, and, as a rule, pollution is not observed. Some Rellis have,
however, begun to observe the chinnarozu (little day) death ceremony,
which corresponds to the chinnadinamu ceremony of the Telugus. The
main occupation of the caste is gardening, and selling fruits and
vegetables. The famine of 1875-76 reduced a large number of Rellis
to the verge of starvation, and they took to scavenging as a means
of earning a living. At the present day, the gardeners look down on
the scavengers, but a prosperous scavenger can be admitted into their
society by paying a sum of money, or giving a feast. Pollution attaches
only to the scavengers, and not to the gardening section. In the
Census Report, 1901, the Pakais or sweepers in the Godavari district,
who have, it is said, gone thither from Vizagapatam, are returned as
a sub-caste of Relli. The usual title of the Rellis is Gadu.
The Haddis who inhabit the southern part of Ganjam are known as Ghasis
by other castes, especially Telugu people, though they call themselves
Haddis. The name Ghasi has reference to the occupation of cutting
grass, especially for horses. The occupational title of grass-cutter
is said by Yule and Burnell [158] to be "probably a corruption
representing the Hindustani ghaskoda or ghaskata, the digger or cutter
of grass, the title of a servant employed to collect grass for horses,
one such being usually attached to each horse, besides the syce or
horsekeeper (groom). In the north, the grass-cutter is a man; in the
south the office is filled by the horsekeeper's wife." It is noted in
'Letters from Madras' [159] that "every horse has a man and a maid
to himself; the maid cuts grass for him; and every dog has a boy. I
inquired whether the cat had any servants, but I found he was allowed
to wait upon himself." In addition to collecting and selling grass,
the Ghasis are employed at scavenging work. Outsiders, even Jaggalis
(Madigas), Paidis, and Panos, are admitted into the Ghasi community.
The headman of the Ghasis is called Bissoyi, and he is assisted by
a Behara and Gonjari. The Gonjari is the caste servant, one of whose
duties is said to be the application of a tamarind switch to the back
of delinquents.
Various exogamous septs or bamsams occur among the Ghasis, of which
naga (cobra), asvo (horse), chintala (tamarind), and liari (parched
rice) may be noted. Adult marriage is the rule. The betrothal
ceremony, at which the kanyo mulo, or bride-price, is paid, is the
occasion of a feast, at which pork must be served, and the Bissoyi
of the future bride's village ties a konti (gold or silver bead)
on her neck. The marriage ceremonial corresponds in the main with
that of the Haddis elsewhere, but has been to some extent modified by
the Telugu environment. The custom, referred to by Mr. S. P. Rice,
of suspending an earthen pot filled with water from the marriage
booth is a very general one, and not peculiar to the Ghasis. It is
an imitation of a custom observed by the higher Oriya castes. The
striking of the bridegroom on the back by the bride's brother is the
solabidha of other castes, and the mock anger (rusyano) in which the
latter goes away corresponds to the alagi povadam of Telugu castes.
At the first menstrual ceremony of a Ghasi girl, she sits in a space
enclosed by four arrows, round which a thread is passed seven times.
The name Odiya Toti (Oriya scavenger) occurs as a Tamil synonym for
Haddis employed as scavengers in Municipalities in the Tamil country.
Hajam.--The Hindustani name for a barber, and used as a general
professional title by barbers of various classes. It is noted, in
the Census Reports, that only fifteen out of more than two thousand
individuals returned as Hajam were Muhammadans, and that, in South
Canara, Hajams are Konkani Kelasis, and of Marathi descent.
Halaba.--See Pentiya.
Halavakki.--A Canarese synonym for Budubudukala.
Halepaik.--The Halepaiks are Canarese toddy-drawers, who are found in
the northern taluks of the South Canara district. The name is commonly
derived from hale, old, and paika, a soldier, and it is said that
they were formerly employed as soldiers. There is a legend that one
of their ancestors became commander of the Vijayanagar army, was made
ruler of a State, and given a village named Halepaikas as a jaghir
(hereditary assignment of land). Some Halepaiks say that they belong
to the Tengina (cocoanut palm) section, because they are engaged in
tapping that palm for toddy.
There is intermarriage between the Canarese-speaking Halepaiks and
the Tulu-speaking Billava toddy-drawers, and, in some places, the
Billavas also call themselves Halepaiks. The Halepaiks have exogamous
septs or balis, which run in the female line. As examples of these,
the following may be noted:--
Chendi (Cerbera Odollum), Honne (Calophyllum inophyllum), Tolar (wolf),
Devana (god) and Ganga. It is recorded [160] of the Halepaiks of the
Canara district in the Bombay Presidency that "each exogamous section,
known as a bali (literally a creeper), is named after some animal or
tree, which is held sacred by the members of the same. This animal,
tree or flower, etc., seems to have been once considered the common
ancestor of the members of the bali, and to the present day it is both
worshipped by them, and held sacred in the sense that they will not
injure it. Thus the members of the nagbali, named apparently after
the nagchampa flower, will not wear this flower in their hair, as
this would involve injury to the plant. The Kadavebali will not kill
the sambhar (deer: kadave), from which they take their name." The
Halepaiks of South Canara seem to attach no such importance to the
sept names. Some, however, avoid eating a fish called Srinivasa,
because they fancy that the streaks on the body have a resemblance
to the Vaishnavite sectarian mark (namam).
All the Halepaiks of the Kundapur taluk profess to be Vaishnavites, and
have become the disciples of a Vaishnava Brahman settled in the village
of Sankarappakodlu near Wondse in that taluk. Though Venkataramana is
regarded as their chief deity, they worship Baiderkulu, Panjurli,
and other bhuthas (devils). The Pujaris (priests) avoid eating
new grain, new areca nuts, new sugarcane, cucumbers and pumpkins,
until a feast, called kaidha puja, has been held. This is usually
celebrated in November-December, and consists in offering food, etc.,
to Baiderkulu. Somebody gets possessed by the bhutha, and pierces
his abdomen with an arrow.
In their caste organisation, marriage and death ceremonies, the
Halepaiks closely follow the Billavas. They do not, however, construct
a car for the final death ceremonies. As they are Vaishnavites,
after purification from death pollution by their own caste barber,
a Vaishnavite mendicant, called Dassaya, is called in, and purifies
them by sprinkling holy water and putting the namam on their foreheads.
There are said to be some differences between the Halepaiks and
Billavas in the method of carrying out the process of drawing
toddy. For example, the Halepaiks generally grasp the knife with
the fingers directed upwards and the thumb to the right, while the
Billavas hold the knife with the fingers directed downwards and the
thumb to the left. For crushing the flower-buds within the spathe
of the palm, Billavas generally use a stone, and the Halepaiks a
bone. There is a belief that, if the spathe is beaten with the bone
of a buffalo which has been killed by a tiger, the yield of toddy
will, if the bone has not touched the ground, be greater than if an
ordinary bone is used. The Billavas generally carry a long gourd,
and the Halepaiks a pot, for collecting the toddy in.
Halige (plank).--A gotra of Kurni.
Hallikara (village man).--Recorded, in the Mysore Census Report,
1901, as a division of Vakkaliga.
Halu (milk).--An exogamous sept of Holeya and Kurni, a sub-division of
Kuruba, and a name for Vakkaligas who keep cattle and sell milk. Halu
mata (milk caste) has been given as a synonym for Kuruba. In the
Mysore Census Report, 1901, Halu Vakkal-Makkalu, or children of the
milk caste, occurs as a synonym for Halu Vakkaliga, and, in the South
Canara Manual, Halvaklumakkalu is given as a synonym for Gauda. The
Madigas call the intoxicant toddy halu. (See Pal.)
Hanbali.--A sect of Muhammadans, who are followers of the Imam Abu
'Abdi 'llah Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the fourth orthodox sect
of the Sunnis, who was born at Baghdad A.H. 164 (A.D. 780). "His fame
began to spread just at the time when disputes ran highest concerning
the nature of the Qur'an, which some held to have existed from
eternity, whilst others maintained it to be created. Unfortunately
for Ibn Hanbal, the Khalifah-at-Muttasim was of the latter opinion,
to which this doctor refusing to subscribe, he was imprisoned, and
severely scourged by the Khalifah's order." [161]
Handa.--A title of Canarese Kumbaras.
Handichikka.--The Handichikkas are stated [162] to be "also generally
known as Handi Jogis. This caste is traced to the Pakanati sub-section
of the Jogis, which name it bore some five generations back when the
traditional calling was buffalo-breeding. But, as they subsequently
degenerated to pig-rearing, they came to be known as Handi Jogi or
Handichikka, handi being the Canarese for pig.
Hanifi.--A sect of Muhammadans, named after Abu Hanifah Anhufman,
the great Sunni Imam and jurisconsult, and the founder of the Hanifi
sect, who was born A.H. 80 (A.D. 700).
Hanuman.--Hanuman, or Hanumanta, the monkey god, has been recorded
as a sept of Domb, and gotra of Medara.
Hari Shetti.--A name for Konkani-speaking Vanis (traders).
Haruvar.--A sub-division of the Badagas of the Nilgiri hills.
Hasala.--Concerning the Hasalas or Hasulas, Mr. Lewis Rice writes that
"this tribe resembles the Soliga (or Sholagas). They are met with along
the ghâts on the north-western frontier of Mysore. They are a short,
thick-set race, very dark in colour, and with curled hair. Their chief
employment is felling timber, but they sometimes work in areca nut
gardens and gather wild cardamoms, pepper, etc. They speak a dialect
of Canarese."
In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, it is stated that "the Hasalaru
and Maleru are confined to the wild regions of the Western Malnad. In
the caste generation, they are said to rank above the Halepaikas,
but above the Holeyas and Madigas. They are a diminutive but muscular
race, with curly hair and dolichocephalous head. Their mother-tongue
is Tulu. Their numbers are so insignificantly small as not to be
separately defined. They are immigrants from South Canara, and lead a
life little elevated above that of primordial barbarism. They live in
small isolated huts, which are, however, in the case of the Hasalas,
provided not only with the usual principal entrance, through which
one has to crawl in, but also with a half-concealed hole in the rear,
a kind of postern, through which the shy inmates steal out into
the jungle at the merest suspicion of danger, or the approach of a
stranger. They collect the wild jungle produce, such as cardamoms,
etc., for their customary employers, whose agrestic slaves they have
virtually become. Their huts are annually or periodically shifted from
place to place, usually the most inaccessible and thickest parts of
the wilderness. They are said to be very partial to toddy and arrack
(alcoholic liquor). It is expected that these savages smuggle across
the frontier large quantities of wild pepper and cardamoms from the
ghat forests of the province. Their marriage customs are characterised
by the utmost simplicity, and the part played therein by the astrologer
is not very edifying. Their religion does not seem to transcend devil
worship. They bury the dead. A very curious obsequial custom prevails
among the Hasalas. When any one among them dies, somebody's devil is
credited with the mishap, and the astrologer is consulted to ascertain
its identity. The latter throws cowries (shells of Cyproea moneta)
for divination, and mentions some neighbour as the owner of the devil
thief. Thereupon, the spirit of the dead is redeemed by the heir or
relative by means of a pig, fowl, or other guerdon. The spirit is
then considered released, and is thence forward domiciled in a pot,
which is supplied periodically with water and nourishment. This may
be looked upon as the elementary germ of the posthumous care-taking,
which finds articulation under the name of sradh in multifarious forms,
accompanied more or less with much display in the more civilised
sections of the Hindu community. The Hasalaru are confined to
Tirthahalli and Mudigere."
It is further recorded in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, that "in most
of the purely Malnad or hilly taluks, each vargdar, or proprietor of
landed estate, owns a set of servants styled Huttalu or Huttu-alu and
Mannalu or Mannu-alu. The former is the hereditary servitor of the
family, born in servitude, and performing agricultural work for the
landholder from father to son. The Mannalu is a serf attached to the
soil, and changes hands with it. They are usually of the Holaya class,
but, in some places, the Hasalar race have been entertained." (See
Holeya.)
Concerning the Hasalaru, Mr. H. V. Nanjundayya writes to me that
"their marriages take place at night, a pujari of their caste ties
the tali, a golden disc, round the bride's neck. Being influenced by
the surrounding castes, they have taken of late to the practice of
inviting the astrologer to be present. In the social scale they are a
little superior to Madigas and Holeyas, and, like them, live outside
the village, but they do not eat beef. Their approach is considered
to defile a Brahman, and they do not enter the houses of non-Brahmans
such as Vakkaligas and Kurubas. They have their own caste barbers
and washermen, and have separate wells to draw water from."
Hasbe.--Hasbe or Hasubu, meaning a double pony pack-sack, has been
recorded as an exogamous sept of Holeya and Vakkaliga.
Hastham (hand).--An exogamous sept of Boya.
Hatagar.--A sub-division of Devangas, who are also called Kodekal
Hatagaru.
Hathi (elephant).--A sept of the Oriya Haddis. When members of this
sept see the foot-prints of an elephant, they take some dust from
the spot, and make a mark on the forehead with it. They also draw
the figure of an elephant, and worship it, when they perform sradh
(memorial service for the dead) and other ceremonies.
Hathinentu Manayavaru (eighteen house).--A sub-division of Devanga.
Hatti (hut or hamlet).--An exogamous sept of Kappilliyan and Kuruba.
Hattikankana (cotton wrist-thread).--A sub-division of Kurubas,
who tie a cotton thread round the wrist at the marriage ceremony.