think it time for him to get married, they repair to the home of
an eligible girl with rice and liquor, and say that they have come
to ask a boon, but do not mention what it is. They are treated to
a meal, and return home. Some time afterwards, on a day fixed by
the Disari, three or four aged relatives of the young man go to the
girl's house, and the match is fixed up. After a meal, they return
to their homes. On the day appointed for the wedding ceremonies,
the bridegroom's relations go to the home of the bride, taking with
them a rupee towards the marriage expenses, a new cloth for the girl's
mother, and half a rupee for the females of the bride's village, which
is regarded as compensation for the loss of the girl. To the bride are
given a glass bead necklace, and brass bangles to be worn on the right
wrist. A feast follows. On the following day, the bride is conducted
to the village of the bridegroom, in front of whose home a pandal
(booth), made of four bamboo poles, covered with green leaves, has
been erected. Within the pandal, stems of the sal (Shorea robusta),
addagirli, and bamboo joined together, are set up as the auspicious
post. Beside this a grindstone is placed, on which the bride sits,
with the bridegroom seated on her thighs. The females present throw
turmeric powder over them, and they are bathed with turmeric-water
kept ready in a new pot. They are then presented with new cloths, and
their hands are joined together by the officiating Disari. A feast,
with much drinking, follows, and the day's proceedings conclude with
a dance. On the following day, mud is heaped up near the pandal, into
which the Disari throws a handful of it. The remainder of the mud
is carried into the pandal by the contracting couple, who pour water
over it, and throw it over those who are assembled. All then proceed
to a stream, and bathe. A further feast and dance follows, of which
the newly married couple are spectators, without taking part in it.
In a note on marriage among the Parenga Gadabas, Mr. G. F. Paddison
writes that they have two forms of marriage rite, one of which
(biba) is accompanied by much feasting, gifts of bullocks, toddy,
rice, etc. The most interesting feature is the fight for the bride
with fists. All the men on each side fight, and the bridegroom has
to carry off the bride by force. Then they all sit down, and feast
together. In the other form (lethulia), the couple go off together
to the jungle, and, when they return, pay twenty rupees, or whatever
they can afford, to the girl's father as a fine. A dinner and regular
marriage follow elopement and payment of the fine.
The ghorojavai system, according to which a man works for a stated
period for his future father-in-law, is practiced by the Gadabas. But a
cash payment is said to be now substituted for service. The remarriage
of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of
his elder brother. If she does not marry him, the second husband has
to pay a sum of money, called in Oriya the rand tonka, to him. When
a man divorces his wife, her relations are summoned, and he pays her
two rupees before sending her away. Of this sum, one rupee is paid as
buchni for suspicion regarding her chastity, and the other as chatni
for driving her away. A divorced woman may remarry.
In the hills, the village headman is called Janni or Nayako, and in
the plains Naidado. He is assisted by a Kirasani, who is also the
caste priest.
Concerning the religion of the Gadabas, Mr. H. D. Taylor writes [131]
that it is "simple, and consists of feasts at stated intervals. The
chief festival is Ittakaparva, or hunting feast, in March and April. On
this occasion, the whole male population turns out to hunt, and,
if they return unsuccessful, the women pelt them with cow-dung on
their return to the village; if, however, successful, they have their
revenge upon the women in another way. The chief deities (though
spoken of generally under the term Devata or Mahaprabhu) are Ganga
Devi or Takurani, Iswara or Mouli, Bhairava, and Jhankara. It is
Iswara or Mouli who is worshipped at Chaitra. Jhankara is the god
of land, rainfall and crops, and a cow is sacrificed to him. There
are not, as a rule, temples, but the puja (worship) place consists
of a sacred grove surrounded with a circle of stones, which takes
the name of Jhankara from the god to whom puja is performed. Ganga
Devi, Iswara and Mouli have temples at certain places, but as a
rule there is no building, and the site of puja is marked by trees
and stones. To Iswara a she-buffalo is sacrificed at Chaitra. To the
other Devatas cocks and goats are sacrificed. Ganga Devi or Takurani
is the goddess of life and health, both of men and cattle; to her
pigs, goats, and pigeons are sacrificed. There are one or two curious
superstitions. If a member of the caste is supposed to be possessed
of a devil, he or she is abused and beaten by other members of the
caste until the devil is cast out. In some parts the superstition is
that a piece of wild buffalo horn buried in the ground of the village
will avert or cure cattle disease." Sometimes a sal or kosangi tree
is planted, and surrounded by a bamboo hedge. It is worshipped with
animal sacrifices at harvest time, and the Kirasani acts as priest.
"There is," Mr. G. F. Paddison writes, "rather a curious custom
in connection with a village goddess. Close to her shrine a swing
is kept. On this swing, once a year at the great village festival,
thorns are placed, and the village priest or priestess sits on them
without harm. If the pujari is a male, he has been made neuter. But,
if the village is not fortunate enough to possess a eunuch, a woman
performs the ceremony. [At the fire-walking ceremony at Nuvagode
in Ganjam, the priest sits on a thorny swing, and is endowed with
prophetic powers.] When there is small-pox or other epidemic disease
in a village, a little go-cart is built, composed of a box on legs
fixed to a small board on wheels. In this box is placed a little
clay image, or anything else holy, and carried away to a distant
place, and left there. A white flag is hoisted, which looks like
quarantine, but is really intended, I think, to draw the goddess
back to her shrine. Vaccination is regarded as a religious ceremony,
and the Gadabas, I believe, invariably present the vaccinator as the
officiating priest with rice."
The Gadabas, like other hill tribes, name their children after the
day of the week on which they are born. On the plains, however,
some give their children low-country names, e.g., Ramudu, Lachigadu,
Arjanna, etc.
Males are, as a rule, burnt; but, if a person dies in the night or
on a rainy day, the corpse is sometimes buried. Women and children
are usually buried, presumably because they are not thought worth the
fuel necessary for cremation. Only relations are permitted to touch a
corpse. Death pollution is observed for three days, during which the
caste occupation must not be engaged in. Stone slabs are erected to the
memory of the dead, and sacrifices are offered to them now and again.
The Gadabas have a devil dance, which they are willing to perform
before strangers in return for a small present. It has been thus
described by Captain Glasfurd. [132] "At the time of the Dusserah,
Holi, and other holidays, both men and women dance to the music of a
fife and drum. Sometimes they form a ring by joining hands all round,
and with a long hop spring towards the centre, and then hop back
to the full extent of their arms, while they at the same time keep
circling round and round. At other times, the women dance singly or
in pairs, their hands resting on each other's wrists. When fatigued,
they cease dancing, and sing. A man steps out of the crowd, and sings
a verse or two impromptu. One of the women rejoins, and they sing
at each other for a short time. The point of these songs appears to
consist in giving the sharpest rejoinder to each other. The woman
reflects upon the man's ungainly appearance and want of skill as a
cultivator or huntsman, and the man retorts by reproaching her with
her ugliness and slatternly habits." In connection with dancing,
Mr. Henderson writes that "all the Gadaba dancing I have seen was the
same as that of the Porjas, and consisted of a sort of women's march,
at times accompanied by a few men who wander round, and occasionally
form a ring through which the line of women passes. Sometimes the
men get on each other's shoulders, and so form a sort of two-storied
pyramid. The women's song is comparatively quite melodious."
In recent years, some Gadabas have emigrated to Assam, to work in
the tea-gardens. But emigration has now stopped by edict.
For the information contained in this article, I am mainly indebted to
notes by Mr. C. A. Henderson, Mr. W. Francis, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao,
and the Kumara Raja of Bobbili.
Gadi (cart).--An exogamous sept of Mala.
Gadidhe Kandla (donkey's eyes).--An exogamous sept of Boya.
Gadu.--A common suffix to the name of individuals among various Telugu
classes, e.g., Ramigadu, Subbigadu.
Gaduge (throne).--A gotra of Kurni.
Gaita.--A sub-division of Konda Razu.
Gajjal (a small bell).--A sub-division of Toreya.
Gali.--Gali or Galollu, meaning wind, devil, or spirit, is recorded
as an exogamous sept of Kamma, Kuruba, and Mala.
Gamalla.--The Gamallas are a class of toddy-drawers, and distillers and
vendors of arrack in the Telugu country and are supposed to be Idigas
who have bettered themselves, and separated from that caste. Both
Gamallas and Idigas worship the deity Kattamayya. At the census,
1891, some returned Idiga as their sub-division. In the Cuddapah
district some toddy-drawers style themselves Asilivandlu. Possibly
the Idiga, Gamalla, and Asili toddy-drawing classes only represent
three endogamous sections of a single caste. In the Nellore district,
the toddy-drawers style themselves Gamandla or Gavandlavandlu,
and say that they have one gotra Kaumandlapu or Gaumandlapu. It
is probable that the name Gamandla or Gavandla has been coined by
Brahman purohits, to connect the caste with Kaumandala Maharishi of
the Puranas. The Gamallas say that they were created to draw toddy
by the sage Kavundinya, and that they belong to the Gaundla varnam
(caste). I am informed that a Puranam, called Gamandla or Gamudi
Puranam, has been created. In the social scale, the toddy-drawers
appear to occupy a higher position in the Telugu than in the Tamil
country, and they are sometimes said to be Telagas or Balijas,
who have adopted toddy-drawing as a profession. The more prosperous
members of the community are toddy and arrack (liquor) shop-keepers,
and the poorer members extract toddy from the palm-trees.
The Kapus of the Nellore district employ Gamallas as their cooks
and domestic servants, and all menial service and cooking are done
by Gamallas in the houses of Kapus on the occasion of festivals
and marriages.
Concerning the origin of the Gamallas, the following legend is
current. A Rishi was doing penance by standing on his head, and, like
the chamæleon, living on light and air, instead of food. According to
some, the Rishi was Kaumandla, while others do not know his name. An
Idiga girl passed by the Rishi, carrying a pot filled with toddy,
which polluted the air, so that the Rishi could not continue the
penance. Being struck with the girl's beauty, he followed her to her
home, and pointed out to her that she was the cause of his mishap. He
asked her to become his wife, but she announced that she was already
married. Eventually, however, they became secretly united, and, in
consequence, the whole town caught fire. The girl's husband, returning
home with some toddy, was amazed at the sight, and she, to protect him,
hid the Rishi in a vat. Into this vat the husband poured the toddy,
which made the Rishi breathe hard, so that the toddy, for the first
time on record, began to foam. Noticing this, the husband found a
lingam, into which the Rishi had been transformed. This lingam was
worshipped by the Gamandlas, and they are at the present day Saivites.
Like other Telugu castes, the Gamallas have exogamous septs, such as
parvathala (hills), kudumalu (a cake), annam (cooked rice), and pandhi
(pig). Among gotras, the following may be noted:--kavundinya, karunya,
vachalya, and surapandesvara (sura panda, toddy pot).
Marriage is, as a rule, adult, and remarriage of widows is permitted,
though the tendency at the present day is to abandon the practice. At
the wedding of a widow, the bottu (marriage badge) is tied round her
neck at night. Prior to the marriage ceremony, the worship of female
ancestors must be performed. A new female cloth, betel, and flowers,
are placed on a tray, and worshipped by the mothers of the contracting
couple. The cloth is given as a present to a sister or other near
relation of the bride or bridegroom.
The dead are cremated, and the widow breaks one or two of her
bangles. Fire must be carried to the burning-ground by the father of
the deceased, if he is alive. On the day following cremation, the hot
embers are extinguished, and the ashes collected, and shaped into an
effigy, near the head of which three conical masses of mud and ashes
are set up. To these representatives of Rudra, Yama, and the spirit
of the departed, cooked rice and vegetables are offered up on three
leaves. One of the leaves is given to the Jangam, who officiates at
the rite, another to a washerman, and the third is left, so that the
food on it may be eaten by crows. All, who are assembled, wait till
these birds collect, and the ashes are finally poured on a tree. On
the ninth, tenth, or eleventh day after death, a ceremony called
the peddadinam (big day) is performed. Cooked rice, curry, meat,
and other things, are placed on a leaf inside the house. Sitting
near this leaf, the widow weeps and breaks one or two of the glass
bangles, which she wears on the wrist. The food is then taken to a
stream or tank (pond), where the agnates, after shaving, bathing, and
purification, make an effigy of the dead person on the ground. Close
to this cooked rice and vegetables are placed on three leaves, and
offered to the effigy. The widow's remaining bangles are broken, and
she is presented with a new cloth, called munda koka (widow's cloth)
as a sign of her condition. All Gamallas, rich or poor, engage on
this occasion the services of Mala Pambalas and Bainedus (musicians
and story-tellers) to recite the story of the goddess Ankamma. The
performance is called Ankamma kolupu. Some of the Malas make on
the ground a design, called muggu, while the others play on the
drum, and carry out the recitation. The design must be made in five
colours, green (leaves of Cassia auriculata), white (rice flour), red
(turmeric and lime), yellow (turmeric), and black (burnt rice-husk). It
represents a male and female figure (Virulu, heroes), who are supposed
to be the person whose peddadinam is being celebrated, and an ancestor
of the opposite sex. If the family can afford it, other designs, for
example of Ankamma, are also drawn. On the completion of the muggu,
cocoanuts, rice, and betel are offered, and a fowl is sacrificed.
Like many other Telugu castes, the Gamallas have a class of beggars,
called Eneti, attached to them, for whom a subscription is raised
when they turn up.
The Gamallas are mostly Saivites, and their priests are Aradhya
Brahmans, i.e., Telugu Brahmans, who have adopted some of the customs
of the Lingayats. They worship a variety of gods and goddesses, who
include Potharaju, Katamayya, Gangamma, Mathamma, and Thallamma, or
Thadlamma. Once or twice during the year, a pot of toddy is brought
from every house to the shrine of Thallamma, and the liquor contained
in some of the pots is poured on the floor, and the remainder given
to those assembled, irrespective of caste.
At the festival of Dipavali, the celebrants bathe in the early
morning, and go, in wet clothes, to an ant-hill, before which
they prostrate themselves, and pour a little water into one of
the holes. Round the hill they wind five turns of cotton thread,
and return home. Subsequently they come once more to the ant-hill
with a lamp made of flour paste. Carrying the light, they go thrice
or five times round the hill, and throw into a hole therein split
pulse (Phaseolus Mungo). During the whole of this day they fast. On
the following morning they again go to the hill, pour milk into it,
and snap the threads wound round it.
At the festival of Sankaranthi, the principal member of every family
observes the worship of ancestors. Various articles are placed in a
room on leaf plates representing the ancestors, who are worshipped
by the celebrant after he has been purified by bathing. Taking a
little of the food from each leaf, he places it on a single leaf,
which is worshipped, and placed in the court-yard, so that the crows
may partake thereof. The remainder of the food is distributed among
the members of the family.
At the census, 1901, some Gamallas returned themselves as Settigadu
(Chetti).
Gampa (basket).--A sub-division of Kamma and Telaga, and an exogamous
sept of Odde. The name, among the Kammas, refers to a deadly struggle
at Gandikota, in which some escaped by hiding in baskets. Gampa dhompti
is the name of a sub-division of the Madigas, whose marriage offerings
to the god are placed in a basket.
Ganayata.--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division of Lingayat
Jangams in the Nellore, Cuddapah, and Kurnool districts. The Sanskrit
word Ganam means Siva's attendants.
Gandham (sandal paste).--An exogamous sept of Balijas, one
sub-division of whom is called Gandhavallu or Gandhapodi (sandal
perfume sellers). The paste made by rubbing sandal (Santalum album)
wood on a stone with water is widely used in connection with Hindu
ceremonial observance. A Brahman, for example, after worshipping,
smears his body with the paste. At festivals, and other ceremonial
occasions, sandal paste is distributed to guests along with betel
leaves and areca nuts (pan-supari). Gandhapodi also occurs as an
exogamous sept of Boya.
Gandikota.--A sub-division of Kamma. Gandi Kottei is recorded [133] as
a sub-division of Kapu or Reddi, "found only in Madura and Tinnevelly,
and also known simply as Kottei Reddis. Kottei is the Tamil for a fort,
the corresponding Telugu word being kota. Their females do not appear
in public."
Gandla.--See Ganiga.
Gangadikara.--Gangadikara, said doubtfully to mean those who lived
on the banks of the Ganges, has been recorded as a sub-division of
the Holeyas, Okkiliyans, and Vakkaligas. The name probably refers to
Gangavadi, the country of the Gangas, a royal line which ruled over
the greater part of the modern Mysore in former times.
Gangeddu.--The Gangeddulu are a class of mendicants, who travel about
the country exhibiting performing bulls. "The exhibition of sacred
bulls, known as Gangeddulu (Ganga's bulls) is very common in the towns
and villages of Southern India. The presence of the swami (god) bull,
as he is popularly called, is made known by his keeper playing on a
small drum, which emits a dismal, booming sound, in the intervals of
addressing his dumb companion in a piercing voice. The bull is led
about from house to house, and made to go through several tricks,
which he does with evident zest. The keeper in the meanwhile talks
to him, and puts questions to him, to which he replies by shakes of
his head. He will kneel down in an attitude of worship, with his head
inclined to the ground, or he will approach you, and gently rub his
nozzle against your hand. Usually a diminutive cow accompanies the
bull, and, like him, is grandly attired, and resounds with tinkling
bells. She is introduced to the spectators as the bull's ammagaru,
that is consort or spouse. Then a scene between the pair is enacted,
the gist of which is that the husband is displeased with the wife,
and declines to hold converse with her. As a result of the difference,
he resolves to go away, and stalks off in high dudgeon. The keeper
attempts to make peace between them, and is rewarded by being charged
by the irate husband and knocked down, though no harm is done to him
as the animal's horns are padded. The keeper rises, shakes himself, and
complains woefully of the treatment he has received. Indeed, it is only
after a great deal of coaxing and wheedling, and promises of buying
him endless quantities of rice cakes and other bazaar delicacies,
that the bull condescends to return, and a reconciliation is effected."
For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The
Gangeddulu, Erudandis, or Perumal Madukkarans, often acquire and
train deformed male calves. It is a popular superstition that
for a family to keep such animals in its possession is to court
destruction. Consequently, when one is born, information is sent
to a Gangeddu, who, on his arrival, is sumptuously fed. The calf is
then washed, and a new cloth tied to its horns. A small present of
money is made to the Gangeddu, and he takes the animal away. Temples
sometimes dispose of their deformed calves in a similar manner. When
the trained animals are exhibited in public, the deformity, which
is the hall-mark of a genuine Gangeddu, is shown, usually at the
commencement of the performance, or at any time at the bidding of any
of the spectators. It is only after the exhibition of the deformity,
which is usually concealed within the trappings of the animal, that
remuneration, generally in kind, or in old rags and copper coins, is
doled out to them. Villagers worship the bulls, when they happen to
pass their houses, and, as soon as they enter a village, the females
wash the feet of the animals with milk and water. They then adorn
their foreheads with kunkumam (aniline powder) and turmeric paste,
and burn incense and camphor before them. Cocoanuts, plantains, betel
leaves and areca nuts, and money are also offered in a plate, and are
the perquisite of the Gangeddu. The bulls are thus venerated, as they
represent Basavanna, the sacred bull which is the vehicle of Siva.
The language of the Gangeddulu is Telugu, but those who have migrated
to the Tamil country also speak the language of the south. They profess
the Vaishnavite religion, and are of the Tengalai persuasion. They
have Brahman gurus (religious preceptors), who reside at Srirangam,
Tirupati, and other places. By them the Gangeddulu are branded on the
shoulder with the emblems of the chank and chakram, and initiated
into the mysteries of the Dasari priesthood. But, though they call
themselves Dasaris, the Gangeddulu have no marital or other connection
with the Dasaris. In addition to training and exhibiting the performing
bulls and cultivating land, the Gangeddulu officiate as Dasaris in
the month of Peratasi (September-October). Their principal insignia of
office are the chank shell, which is blown to announce their arrival,
and the iron lamp (called Garudasthambha), which is kept burning, and
is said to represent Venkatesa, the presiding deity at Tirupati. As
Dasaris, little is expected of them, except offering fruits to the god,
and assisting at funerals. Several proverbs, of which the following
are examples, are current concerning this aspect of their life:--
The mistake of a Dasari is excused with an apology.
The songs of a Dasari are known only to the god, i.e., they are
unintelligible and unreal.
For the song of a Dasari alms are the payment, i.e., that is all the
song is worth.
Sing again what you have sung, oh! Dasari with dirty teeth.
When a beggar was asked whether he was a Dasari or a Jangam, he
replied that it depends on the next village. This in reference to
his being a time-server.
A Gangeddu mendicant is, like his bulls, picturesquely attired. He
is very punctilious about having his sect-mark on the forehead,
invariably wears a turban, and his body is clothed in a long white
cloth robe. When going about with the performing bulls, the Gangeddulu
generally travel in pairs, one carrying a drum, and the other a
bell-metal gong. One of them holds in one hand the nose-rope of the
bull, and in the other the whip. The bulls are dressed up in a patch
work quilt with two eye-holes in it. Of names which are given to the
animals, Rama and Lakshmana are very popular. The tameness of the
bulls is referred to in the proverb "As mild as a Gangeddu."
The Perumal Madukkarans, or Perumal Erudukkarans, both of which
names indicate those who lead bulls about, are found chiefly in
the Chingleput, North and South Arcot districts. "Every now and
then," Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri writes, [134] "throughout Madras,
a man dressed up as a buffoon is to be seen leading about a bull, as
fantastically got up as himself with cowries (Cypræa arabica shells)
and rags of many colours, from door to door. The bull is called in
Tamil Perumal erudu, and in Telugu Ganga eddu, the former meaning
Vishnu's bull and the latter Ganga's bull. The origin of the first is
given in a legend, but that of the last is not clear. The conductors
of these bulls are neatherds of high caste, called Pu Idaiyan, i.e.,
flower neatherds (see Idaiyan), and come from villages in the North
and South Arcot districts. They are a simple and ignorant set,
who firmly believe that their occupation arises out of a command
from the great god Venkatachalapati, the lord of the Venkatachala
near Tirupaddi (Tirupati) in the North Arcot district. Their legend
is as follows. Among the habitual gifts to the Venkatachala temple
at Tirupaddi were all the freaks of nature of the neighbourhood as
exhibited in cattle, such as two-tailed cows, five-legged bulls,
four-horned calves, and so on. The Pu Idaiyans, whose original
duty was to string flowers for the temple, were set to graze these
abortions. Now to graze cows is an honour, but to tend such creatures
as these the Pu Idaiyans regarded as a sin. So they prayed to
Venkatachalapati to show them how they could purge it away. On this,
the god gave them a bull called after himself the Perumal bull and
said: 'My sons, if you take as much care of this bull as you would
of your own children, and lead it from house to house, begging its
food, your sin will be washed away.' Ever since then they have been
purging themselves of their original sin. The process is this. The bull
leader takes it from house to house, and puts it questions, and the
animal shakes its head in reply. This is proof positive that it can
reason. The fact is the animal is bought when young for a small sum,
and brought up to its profession. Long practice has made its purchasers
experts in selecting the animals that will suit them. After purchase
the training commences, which consists in pinching the animal's ears
whenever it is given bran, and it soon learns to shake its head at
the sight of bran. I need hardly say that a handful of bran is ready
in its conductor's hands when the questions are put to it. It is also
taught to butt at any person that speaks angrily to it. As regards the
offerings made to these people, one-sixth goes to feeding the bulls,
and the remaining five-sixths to the conductors. They look upon it as
'good work', but the village boys and girls think it the greatest fun
in the world to watch its performances, and the advent of a Vishnu's
bull is hailed by the youngsters with the greatest delight."
Gangimakkalu.--Gangimakkalu, or Gangaputra, meaning children or
sons of Ganga, the goddess of water, is the name of a sub-division
of Kabbera. The allied Gangavamsamu, or people of Ganga, is a name
for Jalaris.
Ganiga or Gandla.--The name Ganiga is derived from the Telugu
ganuga, meaning an oil-mill. The Ganigas are said [135] to be "the
oil pressers of the Canarese people, corresponding to the Telugu
Gandla and the Tamil Vaniyan. This caste is sub-divided into three
sections, none of whom eat together or intermarry. These sections are
the Hegganigas, who yoke two oxen to a stone oil-mill; Kirganigas,
who make oil in wooden mills; and Ontiyeddu Ganigas, who yoke only
one animal to the mill. They are collectively known as Jotipans or
Jotinagarams (people of the city of light). In addition to pressing
oil, they also make palm-leaf umbrellas, cultivate land, and work as
labourers. They employ Brahmans to perform their ceremonies. Their
guru is the head of the Vyasaraya mutt at Anegundi. Early marriage is
practiced. Widow remarriage is not allowed. They eat fish, mutton,
and fowls, but do not drink liquor. Chetti is their title." In
the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is stated that the guru of the
Ganigas is the head of the mutt at Sringeri, and that they employ
Havig Brahmans for their ceremonies. Sringeri is the name of a Smarta
(Saivite) mutt or religious institution at several places, such as
Tanjore and Kumbakonam; and there is a town of this name in Mysore,
from which the mutt derives its name.
Concerning the Ganigas of the Mysore Province,
Mr. V. N. Narasimmiyengar writes as follows. [136] "The account locally
obtained connects this caste with the Nagartas, as forming the leading
communities of the left-hand faction, in opposition to the Lingayats
and other castes composing the right-hand faction. Caste supremacy is
ever associated in India with preternatural mythology. If the average
Brahman traces his nobility literally to the face of Brahma, according
to the Vedic Purusha Sukta, every other castelet claims a patent of
superiority in a similar miraculous origin. The Ganigas allege that
they immigrated from the north at a time beyond living memory. A
Mysore noble, named Mallaraje Ars, established and first peopled the
pete (market town) of Bangalore, when the Ganigas first came there,
followed by the Nagartas, who are said to have been co-emigrants
with the Ganigas. Mallaraj made Sattis and Yajamans (headmen) of
the principal members of the two castes, and exempted them from the
house-tax. The Ganigas are both Vaishnavites and Saivites. Their
guru is known as Dharmasivacharsvami in the Madras Presidency, and
certain gotras (family names) are said to be common to the Ganigas
and Nagartas, but they never eat together or intermarry. The Ganigas
claim the peculiar privilege of following the Vishnu image or car
processions, throughout the province, with flags exhibiting the figures
of Hanuman and Garuda, and torches. These insignia are alleged to
have been aboriginally given to an ancestor, named Siriyala Satti,
by Rama, as a reward for a valuable gem presented by him. The Ganigas
call themselves Dharmasivachar Vaisyas like the Nagartas, and the feud
between them used often to culminate in much bitter unpleasantness. The
order includes a small division of the linga-wearing oilmongers,
known as Sajjana (good men), whose population is a small fraction of
the community. The Sajjanas, however, hold no social intercourse of
any kind with the other sub-divisions."
The Ganigas of Sandur, in the little Maratha State of that name,
returned Yenne (oil) and Kallu (stone) as sub-divisions. The average
cephalic index of these Ganigas was very high, being 80.5 as against
77.6 for the Ganigas of Mysore city.
"The oil-mill of the Ganigas is," Mr. W. Francis writes, [137] "a sort
of large wooden mortar, usually formed out of the heart of a tamarind
tree, and firmly imbedded in the ground. A wooden cylinder, shod with
iron, fits roughly into the cavity. A cross beam is lashed to this
in such a way that one end is close to the ground, and to this a pair
of bullocks or buffaloes are fastened. By an arrangement of pullies,
the pressure of the cylinder can be increased at pleasure. As the
bullocks go round the trough, the seeds are crushed by the action of
the cylinder, so that the expressed oil falls to the bottom, while
the residuum, as oil-cake, adheres to the side of the mortar."
The following note refers to the Onteddu (single bullock) Ganigas,
who claim superiority over those who employ two bullocks in working
their oil-mills. The former belong to the right-hand, and the latter
to the left-hand faction. Among them are various sub-divisions,
of which the Deva and Onteddu may intermarry, while the Kasi, Teli
(gingelly: Sesamum), and Chandanapu are endogamous. Like other Telugu
castes they have gotras, some of which are interesting, as there are
certain prohibitions connected with them. For example, members of
the Badranollu and Balanollu gotras may not cut the tree Erythroxylon
monogynum. In like manner, members of the Viranollu and Viththanollu
gotras are forbidden to cut Feronia elephantum, and those of the
Vedanollu gotra to cut Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Members of certain
other gotras do not cultivate turmeric, sugarcane, or the millet
(Panicum miliare).
The Onteddu Ganigas are Saivites, and disciples of Lingayat Brahmans
(Aradhyas). Some, however, wear the sacred thread, and others bear
on the forehead the red streak of the Vaishnavites. In some places,
their special deity is Chaudeswara, who is the god of some of the
weaving classes. In the Kistna district they claim Mallikarjunasvami
as their deity.
Their primary occupation is oil-pressing, but some are traders in
cotton, oil-seeds, etc., or cultivators. In some localities, the
animal which works the oil-mill is not blindfolded, while it is in
others, because, it is said, it would otherwise fall down after a few
revolutions. Crushing gingelly oil is, according to the Shastras, a
sinful act, but condoned inasmuch as Devatas use this oil for lamps,
and men in temples. For the removal of the oil-cake, or turning the
seeds in the mill, the left hand only is used. Burning the tongue
with a piece of gold, as a means of purification after some offence
has been committed, is a common practice.
The marriage rites conform, for the most part, to the Telugu type. But,
while the wrist thread is being tied on, common salt is held in the
hand. A dagger (baku) is then given to the bridegroom, who keeps it
with him till the conclusion of the ceremonies. On the wedding day,
the bridegroom wears the sacred thread. The tali is not an ordinary
bottu, but a thread composed of 101 thin strings, which is removed on
the last day, and replaced by a bottu. On the third day, the bride and
bridegroom worship a jammi tree (Prosopis spicigera), and the latter,
removing his sacred thread, throws it on the tree. Five young men,
called Bala Dasulu, also worship the tree, and, if they are wearing
the sacred thread, throw it thereon. The dead are as a rule buried, in
a sitting posture if the deceased was an orthodox Saivite. If a young
man dies a bachelor, the corpse is married to an arka plant (Calotropis
gigantea), and decorated with a wreath made of the flowers thereof. The
final death ceremonies are performed on the eleventh day. Food is
offered to crows and the soul of the dead person, who is represented
by a wooden post dressed with his clothes. The bangles of a widow are
broken near the post, which is finally thrown into a tank or stream.
Ganiga further occurs as an occupational name for Lingayat oil-vendors,
and for Mogers who are employed as oil-pressers.
Ganta.--Ganta or Gantla, meaning a bell, has been recorded as an
exogamous sept of Kamma and Balija. Gantelavaru, or men of the bell,
is given by Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri [138] as the family name of one
section of the Donga (thieving) Dasaris, and of the Kabberas, who are
said to join the ranks of this criminal class. Gantugazula occurs,
in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Koracha. In
the Vizagapatam Manual, the Tiragati Gantlavallu are described as
repairing hand-mills, catching antelopes, and selling their skins.
Ganti (a hole pierced in the ear-lobe).--An exogamous sept of Gudala.
Garadi.--Garadi or Garadiga is the name of a class of mendicants
in the Telugu country and Mysore who are snake-charmers, practice
sleight of hand, and perform various juggling and mountebank tricks.
Garappa (dry land).--A synonym of Challa Yanadi.
Gatti.--A small caste of cultivators, found chiefly near Kumbla
and Someswara in the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara. Other names
for the caste are Poladava and Holadava, both signifying men of the
field. Like the Bants, they follow the aliya santana law of inheritance
(in the female line), have exogamous septs or balis, and, on the day
of the final death ceremonies, construct car-like structures, if the
deceased was an important personage in the community. The Bants and
Gattis interdine, but do not intermarry. The headman of the Gattis
is called Gurikara. The God of the Someswara temple is regarded as
the caste deity, and every family has to pay an annual fee of four
annas to this temple. Failure to do so would entail excommunication.
Gattu (bank or mound).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Gaud.--A title of Sadar.
Gauda.--The Gaudas or Gaudos are a large caste of Canarese cultivators
and cattle-breeders. "Gauda and Gaudo," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [139]
"are really two distinct castes, the former being Canarese and the
latter Uriya. Each name is, however, spelt both ways. The two names
are, I presume, etymologically the same. The ordinary derivation is
from the Sanskrit go, a cow, but Dr. Gustav Oppert contends [140]
that the root of Gauda is a Dravidian word meaning a mountain. Among
the Canarese, and to a less extent among the Uriyas also, the
word is used in an honorific sense, a custom which is difficult
to account for if Dr. Oppert's philology is correct." "Gaudas,"
Mr. Stuart writes further, [141] "also called Halvaklumakkalu
(children of the milk class), are very numerously represented in
the South Canara district. They have a somewhat elaborate system
of caste government. In every village there are two headmen, the
Grama Gauda and the Vattu or Gattu Gauda. For every group of eight
or nine villages there is another head called the Magane Gauda,
and for every nine Maganes there is a yet higher authority called the
Kattemaneyava. The caste is divided into eighteen baris or balis, which
are of the usual exogamous character. The names of some of these are as
follows: Bangara (gold), Nandara, Malara (a bundle of glass bangles,
as carried about for sale), Salu, Hemmana (pride or conceit), Kabru,
Goli (Portulaca oleracea, a pot-herb), Basruvogaru (basru, belly),
Balasanna, and Karmannaya. Marriage is usually adult, and sexual
license before marriage with a member of the caste is tolerated,
though nominally condemned. The dhare form of marriage (see Bant)
is used, but the bridal pair hold in their joined hands five betel
leaves, one areca nut and four annas, and, after the water has been
poured, the bridegroom ties a tali to the neck of the bride. Divorce
is permitted freely, and divorced wives and widows can marry again. A
widow with children, however, should marry only her late husband's
elder brother. If she marries any one else, the members of her former
husband's family will not even drink water that has been touched
by her. They burn their dead. On the third day, the ashes are made
into the form of a man, which is cut in two, buried, and a mound
made over it. In the house two planks are placed on the ground, and
covered with a cloth. On one of these, a vessel containing milk is
placed, and on the other a lamp, rice, cocoanut, pumpkin, etc., are
deposited. The agnates and some boys go round the plank three times,
and afterwards go to the mound, taking with them the various articles
in a cloth. Three plantain leaves are spread in front of the mound,
and cooked food, etc., placed thereon. Four posts are set up round
the mound, and cloths stretched over them, and placed round the
sides. On the sixteenth day, sixteen plantain leaves are placed in
a row, and one leaf is laid apart. Cakes, cooked fowl's flesh, toddy
and arrack (liquor) are placed on the leaves in small leaf-cups. The
assembled agnates then say "We have done everything as we should do,
and so our ancestors who have died must take the man who is now dead
to their regions. I put the leaf which is apart in the same row with
the sixteen leaves."
"Once a year, in the month of Mituna (June-July), the Gaudas perform
a ceremony for the propitiation of all deceased ancestors. They have
a special preference for Venkataramaswami, to whom they make money
offerings once a year in September. They employ Brahmins to give them
sacred water when they are under pollution, but they do not seek their
services for ordinary ceremonies. They are, for the most part, farmers,
but some few are labourers. The latter receive three or four seers of
paddy a day as wages. Their house language is Tulu in some places, and
Canarese in others, but all follow the ordinary system of inheritance,
and not the custom of descent through females. Their title is Gauda."
As bearing on the superstitious beliefs of the people of South
Canara, the following case, which was tried before the Sessions
Judge in 1908, may be cited. A young Gauda girl became pregnant by
her brother-in-law. After three days' labour, the child was born. The
accused, who was the mother of the girl, was the midwife. Finding the
delivery very difficult, she sent for a person named Korapulu to come
and help her. The child was, as they thought, still-born. On its head
was a red protuberance like a ball; round each of its forearms were
two or three red bands; the eyes and ears were fixed very high in the
head; and the eyes, nose, and mouth were abnormally large. Korapulu
and the girl's younger sister at once carried the mother out of the
out-house lest the devil child should do her harm or kill her. The
accused called for a man named Isuf Saiba, who was standing in the yard
outside. He came in, and she asked him to call some of the neighbours,
to decide what to do. The child, she said, was a devil child, and must
be cut and killed, lest it should devour its mother. While they were
looking at the child, it began to move and roll its eyes about, and
turn on the ground. It is a belief of the villagers that such a devil
child, when born and brought in contact with the air, rapidly grows,
and causes great trouble, usually killing the mother, and sometimes
killing all the inmates of the house. The accused told Isuf Saiba to
cover the child with a vessel, which he did. Then there was a sound
from inside the vessel, either of the child moving or making some
sound with its mouth. The accused then put her hand under the vessel,
dragged the child half way out, and then, while Isuf Saiba pressed
the edge of the earthenware vessel on the abdomen of the child,
the accused took a knife, and cut the body in half. When the body
was cut in two, there was no blood, but a mossy green liquid, or a
black liquid, oozed out. The accused got two areca leaves, and put
one piece of the child on one, and one on the other, and told Isuf
Saiba to get a spade, and come and bury them. So they went out into
the jungle close to the house, and Isuf Saiba dug two holes about
half a yard deep, one on one hillock, and one on another. In these
two holes the two pieces of the child were separately buried. The
object of this was to prevent the two pieces joining together again,
in which case the united devil child would have come out of the grave,
and gone to kill its mother. The birth and death of this devil child
were not kept secret, but were known throughout the village.
Gauda or Gaudu further occurs as a title of Idiga, Kuruba, and
Vakkaliga, an exogamous sept and gotra of Kuruba and Kurni, and a
sub-division of Golla.
Gaudi.--It is recorded, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, that a
Maleru (temple servant) woman, who cohabits with one of a lower class
than her own, is degraded into a Gaudi.
Gaudo.--The Gaudos are described, in the Madras Census Reports, 1891
and 1901, as "the great pastoral caste of the Ganjam Oriyas. Like those
of all the cowherd classes, its members say that they are descended
from the Yadava tribe, in which Krishna was born (cf. Idaiyan). The
majority of the Gaudos in the northern districts are now cultivators,
but there is evidence that the keeping and breeding of cattle is
their traditional occupation. The most important sub-division is
Sollokhondia; many of them are herdsmen and milk-sellers. Fourteen
sub-divisions have been reported. They are Apoto, Behara, Bolodiya,
Dongayato, Dumalo, Gopopuriya, Kolata, Komiriya, Kusilya, Ladia,
Madhurapurya, Mogotho, Pattilia, and Sollokhondia." In the Census
Report, 1871, it is noted that "there are many Gowdus of high social
standing, who have gotten unto themselves much wealth in cattle. These
men own, in many instances, large herds of buffaloes, which, being
reared in the boundless pastures of the hills, are much prized by
the cartmen of the low country for draught purposes."
Of the sub-division noted above, Behara is apparently a title
only. Bolodiya is the name of a section of the Tellis, who
use pack-bullocks (bolodi, a bull) for carrying grain about the
country. Pattilia must be a mistake for Pachilia. The sections among
the Gaudos which are recognised by all castes in the Ganjam district
are Sollokhondia, Bhatta, Gopopuriya, Madhurapuriya, Mogotho,
Apoto, and Pachilia. These, with the exception of Gopopuriya and
Madhurapuriya, seem to be endogamous sub-divisions. The Bhatta Gaudos
go by the name of Gopopuriya in some places and Madhurapuriya in
others, both these names being connected with the legendary history
of the origin of the caste. The Apoto and Bhatta Gaudos are sometimes
employed as palanquin-bearers. The Mogotho Gaudos, who live on the
hills, are regarded as an inferior section, because they do not abstain
from eating fowls. The Sollokhondia section is regarded as superior,
and consequently all Oriya castes, Brahman and non-Brahman, will accept
water at the hands of members thereof. An orthodox Oriya non-Brahman,
and all Oriya Brahmans, will not receive water from Telugu or Tamil
Brahmans, whom they call Komma Brahmans, Komma being a corrupt form
of karma, i.e., Brahmans who are strict in the observance of the
various karmas (ceremonial rites).
The Sollokhondia Gaudos are agriculturists, rear cattle and sheep,
and sometimes earn a living by driving carts. They have gotras,
among which the most common are Moiro (peacock), Nagasiro (cobra),
and Kochimo (tortoise). Their caste council is presided over by a
hereditary headman called Mahankudo, who is assisted by a Bhollobaya,
Desiya, and Khorsodha or Dhondia. The Khorsodha is the caste servant,
and the Desiya eats with a delinquent who is received back into the
fold after he has been tried by the council. The Sollokhondias are for
the most part Paramarthos, i.e., followers of the Chaitanya form of
Vaishnavism. They show a partiality for the worship of Jagannathaswami,
and various Takuranis (village deities) are also reverenced. Bairagis
are the caste priests.
The marriage prohibitions among the Sollokhondias are those which hold
good among many Oriya castes, but marriage with the maternal uncle's
daughter (menarikam) is sometimes practiced. On the evening preceding
the marriage day (bibha), after a feast, the bride and bridegroom's
parties go to a temple, taking with them all the articles which are
to be used in connection with the marriage ceremonial. On their way
back, seven married girls, carrying seven vessels, go to seven houses,
and beg water, which is used by the bridal couple for their baths on
the following day. Either on the day before the wedding day, or on
the bibha day, the bridegroom is shaved, and the bride's nails are
pared. Sometimes a little of the hair of her forehead is also cut
off. The marriage rites do not materially differ from those of the
Bhondaris (q.v.).
The dead, excepting young children, are burnt. The eldest son carries a
pot of fire to the burning ground. On the day following cremation, the
mourners revisit the spot, and, after the fire has been extinguished,
make an image of a man with the ashes on the spot where the corpse
was burnt. To this image food is offered. Seven small flags, made
of cloths dyed with turmeric, are stuck into the shoulders, abdomen,
legs, and head of the image. A fragment of calcined bone is carried
away, put into a lump of cow-dung, and kept near the house of the
deceased, or near a tank (pond). On the ninth day after death,
towards evening, a bamboo, split or spliced into four at one end,
is set up in the ground outside the house beneath the projecting
roof, and on it a pot filled with water is placed. On the spot where
the deceased breathed his last, a lamp is kept. A hole is made in
the bottom of the pot, and, after food has been offered to the dead
man, the pot is thrown into a tank. On the tenth day, a ceremony is
performed on a tank bund (embankment). The piece of bone, which has
been preserved, is removed from its cow-dung case, and food, fruits,
etc., are offered to it, and thrown into the tank. The bone is taken
home, and buried near the house, food being offered to it until the
twelfth day. On the eleventh day, all the agnates bathe, and are
touched with ghi (clarified butter) as a sign of purification. Sradh
(memorial service) is performed once a year on Sankaranthi (Pongal)
day. Food, in the form of balls, is placed on leaves in the backyard,
and offered to the ancestors. Some food is also thrown up into the air.
All sections of the Gaudos have adopted infant marriage. If a girl
fails to secure a husband before she attains puberty, she has to
go through a form of marriage called dharma bibha, in which the
bridegroom is, among the Sollokhondias, represented by an old man,
preferably the girl's grandfather, and among the other sections by
a sahada or shadi tree (Streblus asper) or an arrow (khando).
Like various other Oriya castes, the Gaudos worship the goddess Lakshmi
on Thursdays in the month of November, which are called Lakshmi
varam, or Lakshmi's day. The goddess is represented by a basket
filled with grain, whereon some place a hair ball, which has been
vomited by a cow. The ball is called gaya panghula, and is usually
one or two inches in diameter. The owner of a cow which has vomited
such a ball regards it as a propitious augury for the prosperity of
his family. A feast is held on the day on which the ball is vomited,
and, after the ball has been worshipped, it is carefully wrapped up,
and kept in a box, in which it remains till it is required for further
worship. Some people believe that the ball continues to grow year
by year, and regard this as a very good sign. Bulls are said not to
vomit the balls, and only very few cows do so.
Gauliar.--A synonym for Lingayat Gollas, or Kannadiyans.
Gaundala.--A synonym of Gamalla.
Gauri.--A division of Okkiliyan, named after Gauri, Siva's consort. The
equivalent Gaura occurs among the Komatis, and Gauriga among the
Medaras. One division of the Kabberas is called Gaurimakkalu, or sons
of Gauri.
Gautama.--A Brahmanical gotra adopted by Bhatrazus, Khatris, and
Kondaiyamkottai Maravans. Gautama was a sage, and the husband of
Ahalya, who was seduced by Indra.
Gavala (cowry shell: Cypræa arabica).--An exogamous sept of Madiga. A
cotton thread string, with cowries strung on it, is one of the insignia
of a Madiga Matangi.
Gavalla.--A synonym for Gamalla.
Gavara.--It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "this
caste is practically confined to the Vizagapatam district, and they
have been classed as cultivators on the strength of a statement to
that effect in the District Manual. Gavara is, however, an important
sub-division of Komatis (traders), and these Gavaras are probably in
reality Gavara Komatis. These are so called after Gauri, the patron
deity of this caste."
For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. A
tradition is current that the Gavaras originally lived at Vengi, the
ancient capital of the Eastern Chalukyan kings, the ruins of which
are near Ellore in the Godavari district. The king was desirous of
seeing one of their women, who was gosha (in seclusion), but to this
they would not consent. Under orders from the king, their houses were
set on fire. Some of them bolted themselves in, and perished bravely,
while others locked up their women in big boxes, and escaped with them
to the coast. They immediately set sail, and landed at Pudimadaka
in the Anakapalli taluk. Thence they marched as far as Kondakirla,
near which they founded the village of Wadapalli or Wodapalli, meaning
the village of the people who came in boats. They then built another
village called Gavarla Anakapalli. They received an invitation from
king Payaka Rao, the founder of Anakapalli, and, moving northwards,
established themselves at what is now known as Gavarapeta in the town
of Anakapalli. They began the foundation of the village auspiciously
by consecrating and planting the sandra karra (Acacia sundra), which
is not affected by 'white-ants,' instead of the pala karra (Mimusops
hexandra), which is generally used for this purpose. Consequently,
Anakapalli has always flourished.
The Gavaras speak Telugu, and, like other Telugu castes, have various
exogamous septs or intiperulu.
Girls are married either before or after puberty. The custom of
menarikam, by which a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter,
is in force, and it is said that he may also marry his sister's
daughter. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a woman who has
had seven husbands is known as Beththamma, and is much respected.
Some Gavaras are Vaishnavites, and others Saivites, but difference in
religion is no bar to intermarriage. Both sections worship the village
deities, to whom animal sacrifices are offered. The Vaishnavites show
special reverence to Jagganathaswami of Orissa, whose shrine is visited
by some, while others take vows in the name of this god. On the day
on which the car festival is celebrated at Puri, local car festivals
are held in Gavara villages, and women carry out the performance
of their vows. A woman, for example, who is under a vow, in order
that she may be cured of illness or bear children, takes a big pot
of water, and, placing it on her head, dances frantically before the
god, through whose influence the water, which rises out of the pot,
falls back into it, instead of being spilt.
The Vaishnavites are burnt, and the Saivites buried in a sitting
posture. The usual chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day) death
ceremonies are performed.
Men wear a gold bangle on the left wrist, and another on the right
arm. Women wear a silver bangle on the right wrist, and a bracelet of
real or imitation coral, which is first worn at the time of marriage,
on the left wrist. They throw the end of their body-cloth over the
left shoulder. They do not, like women of other non-Brahman castes
in the Vizagapatam district, smoke cigars.
The original occupation of the caste is said to have been trading,
and this may account for the number of exogamous septs which are
named after Settis (traders). At the present day, the Gavaras
are agriculturists, and they have the reputation of being very
hard-working, and among the best agriculturists in the Vizagapatam
district. The women travel long distances in order to sell vegetables,
milk, curds, and other produce.
The caste titles are Anna, Ayya, and occasionally Nayudu.
Gaya (cow).--An exogamous sept of Kondra.
Gayinta.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small
caste of hill cultivators, speaking Oriya and Telugu. The name is
said to be derived from gayinti, an iron digging implement. Gayinta
is reported to be the same as Gaintia, a name of Enetis or Entamaras.
Gazula.--Gazula or Gazul (glass bangle) has been recorded as a
sub-division of Balija, Kapu, and Toreya. The Gazula Balijas make
glass bangles. The Toreyas have a tradition that they originated from
the bangles of Machyagandhi, the daughter of a fisherman on the Jumna,
who was married to king Shantanu of Hastinapur.
Gedala (buffaloes).--A sept of Bonthuk Savara.
Geddam (beard).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Padma Sale.
Gejjala (bells tied to the legs while dancing).--An exogamous sept
of Balija and Korava.
Gejjegara.--A sub-caste of the Canarese Panchalas. They are described,
in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, as makers of small round bells
(gungru), which are used for decorating the head or neck of bullocks,
and tied by dancing-girls round their ankles when dancing.
Genneru (sweet-scented oleander).--An exogamous sept of Boya.
Gentoo.--Gentoo or Jentu, as returned at times of census, is
stated to be a general term applied to Balijas and Telugu speaking
Sudras generally. The word is said by Yule and Burnell [142] to be
"a corruption of the Portuguese Gentio, a gentile or heathen, which
they applied to the Hindus in contradistinction to the Moros or Moors,
i.e., Mahomedans. The reason why the term became specifically applied
to the Telugu people is probably because, when the Portuguese arrived,
the Telugu monarchy of Vijayanagar was dominant over a great part of
the peninsula." In a letter written from prison to Sir Philip Francis,
Rajah Nuncomar referred to the fact that "among the English gentry,
Armenians, Moores and Gentoos, few there is who is not against
me." Gentoo still survives as a caste name in the Madras Quarterly
Civil List (1906).
Ghair-i-Mahdi.--The name, meaning without Mahdi, of a sect of
Muhammadans, who affirm that the Imam Mahdi has come and gone, while
orthodox Muhammadans hold that he is yet to come.
Ghasi.--See Haddi.
Ghontoro.--A small caste of Oriyas, who manufacture brass and
bell-metal rings and bangles for the hill people. The name is derived
from ghonto, a bell-metal plate.
Gidda (vulture).--A sept of Poroja.
Gikkili (rattle).--A gotra of Kurni.
Giri Razu.--A contraction of Puragiri Razu or Puragiri Kshatriya,
by which names some Perikes style themselves.
Goa.--A sub-division of Kudubis, who are said to have emigrated from
Goa to South Canara.
Go Brahman.--A name given to Brahmans by Kammalans, who style
themselves Visva Brahmans.
Godagula.--The Godagulas are recorded, in the Madras Census Report,
1901, as being the same as the Gudalas, who are a Telugu caste of
basket-makers. According to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am
indebted for the following note, they are a distinct caste, speaking
Oriya, and sometimes calling themselves Odde (Oriya) Medara. Like the
Medaras, they work in split bamboo, and make sundry articles which are
not made by other castes who work in this medium. Unlike the Gudalas,
they are a polluting class, and have the following legend to account
for their social degradation. God told them to make winnows and
other articles for divine worship. This, they did, and, after they
had delivered them, they attended a marriage feast, at which they eat
flesh and drank liquor. On their return, God called on them to vomit
the food which they had partaken of, and they accordingly brought up
the meat and drink, whereon God cursed them, saying "Begone, you have
eaten forbidden food." They craved for forgiveness, but were told in
future to earn their living as bamboo-workers. The custom of menarikam,
according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter,
is so rigidly enforced that, if the uncle refuses to give his daughter
in marriage, the man has a right to carry her off, and then pay a fine,
the amount of which is fixed by the caste council. A portion thereof
is given to the girl's parents, and the remainder spent on a caste
feast. If the maternal uncle has no daughter, a man may, according to
the eduru (or reversed) menarikam custom, marry his paternal aunt's
daughter. Six months before the marriage ceremony takes place, the
pasupu (turmeric) ceremony is performed. The bridegroom's family pay
six rupees to the bride's family, to provide the girl with turmeric,
wherewith she adorns herself. On the day fixed for the wedding,
the parents of the bridegroom go with a few of the elders to the
bride's house, and couple the request to take away the girl with
payment of nine rupees and a new cloth. Of the money thus given,
eight rupees go to the bride's parents, and the remainder to the
caste. The bride is conducted to the home of the bridegroom, who
meets her at the pandal (booth) erected in front of his house. They
are bathed with turmeric water, and sacred threads are put on their
shoulders by the Kula Maistri who officiates as priest. The couple
then play with seven cowry (Cyproea arabica) shells, and, if the
shells fall with the slit downwards, the bride is said to have won;
otherwise the bridegroom is the winner. This is followed by the mudu
akula homam, or sacrifice of three leaves. A new pot, containing a
lighted wick, is placed before the couple. On it are thrown leaves
of the rayi aku (Ficus religiosa), marri aku (Ficus Bengalensis),
and juvvi aku (Ficus Tsiela). The Kula Maistri of the bridegroom's
party spreads out his right hand over the mouth of the pot. On it the
bride places her hand. The bridegroom then places his hand on hers,
and the Kula Maistri of the bride's village puts his hand on that
of the bridegroom. The elders then call out in a loud voice "Know,
caste people of Vaddadi Madugula; know, caste people of Kimedi; know,
caste people of Gunupuram and Godairi; know, caste people of all the
twelve countries, that this man and woman have become husband and wife,
and that the elders have ratified the ceremony." The contracting couple
then throw rice over each other. On the morning of the following day,
the saragatha ceremony is performed. The bridegroom's party repair
to the bank of the local stream, where they are met by the caste
people, who are presented with betel, a cheroot, and a pot of jaggery
(crude sugar) water as cool drink. The sacred threads worn by the
bride and bridegroom are removed at the conclusion of the marriage
ceremonies. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a younger
brother may marry the widow of an elder brother, or vice versâ. Divorce
is also allowed, and a divorcée may remarry. Her new husband has to
pay a sum of money, a portion of which goes to the first husband,
while the remainder is devoted to a caste feast. The dead are burnt,
and the chinna rozu (little day) death ceremony is observed.
Goda-jati (wall people).--A sub-division of Kammas. The name has
reference to a deadly struggle at Gandikota, in which some escaped
by hiding behind a wall.
Goda-poose (wall polishing).--An exogamous sept of Tsakala.
Godari.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as Telugu
leather-workers in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. They are stated, in the
Vizagapatam Manual, to make and sell slippers in that district. Godari
is, I gather, a synonym of Madiga, and not a separate caste.
Goddali (spade or axe).--An exogamous sept of Odde and Panta Reddi.
Godomalia (belonging to, or a group of forts).--A sub-division of
Bhondari, the members of which act as barbers to Rajahs who reside
in forts.
Golaka.--Recorded in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a name meaning
bastard, and clubbed with the Moilis, or temple servants in South
Canara descended from dancing-girls. In the Mysore Census Report,
1901, it is defined as a term applied to the children of Brahmans by
Malerus, or temple servants.
Goli (Portulaca oleracea: a pot-herb).--An exogamous sept of Gauda.
Golkonda.--A sub-division of Tsakala.
Golla.--"The Gollas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [143] "are the great
pastoral caste of the Telugu people. The traditions of the caste
give a descent from the god Krishna, whose sportings with the milk
maids play a prominent part in Hindu mythology. The hereditary
occupation of the Gollas is tending sheep and cattle, and selling
milk, but many of them have now acquired lands and are engaged
in farming, and some are in Government service. They are quiet,
inoffensive, and comparatively honest. In the time of the Nabobs,
this last characteristic secured to them the privilege of guarding
and carrying treasure, and one sub-division, Bokhasa Gollas, owes its
origin to this service. Even now those who are employed in packing
and lifting bags of money in the district treasuries are called
Gollas, though they belong to other castes. As a fact they do hold
a respectable position, and, though poor, are not looked down upon,
for they tend the sacred cow. Sometimes they assert a claim to be
regarded as representatives of the Go-Vaisya division. Their title
is Mandadi, but it is not commonly used." Mr. Stuart writes further
[144] that "the social status of the Gollas is fairly high, for they
are allowed to mix freely with the Kapu, Kamma, and Balija castes,
and the Brahmans will take buttermilk from their hands. They employ
Satanis as their priests. In their ceremonies there is not much
difference between them and the Kapus. The name Golla is generally
supposed to be a shortened form of Sanskrit Gopala" (protector of
cows). The Gollas also call themselves Konanulu, or Konarlu, and,
like the Tamil Idaiyans, sometimes have the title Konar. Other titles
in common use are Anna, Ayya, and occasionally Nayudu.
In the Manual of the Kurnool district, it is stated that the Gollas
"keep sheep, and sell milk and ghi (clarified butter). They eat and
mess with the Balijas, and other high caste Sudras; but, unlike their
brethren of the south, in the matter of street processions, they are
classed with goldsmiths, or the left-hand section. When any one is
reduced to poverty, the others give him each a sheep, and restore his
flock. They occasionally dedicate their girls to Venkatesa as Basavis"
(prostitutes).
It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that "in
the country round Madgole, legends are still recounted of a line of
local Golla chieftains, who gave their name to Golgonda, and built
the forts, of which traces still survive in those parts". Each Telugu
New Year's day, it is stated, Gollas come across from Godavari, and go
round the Golla villages, reciting the names of the progenitors of the
fallen line, and exhibiting paintings illustrative of their overthrow.
"At Vajragada (diamond fort) are the ruins of a very large fortress,
and local tradition gives the names of seven forts, by which it was
once defended. These are said to have been constructed by the Golla
kings. A tale is told of their having kidnapped a daughter of the
ruler of Madgole, and held out here against his attacks for months,
until they were betrayed by a woman of their own caste, who showed
the enemy how to cut off their water-supply. They then slew their
womenkind, says the story, dashed out against the besiegers, and fell
to a man, fighting to the last."
Concerning the Gollas of Mysore, I gather [145] that "there are
two main divisions in this caste, viz., Uru (village) and Kadu
(forest). The two neither intermarry, nor eat together. A section of
the Gollas, by guarding treasure while on transit, have earned the
name of Dhanapala. In fact, one of the menial offices in Government
treasuries at the present day is that of Golla. The caste worships
Krishna, who was born in this caste. The Kadu Gollas are said to have
originally immigrated from Northern India, and are still a nomadic
tribe, living in thatched huts outside the villages. Some of their
social customs are akin to those of the Kadu Kurubas. It is said
that, on the occurrence of a childbirth, the mother with the babe
remains unattended in a small shed outside the village from seven
to thirty days, when she is taken back to her home. In the event
of her illness, none of the caste will attend on her, but a Nayak
(Beda) woman is engaged to do so. Marriages among them are likewise
performed in a temporary shed erected outside the village, and the
attendant festivities continue for five days, when the marriage
couple are brought into the village. The Golla is allowed to marry
as many wives as he likes, and puberty is no bar to marriage. They
eat flesh, and drink spirituous liquors. The wife cannot be divorced
except for adultery. Their females do not wear the bodice (ravike)
usually put on by the women of the country. Nor do they, in their
widowhood, remove or break the glass bangles worn at the wrists, as is
done in other castes. But widows are not allowed to remarry. Only 98
persons have returned gotras, the chief being Yadava, Karadi, Atreya,
and Amswasa. The first two are really sub-sects, while Atreya is the
name of a Brahmin Rishi." Yadava, or descendant of King Yadu, from
whom Krishna was descended, also occurs as a synonym for Idaiyan,
the great Tamil shepherd class.
Concerning the Adivi, or forest Gollas, Mr. F. Fawcett writes
as follows. [146] "The people of every house in the village let
loose a sheep, to wander whither it will, as a sort of perpetual
scapegoat. When a woman feels the first pains of labour, she is turned
out of the village into a little leaf or mat hut about two hundred
yards away. In this hut she must bring forth her offspring unaided,
unless a midwife can be called in to be with her before the child is
born. For ninety days the woman lives in the hut by herself. If any one
touches her, he or she is, like the woman, outcasted, and turned out
of the village for three months. The woman's husband generally makes
a little hut about fifty yards from her, and watches over her; but he
may not go near her on pain of being outcasted for three months. Food
is placed on the ground near the woman's hut, and she takes it. On
the fourth day after parturition, a woman of the village goes to her,
and pours water on her, but she must not come in contact with her. On
the fifth day, the village people clear of stones and thorny bushes a
little bit of ground about ten yards on the village side of the hut,
and to this place the woman removes her hut. No one can do it for her,
or help her. On the ninth, fifteenth, and thirtieth days, she removes
the hut in the same way nearer to the village, and, again, once in
each of the two following months. On the ninetieth day, the headman
of the village calls the woman to come out of the hut. The dhobi
(washerman) then washes her clothes. She puts on clean clothes, and
the headman takes her to the temple of their tutelary deity Junjappa,
where the caste pujari breaks cocoanuts, and then accompanies her
to her house, where a purificatory ceremony is performed. Junjappa,
it is said, takes good care of the mother and child, so that death
is said to be unknown."
It is stated [147] that, in the Chitaldrug district of Mysore,
"the wife of the eldest son in every family is not permitted to clean
herself with water after obeying the calls of nature. It is an article
of their belief that their flocks will otherwise not prosper."
Writing in the early part of the last century about the Gollas,
Buchanan informs us that "this caste has a particular duty,
the transporting of money, both belonging to the public and
to individuals. It is said that they may be safely intrusted with
any sum; for, each man carrying a certain value, they travel in
bodies numerous in proportion to the sum put under their charge;
and they consider themselves bound in honour to die in defence of
their trust. Of course, they defend themselves vigorously, and are
all armed; so that robbers never venture to attack them. They have
hereditary chiefs called Gotugaru, who with the usual council settle
all disputes, and punish all transgressions against the rules of
caste. The most flagrant is the embezzlement of money entrusted to
their care. On this crime being proved against any of the caste, the
Gotugaru applies to Amildar, or civil magistrate, and having obtained
his leave, immediately causes the delinquent to be shot. Smaller
offences are atoned for by the guilty person giving an entertainment."
The Golla caste has many sub-divisions, of which the following are
examples:--
Erra or Yerra (red). Said to be the descendants of a Brahman by
a Golla woman.
Ala or Mekala, who tend sheep and goats.
Puja or Puni.
Gangeddu, who exhibit performing bulls.
Gauda, who, in Vizagapatam, visit the western part of the district
during the summer months, and settle outside the villages. They
tend their herds, and sell milk and curds to the villagers.
Karna.
Pakanati.
Racha (royal).
Peddeti. Mostly beggars, and considered low in the social scale,
though when questioned concerning themselves they say they are
Yerra Gollas.
At the census, 1901, the following were returned as sub-castes of
the Gollas:--
Dayyalakulam (wrestlers), Perike Muggalu or Mushti Golla (beggars and
exorcists), Podapotula (who beg from Gollas), Gavadi, and Vadugayan,
a Tamil synonym for Gollas in Tinnevelly. Another Tamil synonym for
Golla is Bokhisha Vadugar (treasury northerners). Golla has been given
as a sub-division of Dasaris and Chakkiliyans, and Golla Woddar (Odde)
as a synonym of a thief class in the Telugu country. In a village
near Dummagudem in the Godavari district, the Rev. J. Cain writes,
[148] are "a few families of Basava Gollalu. I find they are really
Kois, whose grandfathers had a quarrel with, and separated from, their
neighbours. Some of the present members of the families are anxious
to be re-admitted to the society and privileges of the neighbouring
Kois. The word Basava is commonly said to be derived from bhasha,
a language, and the Gollas of this class are said to have been so
called in consequence of their speaking a different language from
the rest of the Gollas."
Like many other Telugu castes, the Gollas have exogamous septs or
intiperu, and gotras. As examples of the former, the following may
be quoted:--
Agni, fire.
Avula, cows.
Chinthala, tamarind.
Chevvula, ears.
Gundala, stones.
Gurram, horse.
Gorrela, sheep.
Gorantla, henna (Lawsonia alba).
Kokala, woman's cloth.
Katari, dagger.
Mugi, dumb.
Nakkala, jackal.
Saddikudu, cold rice or food.
Sevala, service.
Ullipoyala, onions.
Vankayala, brinjal (Solanum melongena).