Entamara.--See Yanati.
Era.--Era Cheruman, or Eralan, is a sub-division of Cheruman.
Eradi.--Eradi has been defined [115] as meaning "a cow-herd. A
sub-division of the Nayar caste, which formerly ruled in what is
now the Ernad taluk" of Malabar. In the Malabar Manual, Ernad is
said to be derived from Eradu, the bullock country. Eradi denotes,
according to the Census Report, 1891, "a settlement in Ernad. The
caste of Samantas, to which the Zamorin of Calicut belongs."
Eravallar.--The Eravallars are a small forest tribe inhabiting
the Coimbatore district and Malabar. For the following note on the
Eravallars of Cochin, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna
Iyer. [116]
Eravallars are a wild tribe of inoffensive hill-men found in the
forests of the Cochin State, especially in the Chittur taluk. They
are also called Villu Vedans (hunters using bows). Their language
is Tamil, though some speak Malayalam. In addressing the elderly
members of the caste, they use the titles Muthan (elder) and Pattan
(grandfather). Names in use for males are Kannan (Krishna), Otukan,
Kothandan, Kecharan, and Attukaran, while females are called Kanni,
Keyi, Kaikayi, Otuka, and Ramayi. These Hindu divine names are recent
innovations after the names of members of the higher castes, with
whom they frequently come in contact.
The Eravallars have no knowledge of the origin of their caste. They
appear to be a rude and primitive people, like the other jungle
tribes of the State, but are somewhat improving their status under
their masters. Their habits are less migratory than those of the
Malayars and Kadars. They live in villages called pathis, situated
in the forests. Their huts are similar to those of the Malayars and
Kadars. They propitiate their sylvan deities before the construction of
their huts, and also before their occupation. Some days are believed to
be lucky, as Mondays for sowing and weddings, Wednesdays for building,
and Fridays for reaping.
Eravallars do not live as small independent communities, but are
mostly attached to farmers, under whom they work for a daily wage
of two edangazhis and a half of paddy (unhusked rice). The women
also work for the same wage, but never agree to serve in a state of
bondage. During the festival kathira in the village temple of their
landlords, when sheaves of corn are brought, every male member gets
from his landlord two veshtis (a cloth with a coloured border 3
yards in length), and every woman a potava (coloured cloth 8 yards
in length). During the Onam and Vishu festivals, one para of paddy,
two cocoanuts, a small quantity of gingelly (Sesamum) and cocoanut
oil are also given. The landlords partly defray their marriage and
funeral expenses by a grant of a few paras of paddy, some salt and
chillies. Sometimes they agree to work for twenty valloms (a large corn
measure) a year. To improve their condition, they borrow money from
their landlords, and purchase a bullock or buffalo or two, to cultivate
a plot of land, after clearing a portion of the forest belonging to
their master. They raise some crops, and make some saving to pay off
the debt. Should they be so unfortunate as to fail in the undertaking,
they willingly mortgage themselves to their master, or to some other,
for the wages above mentioned, and wait for some favourable opportunity
to pay off the debt. Women never surrender themselves to work in a
state of bondage, but are independent day-labourers. The Eravallars
are, as certified by their masters, always truthful, honest, faithful
and god-fearing, and never, like the Pulayas of the northern parts
of the State, ungratefully run away from their masters.
A girl, when she comes of age, is lodged in a separate hut (muttuchala)
erected at a distance of a furlong from the main hut. Only a few girl
friends are allowed to be in company with her during the period of her
seclusion, which is generally seven days, during which food is served
to her at a distance, when she comes to take it. No grown-up member
approaches her, for fear of pollution. She bathes on the morning of
the seventh day, and is then allowed to enter the hut. The day is
one of festivity to her friends and relations. If a girl is married
before she attains puberty, her husband contributes something for the
expenses of the ceremony. Should a woman cohabit with a man before
marriage and become pregnant, she used, in former times, to be put
to death, but is now turned out of caste. Instances of the kind are,
they say, extremely rare.
An Eravallan who wishes to see his son married visits the parents
of a girl with his brother-in-law and a few relatives, who make
the proposal. If the parents agree, the wedding day is fixed, and
all the preliminary arrangements are made at the hut of the bride,
where the relatives assembled are treated to a dinner. The bride's
price is only a rupee. The parents of the bride and bridegroom visit
their respective landlords with a few packets of betel leaves, areca
nuts, and tobacco, and inform them of the marriage proposal. The
landlords give a few paras of paddy to defray a portion of the
wedding expenses. They celebrate their weddings on Mondays. On a
Monday previous to the wedding ceremony, the sister of the bridegroom,
with a few of her relations and friends, goes to the bride's hut, and
presents her parents with the bride's money, and a brass ring for the
bride. On the Monday chosen for the wedding, the same company, and a
few more, go there, and dress the girl in the new garment brought by
them. They are treated to a dinner as on the previous occasion. They
then return with the bride to the hut of the bridegroom, where also
the parties assembled are entertained. On the Monday after this,
the bridegroom and bride are taken to the bride's hut, where they
stay for a week, and then return to the bridegroom's hut. Marriage
is now formally over. The tali (marriage badge) tying is dispensed
with. This custom of marriage prevails among the Izhuvas of the
Chittur taluk. The bridegroom gets nothing as a present during the
wedding, but this is reserved for the Karkadaka Sankranthi, when he
is invited by his father-in-law, and given two veshtis and a turban,
after sumptuously feeding him. A widow can only marry a widower. It is
called Mundakettuka (marrying a widow). When they both have children,
the widower must make a solemn promise to his castemen that he will
treat and support the children by both marriages impartially. The
present of a brass ring and cloth is essential. A man can divorce
his wife, if he is not satisfied with her. The divorced wife can mate
only with a widower. Such cases, they say, are very rare among them.
No ceremony is performed for a pregnant woman during the fifth or
seventh month. If she dreams of dogs, cats, or wild animals coming to
threaten her, it is believed that she is possessed of demons. Then a
devil-driver from this or some other caste is called in. He draws a
hideous figure (kolam) on the floor with powdered rice, turmeric, and
charcoal, and the woman is seated in front of it. He sings and beats
his small drum, or mutters his mantram (consecrated formula). A lamp
is lighted, and frankincense is burned. A kaibali is waved round the
woman's face. She is worked up to a hysterical state, and makes frantic
movements. Boiled rice, flattened rice, plantains, cocoanuts, and fowl
are offered to the demon. Quite satisfied, the demon leaves her, or
offers to leave her on certain conditions. If the woman remains silent
and unmoved all the time, it is supposed that no demon resides in her
body. Very often a yantram (charm) is made on a piece of cadjan (palm)
leaf, and rolled. It is attached to a thread, and worn round the neck.
A woman in childbirth is located in a separate small hut (muttuchala)
erected at a distance from the main hut. Nobody attends upon her,
except her mother or some old woman to nurse her. As soon as delivery
takes place, the mother and child are bathed. Her pollution is for
seven days, during which she stays in the hut. She then bathes, and
is removed to another hut close to the main hut, and is again under
pollution for five months. Her diet during this period is simple, and
she is strictly forbidden to take meat. The only medicine administered
to her during the period is a mixture of pepper, dried ginger, and
palm sugar mixed with toddy. She comes back to the main hut after
purifying herself by a bath at the end of the five months. The day
is one of festivity.
The Eravallers bury their dead, and observe death pollution for five
days. On the morning of the sixth day, the chief mourner, who may
be the son or younger brother, gets shaved, bathes, and offers to
the spirit of the departed boiled rice, parched rice, plantains,
and fowl. A feast is given to the castemen once a year, when they
have some savings. They think of their ancestors, who are propitiated
with offerings.
They are pure animists, and believe that the forests and hills are full
of demons disposed to do them harm. Many of them are supposed to live
in trees, and to rule wild beasts. They also believe that there are
certain local demons, which are supposed to reside in rocks, trees,
or peaks, having influence over particular families or villages, and
that services rendered to them are intended to mitigate their hunger
rather than to seek benefits. Their gods are Kali, Muni, Kannimar, and
Karappu Rayan. Kali is adored to obtain her protection for themselves
and their families while living in the forest. Muni is worshipped for
the protection of their cattle, and to secure good harvest. Kannimar
(the seven virgins) and Karappu Rayan are their family deities,
who watch over their welfare. Offerings of boiled rice, plantains,
cocoanuts, and flattened rice are given to propitiate them. Kali and
Muni are worshipped in the forest, and the others in their huts.
The main occupation of the Eravallers is ploughing dry lands for the
cultivation of chama (Panicum miliaceum), cholam (Sorghum vulgare),
dholl (Cajanus indicus) and gingelly (Sesamum indicum) seeds, and
sowing the seeds, which begin in the middle of May, and harvesting
in November. During these months, they are wholly occupied with
agriculture. During the other months of the year, gardening, fencing,
and thatching are their chief occupations. Offerings are made to Kali
and Muni, when they plough, sow, and reap. They are so propitiated,
as they are supposed to protect their corn from destruction by wild
beasts. The Eravallers are skilful hunters. Owing to their familiarity
and acquaintance with the forests, they can point out places frequented
by wild beasts, which they can recognise by smell, either to warn
travellers against danger, or to guide sportsmen to the game. Ten or
fifteen of them form a party, and are armed with knives, bows and
arrows. Some of them act as beaters, and the animal is driven to a
particular spot, where it is caught in a large net already spread,
shot, or beaten to death. Animals hunted are hares, porcupines, and
wild pigs. The game is always equally divided. Being good marksmen,
they take skilful aim at birds, and kill them when flying.
The ordinary dietary is kanji (gruel) of chama or cholam, mixed
with tamarind, salt and chillies, prepared overnight, and taken
in the morning. The same is prepared for the midday meal, with a
vegetable curry consisting of dholl, horse gram (Dolichos biflorus),
and other grains grown in the garden of their masters, which they have
to watch. They eat the flesh of sheep, fowls, pigs, hares, quails,
and doves. They take food at the hands of Brahmans, Nayars, Kammalars,
and Izhuvas. They refuse to take anything cooked by Mannans, Panans,
Parayans, and Cherumans. They bathe when touched by a Chakkiliyan,
Parayan, or Cheruman. They stand a long way off from Brahmans and
Nayars.
Both men and women are decently clad. Males wear veshtis, one end of
which hangs loose, and the other is tucked in between the legs. They
have a shoulder cloth, either hanging loosely over their shoulders,
or sometimes tied to the turban. They allow their hair to grow
long, but do not, for want of means, anoint it with oil. They grow
moustaches. They wear round the neck a necklace of small white beads to
distinguish them from Malayars, who are always afraid of them. Some
wear brass finger rings. Women wear a potava (coloured cloth),
half of which is worn round the loins, while the other half serves
to cover the body. The hair is not smoothed with oil. It is twisted
into a knot on the back. It is said that they take an oil bath once
a week. Their ear ornament is made of a long palmyra leaf rolled into
a disc, and the ear lobes are sufficiently dilated to contain them.
Erkollar.--A Tamil form of the Telugu Yerragolla, which is sub-division
of Tottiyan.
Ernadan.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Aranadans are
described as a hill tribe in Malabar, who kill pythons, and extract
an oil from them, which they sell to people on the plains as a remedy
for leprosy. These are, I have no doubt, the Ernadans, concerning
whom Mr. G. Hadfield writes to me as follows. They are a small
jungle tribe, found exclusively in Malabar, and are considered to
be the lowest of the jungle tribes by the inhabitants of Malabar,
who consider themselves polluted if an Ernadan approaches within
a hundred yards. Even Paniyans and Pariahs give them a wide berth,
and they are prohibited from coming within four hundred yards of a
village. One of their customs is very singular, viz., the father of
a family takes (or used to take) his eldest daughter as his second
wife. The Ernadans use bows and arrows, principally for shooting
monkeys, to the flesh of which they are very partial. They are not
particular as to what they eat, and are, in fact, on a par with
jackals in this respect, devouring snakes and the putrid flesh of
various animals. They are fond of collecting the fat of snakes, and
selling it. Muhammadans employ them in felling timber, and cultivating
fields. Their clothing is exceedingly scanty, and, when hard up,
they use wild plantain leaves for this purpose.
Through Mr. Hadfield's influence with the tribe, Mr. F. Fawcett
was able to examine a few members thereof, who appeared before him
accompanied by their Mappilla master, at a signal from whom they ran
off like hares, to attend to their work in the fields. Their most
important measurements were as follows:--
Max. Min. Av.
Stature (cm.) 156.6 150.6 154.5
Cephalic index 85 77 81
Nasal index 108.8 71.1 88.4
The Ernadans, according to these figures, are short of stature,
platyrhine, with an unusually high cephalic index.
Erra.--See Yerra.
Erudandi.--See Gangeddu.
Erudukkaran.--See Gangeddu.
Erumai (buffalo).--An exogamous sept of Toreya.
Eruman.--A sub-division of Kolayan.
Ettarai (eight and a half).--An exogamous sept of Tamil goldsmiths.
Ettuvitan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a
sub-division of Nayar.
Eurasian.--Eurasian (Eur-asian) may, after the definition in
'Hobson-Jobson,' [117] be summed up as a modern name for persons of
mixed European and Indian blood, devised as being more euphemistic
than half-caste, and more precise than East-Indian. When the European
and Anglo-Indian Defence Association was established 17 years ago,
the term Anglo-Indian, after much consideration, was adopted as
best designating the community. According to Stocqueler, [118] the
name Eurasian was invented by the Marquis of Hastings. East Indian
is defined by Balfour [119] as "a term which has been adopted by all
classes of India to distinguish the descendants of Europeans and Native
mothers. Other names, such as half-caste, chatikar, and chi-chi, are
derogatory designations. Chattikar is from chitta (trousers) and kar
(a person who uses them). The Muhammadans equally wear trousers, but
concealed by their outer long gowns. The East Indians are also known
as Farangi (Frank), a person of Europe. The humbler East Indians, if
asked their race, reply that they are Wallandez or Oollanday, which is
a modification of Hollandais, the name having been brought down through
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries from the Dutch. East Indians
have, in India, all the rights and privileges of Europeans. Races
with a mixture of European with Asiatic blood possess a proud and
susceptible tone of mind." For the purposes of the Lawrence Asylum,
Ootacamund, the word East Indian is restricted to the children of
European fathers by East Indian or Native mothers, or of East Indian
fathers and mothers, both of whom are the children of European fathers.
By a ruling of the Government of India a few years ago, it was decided
that Eurasians appointed in England to official posts in India are,
if they are not statutory Natives, to be treated as Europeans as
regards the receipt of exchange compensation allowance.
Some Eurasians have, it may be noted, had decorations or knighthood
conferred on them, and risen to the highest position in, and gained
the blue ribbon of, Government service. Others have held, or still
hold, positions of distinction in the various learned professions,
legal, medical, educational, and ecclesiastical.
The influence of the various European nations--Portuguese, Dutch,
British, Danish, and French--which have at different times acquired
territory in peninsular India, is clearly visible in the polyglot
medley of Eurasian surnames, e.g., Gomes, Da Souza, Gonsalvez, Rozario,
Cabral, Da Cruz, Da Costa, Da Silva, Da Souza, Fernandez, Fonseca,
Lazaro, Henriquez, Xavier, Mendonza, Rodriguez, Saldana, Almeyda,
Heldt, Van Spall, Jansen, Augustine, Brisson, Corneille, La Grange,
Lavocat, Pascal, DeVine, Aubert, Ryan, McKertish, Macpherson, Harris,
Johnson, Smith, etc. Little did the early adventurers, in the dawn of
the seventeenth century, think that, as the result of their alliances
with the native women, within three centuries banns of marriage would
be declared weekly in Madras churches between, for example, Ben Jonson
and Alice Almeyda, Emmanuel Henricus and Mary Smith, Augustus Rozario
and Minnie Fonseca, John Harris and Clara Corneille. Yet this has
come to pass, and the Eurasian holds a recognised place among the
half-breed races of the world.
The pedigree of the early Eurasian community is veiled in
obscurity. But the various modes of creation of a half-breed, which
were adopted in those early days, when the sturdy European pioneers
first came in contact with the native females, were probably as
follows:--
A. European man (pure) B. Native woman (pure).
C. Male offspring of A + B (first D. Native woman.
cross)
E. Female offspring of A + B (first F. European man.
cross) G. Native man.
H. Male offspring of C + D I. Cross--female offspring
of A + B.
J. Native woman.
K. Female offspring of C + D L. Cross--male offspring of
A + B.
M. European man.
N. Native man.
The Eurasian half-breed, thus established, has been perpetuated by
a variety of possible combinations:--
European man Eurasian woman.
Native woman.
Eurasian man Native woman.
Eurasian woman.
European woman.
Native man Eurasian woman.
European woman.
In the early days of the British occupation of Madras, the traders and
soldiers, arriving with an inadequate equipment of females, contracted
alliances, regular or irregular, with the women of the country. And
in these early days, when our territorial possessions were keenly
contested with both European and Native enemies, an attempt was made,
under authority from high places, to obtain, through the medium of
the British soldier, and in accordance with the creed that crossing
is an essential means of improving a race, and rendering it vigorous
by the infusion of fresh blood from a separate stock, a good cross,
which should be available for military purposes. Later on, as the
number of the British settlers increased, connexions, either with
the Native women, or with the females of the recently established
Eurasian type, were kept up owing to the difficulty of communication
with the mother-country, and consequent difficulty in securing English
brides. Of these barbaric days the detached or semi-detached bungalows
in the spacious grounds of the old private houses in Madras remain
as a memorial. At the present day the conditions of life in India
are, as the result of steamer traffic, very different, and far more
wholesome. The Eurasian man seeks a wife as a rule among his own
community; and, in this manner, the race is mainly maintained.
The number of Eurasians within the limits of the Madras Presidency
was returned, at the census, 1891, as 26,643. But on this point I
must call Mr. H. A. Stuart, the Census Commissioner, into the witness
box. "The number of Eurasians," he writes, "is 26,643, which is 20.76
per cent. more than the number returned in 1881." The figures for
the last three enumerations are given in the following statement:--
Year. Total. Males. Females.
1871 26,460 13,091 13,359
1881 21,892 10,969 10,923
1891 26,643 13,141 13,502
"It will be seen that, between 1871 and 1881, there was a great
decrease, and that the numbers in 1891 are slightly higher
than they were twenty years ago. The figures, however, are most
untrustworthy. The cause is not far to seek; many persons, who are
really Natives, claim to be Eurasians, and some who are Eurasians
return themselves as Europeans. It might be thought that the errors
due to these circumstances would be fairly constant, but the district
figures show that this cannot be the case. Take Malabar, for example,
which has the largest number of Eurasians after Madras, and where
the division between Native Christians with European names and
people of real mixed race is very shadowy. In 1871 there were in this
district 5,413 Eurasians; in 1881 the number had apparently fallen to
1,676; while in 1891 it had again risen to 4,193, or, if we include
South-east Wynaad, as we should do, to 4,439. It is to be regretted
that trustworthy statistics cannot be obtained, for the question
whether the true Eurasian community is increasing or decreasing is of
considerable scientific and administrative importance. The Eurasians
form but a very small proportion of the community, for there is only
one Eurasian in every 1,337 of the population of the Madras Presidency,
and it is more than probable that a considerable proportion of those
returned as Eurasians are in reality pure Natives who have embraced the
Christian religion, taken an English or Portuguese name, and adopted
the European dress and mode of living. In the matter of education, or
at least elementary education, they are more advanced than any other
class of the community, and compare favourably with the population
of any country in the world. They live for the most part in towns,
nearly one-half of their number being found in the city of Madras."
In connection with the fact that, at times of census, Native Christians
and Pariahs, who masquerade in European clothes, return themselves
as Eurasians, and vice versâ, it may be accepted that some benefit
must be derived by the individual in return for the masking of his or
her nationality. And it has been pointed out to me that (as newspaper
advertisements testify) many ladies will employ a Native ayah rather
than a Eurasian nurse, and that some employers will take Eurasian
clerks into their service, but not Native Christians. It occasionally
happens that pure-bred Natives, with European name and costume,
successfully pass themselves off as Eurasians, and are placed on
a footing of equality with Eurasians in the matter of diet, being
allowed the luxury of bread and butter, coffee, etc.
Mr. Stuart had at his command no special statistics of the occupations
resorted to by Eurasians, but states that the majority of them are
clerks, while very few obtain their livelihood by agriculture. In
the course of my investigations in the city of Madras, the following
occupations were recorded:--
Accountant.
Attendant, Lunatic Asylum.
Baker.
Bandsman.
Bill collector.
Blacksmith.
Boarding-house keeper.
Boatswain.
Boiler smith.
Carpenter.
Chemist's assistant.
Clerk, Government.
Clerk, commercial.
Commission agent.
Compositor.
Compounder.
Contractor.
Coppersmith.
Crane attendant, harbour.
Draftsman.
Electric tram driver.
Electric tram inspector.
Engine-driver, ice factory.
Evangelist.
Filer.
Fireman.
Fitter.
Hammerer.
Harness-maker.
Jewel-smith.
Joiner.
Labourer.
Livery stable-keeper.
Mechanic.
Moulder.
Painter.
Petition writer.
Police Inspector.
Porter.
Printer.
Proof-reader.
Railway--
Auditor.
Chargeman.
Engine-driver.
Engineer.
Goods clerk.
Guard.
Locomotive Inspector.
Parcels clerk.
Prosecuting Inspector.
Shunter.
Signaller.
Station-master.
Storekeeper.
Ticket collector.
Tool-keeper.
Block signaller.
Carriage examiner.
Reporter.
Rivetter.
Saddler.
Schoolmaster.
Sexton.
Spring-smith.
Stereotyper.
Steward.
Telegraph clerk.
Watchmaker.
Watchman.
In the Census Report, 1901, the following statistics of the occupation
of 5,718 Eurasians in Madras city (4,083), Malabar (1,149) and
Chingleput (486) are given. Most of those in the last of these three
reside in Perambur, just outside the Madras municipal limits:--
Number of
workers.
Endowments, scholarships, etc. 813
Pensioners 438
Railway clerks, station-masters, guards, etc. 427
Tailors 378
Merchants' and shop-keepers' clerks 297
Railway operatives 262
Teachers 243
Public service 212
Private clerks 211
Mechanics (not railway) 203
Carpenters 167
Telegraph department 136
Medical department 136
Cooks, grooms, etc. 132
Printing presses: workmen and subordinates 106
Independent means 75
Allowances from patrons, relatives and friends 72
Survey and Public Works department 66
Coffee and tea estate clerks and coolies 60
Inmates of asylums 58
Railway porters, etc. 57
Musicians and actors 54
Harbour service 50
Workmen, gun carriage factories 48
Postal department 48
Non-commissioned officers, Army 46
Mendicants 45
Midwives 42
Priests, ministers, etc. 41
Tramway officials 35
Sellers of hides and bones, shoe and boot makers, 33
tanners, etc.
Local and Municipal service 30
Shipping clerks, etc. 29
Brokers and agents 28
Lawyers' clerks 26
Merchants and shop-keepers 24
Landholders 24
Watch and clock makers 23
Money-lenders, etc. 22
Military clerks 21
Blacksmiths 18
Chemists and druggists 16
Prisoners 15
Pleaders 12
Brass and copper smiths 12
Inmates of convents, etc. 11
Ship's officers, etc. 10
Prostitutes 10
Authors, editors, etc. 10
Cultivating tenants 8
Club managers, etc. 8
Hotel-keepers, etc. 7
Minor occupations 363
As bearing on the subject of Eurasian marriage, I am enabled,
through the courtesy of a railway chaplain and the chaplain of one
of the principal churches in the city of Madras, to place on record
the following statistics abstracted from the registers. It may, in
explanation, be noted that M indicates the bridegroom, F the bride,
and W widow or widower remarriage:--
(a) Railway.
=======+========+========+========+========+=======
M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F.
-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------
25 | 18 | 34 | 19 | 24 | 18
21 | 15 | 27 | 16 | 35 | 21
24 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 24 | 19
21 | 14 | 22 | 18 | 22 | 18
22 | 19 | 25 | 16 | 21 | 20
23 | 17 | 22 | 18 | 32 | 19
23 | 14 | 25 | 16 | 26 | 21
23 | 18 | 23 | 21 | 25 | 18
25 | 16 | W 42 | 18 | 33 | 19
W 45 | 19 | 37 | 28 | 20 | 15
25 | 23 | 25 | 19 | 25 | 18
24 | 17 | 24 | 17 | 24 | 20
22 | 17 | 26 | 16 | 32 | 19
W 42 | 18 | 24 | 19 | 27 | 18
40 | 16 | 23 | | |
23 | 22 | 23 | | |
=======+========+========+========+========+======
(b) Madras City.
========+========+========+========+========+======
M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F.
--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------
33 | 26 | 28 | 19 | 27 | 18
W 40 | 18 | 29 | 20 | W 39 | 19
23 | 26 | 23 | 21 | 27 | 31
23 | 23 | 26 | 21 | 23 | 14
25 | 21 | 22 | 18 | 33 | 24
29 | W 24 | 25 | 17 | 25 | 18
31 | 19 | 28 | W 35 | 25 | 18
28 | 25 | 24 | 18 | 21 | 19
26 | 17 | 26 | 19 | 24 | 20
23 | 15 | 32 | 26 | 26 | 19
23 | 18 | 26 | 18 | W 46 | W 39
23 | 19 | 27 | 18 | 23 | 25
30 | 24 | 25 | 21 | 22 | 20
W 38 | 17 | 23 | 16 | 32 | 17
21 | 17 | 27 | 19 | 21 | 16
26 | 21 | 40 | 16 | 21 | W 30
W 53 | W 43 | 28 | 15 | W 40 | 17
28 | 20 | 31 | 24 | 25 | 24
29 | 21 | 27 | 25 | 30 | 20
W 43 | W 36 | 29 | 17 | W 43 | 23
20 | 16 | 24 | W 30 | 22 | 18
22 | 18 | W 42 | W 34 | |
========+========+========+========+========+=======
Analysing these figures, with the omission of remarriages, we obtain
the following results:--
(a) Railway.
Bridegroom. Bride.
Average age 25-26 18-19
Mean above average 28-29 19-20
Mean below average 23-24 16-17
Range of age 40-20 28-14
(b) Madras City.
Bridegroom. Bride.
Average age 26-27 19-20
Mean above average 28-29 21-22
Mean below average 23-24 17-18
Range of age 40-20 31-14
From the analysis of a hundred male cases in Madras, in which enquiries
were made with reference to the married state, in individuals ranging
in age from 21 to 50, with an average age of 33, I learn that 74 were
married; that 141 male and 130 female children had been born to them;
and that 26, whose average age was 25, were unmarried. The limits of
age of the men at the time of marriage were 32 and 16; of their wives
25 and 13. The greatest number of children born to a single pair
was 10. In only three cases, out of the seventy-four, was there no
issue. In fifty cases, which were examined, of married men, with an
average age of 34, 207 children had been born, of whom 91 had died,
for the most part in early life, from 'fever' and other causes.
The racial position of Eurasians, and the proportion of black blood
in their veins, are commonly indicated, not by the terms mulatto,
quadroon, octoroon, sambo (or zambo), etc., but in fractions of a
rupee. The European pure breed being represented by Rs. 0-0-0, and
the Native pure breed by 16 annas (= 1 rupee), the resultant cross is,
by reference to colour and other tests, gauged as being half an anna in
the rupee (faint admixture of black blood), approaching European types;
eight annas (half and half); fifteen annas (predominant admixture of
black blood), approaching Native types, etc.
The Eurasian body being enveloped in clothes, it was not till they
stripped before me, for the purpose of anthropometry, that I became
aware how prevalent is the practice of tattooing among the male
members of the community. Nearly all the hundred and thirty men
(of the lower classes) whom I examined were, in fact, tattooed to a
greater or less extent on the breasts, upper arms, forearms, wrists,
back of the hands, or shoulders. The following varied selection of
devices in blue, with occasional red, is recorded in my case-book:--
Anchor.
Ballet girl with flag, stars and stripes.
Bracelets round wrists.
Burmese lady carrying umbrella.
Bird.
Bugles.
Conventional artistic devices.
Cross and anchor.
Crown and flags.
Crossed swords and pistols.
Dancing-girl.
Dancing-girl playing with cobras.
Elephant.
Floral devices.
Flowers in pot.
Hands joined in centre of a heart.
Hands joined, and clasping a flower.
Heart.
Heart and cross.
Initials of the individual, his friends, relatives, and inamorata,
sometimes within a heart or laurel wreath.
Lizard.
Mercy (word on left breast).
Mermaid.
Portraits of the man and his lady-love.
Queen Alexandra.
Royal arms and banners.
Sailing boat.
Scorpion.
Solomon's seal.
Steam boat.
Svastika (Buddhist emblem).
Watteau shepherdess.
The most elaborate patterns were executed by Burmese tattooers. The
initials of the individual's Christian and surnames, which
preponderated over other devices, were, as a rule, in Roman, but
occasionally in Tamil characters.
In colour the Eurasians afford examples of the entire colour scale,
through sundry shades of brown and yellow, to pale white, and even
florid or rosy. The pilous or hairy system was, in the cases recorded
by me, uniformly black. The colour of the iris, like that of the
skin, is liable to great variation, from lustrous black to light,
with a predominance of dark tints. Blue was observed only in a
solitary instance.
The Eurasian resists exposure to the sun better than the European,
and, while many wear solah topis (pith sun-hats), it is by no means
uncommon to see a Eurasian walking about in the middle of a hot day
with his head protected only by a straw hat or cap.
The average height of the Eurasians examined by me in Madras, according
to my measurements of 130 subjects, is 166.6 cm. (5 feet 5-1/2 inches),
and compares as follows with that of the English and various Native
classes inhabiting the city of Madras:--
cm.
English 170.8
Eurasians 166.6
Muhammadans 164.5
Brahmans 162.5
Pallis 162.5
Vellalas 162.4
Paraiyans 161.9
The height, as might be expected, comes between that of the two
parent stocks, European and Native, and had, in the cases examined,
the wide range of 30.8 cm., the difference between a maximum of 183.8
cm. (6 feet) and a minimum of 153 cm. (5 feet).
The average length of the head was 18.6 cm. and the breadth 14.1
cm. And it is to be noted that, in 63 per cent. of the cases examined,
the breadth exceeded 14 cm.:--
Length. Breadth. Index.
cm. cm.
Brahmans 18.6 14.2 76.5
Eurasians 18.6 14.1 76
Muhammadans 18.7 13.9 76.1
Vellalas 18.6 13.8 74.1
Paraiyans 18.6 13.7 73.6
Pallis 18.6 13.6 73
The breadth of the head is very clearly brought out by the following
analysis of forty subjects belonging to each of the above six classes,
which shows at a glance the preponderance of heads exceeding 14
cm. in breadth in Eurasians, Brahmans, and (to a less extent)
in Muhammadans:--
12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16
cm. cm. cm. cm.
Eurasians ... 11 27 2
Brahmans 1 9 27 3
Muhammadans 2 17 21 ...
Vellalas ... 24 16 ...
Paraiyans ... 27 13 ...
Pallis 3 30 7 ...
The head of a cross-breed, it has been said, generally takes after the
father, and the breadth of the Eurasian head is a persisting result
of European male influence. The effect of this influence is clearly
demonstrated in the following cases, all the result of re-crossing
between British men and Eurasian women:--
Length. Breadth.
cm. cm.
19 14.5
18.4 14.2
19.2 14.2
20.2 14.6
19 14.6
19.4 14.3
---- ----
Average 19.2 14.4
Eurasian average 18.6 14.1
The character of the nose is, as those who have studied ethnology in
India will appreciate, a most important factor in the differentiation
of race, tribe, and class, and in the determination of pedigree. "No
one," Mr. Risley writes, [120] "can have glanced at the literature
of the subject, and in particular, at the Védic accounts of the Aryan
advance, without being struck by the frequent references to the noses
of the people whom the Aryans found in possession of the plains of
India. So impressed were the Aryans with the shortcomings of their
enemies' noses that they often spoke of them as 'the noseless ones,'
and their keen perception of the importance of this feature seems
almost to anticipate the opinion of Dr. Collignon that the nasal index
ranks higher as a distinctive character than the stature or even the
cephalic index itself."
In the subjoined table, based on the examination of forty members of
each class, the high proportion of leptorhine Eurasians, Muhammadans,
and Vellalas, with nasal indices ranging between 60 and 70, is at
once manifest, and requires no comment:--
60-70. 70-80. 80-90. 90-100.
Eurasians 19 17 3 1
Muhammadans 17 18 4 1
Vellalas 14 22 3 1
Pallis 3 25 9 3
Paraiyans 2 17 19 2
I pass on to the Eurasians of the west coast. My visit to Calicut,
the capital of the Malabar district, was by chance coincident with the
commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary of the arrival of Vasco
da Gama at Calicut after his discovery of the sea-route from Europe
to India. Concerning the origin of the Indo-Portuguese half-breed, I
learn [121] that, on his return from the recapture of Goa, Albuquerque
brought with him the women he had carried away when the Portuguese
were driven out of the place. As soon as affairs became tolerably
settled again at that port, he had them converted to Christianity,
and married them to Portuguese men. No less than 450 of his men were
thus married in Goa, and others who desired to follow their example
were so numerous that Albuquerque had great difficulty in granting
their requests. The marriage of Portuguese men to native women had
already been sanctioned by Dom Manuel, but this privilege was only
to be conceded to men of proved character, and who had rendered good
service. Albuquerque, however, extended the permission to many far
beyond what he was authorised to do, and he took care that the women
so married were the daughters of the principal men of the land. This
he did in the hope of inducing them to become Christians. To those who
were married Albuquerque allotted lands, houses and cattle, so as to
give them a start in life, and all the landed property which had been
in possession of the Moorish mosques and Hindu pagodas he gave to the
principal churches of the city, which he dedicated to Santa Catherina.
The names of some members of the community at Calicut recalled to
mind Pedro Alvares Cabral, who anchored before Calicut in 1500,
and established a factory at Cochin; the first Portuguese Governor,
Dom Franciso de Almeida; André Furtado de Mendonca, who concluded
a treaty with the king of Calicut; and many others, whose exploits
are handed down to posterity in the Indo-Portuguese archives. Though
Portuguese names persist at the present day, it does not follow of
necessity that their owners have any Portuguese blood in their veins,
for some are merely descendants of Native converts to Christianity,
or of household slaves of Portuguese officers. "In Malabar," writes the
Census Commissioner, 1881, "there is a section of Europeanized Native
Christians--Goa Roman Catholics--some of whom have adopted European
dress and customs; and in all districts the popular interpretation
of the word Eurasian is very liberal. There are many Pariahs and
Native Christians, who have adopted a travesty of European clothes,
and who would return themselves as Eurasians, if allowed to do so."
A social distinction is made at Calicut between Eurasians and
East Indians. With a view at clearing up the grounds on which this
distinction is based, my interpreter was called on to submit a note on
the subject, which arrived couched in language worthy of Mark Twain. I,
therefore, reproduce it in the original Indo-Anglian.
"Eurasians are classified to those who stand second in the list of
Europeans and those born in any part of India, and who are the Pedigree
of European descendants, being born of father European and mother East
Indian, and notwithstanding those who can prove themselves as really
good Indian descendants, such as mother and father of the same sex,
therefore these are called Eurasians.
"East Indians are those offsprings of Christians of the East, and
they atimes gather the offsprings of Eurasians to the entering their
marriage to the East Indian females in the East Indian community,
thereby they are called East Indians.
"Native Christians are those of Hindu nations converted into Christians
by their embracing the poles of Christianity. All Hindus thereby
converted are made Christians by a second Baptism are called Native
Christians.
"Coaster. They are alluded to those who belong to the Coast, and who
come from a country that has a Sea Coast into that country that has
not got a Sea Coast is therefore called a Coaster. A very rude word."
Speaking in general terms, it may be said that Eurasians are of greater
stature, and possess skins of lighter hue than the East Indians,
who, as the result of intermarriage with Native Christian women,
have reverted in the direction of the Native type.
The Eurasians examined by me at Calicut, nearly all of whom were Roman
Catholics, were earning a livelihood in the following capacities:--
Bandsman. Municipal inspector.
Boot-maker. Musician.
Bugler. Petition-writer.
Carpenter. Police constable.
Clerk. Railway guard.
Coffee estate writer. Schoolmaster.
Compositor. Tailor.
Copyist. Tin-smith.
Mechanic. Weaver.
As in Madras, so in Malabar, tattooing is very prevalent among the
male members of the community, and the devices are characterised by a
predominance of religious emblems and snakes. The following patterns
are recorded in my notes:--
Bangle on wrist.
Boat.
Bird (the Holy Ghost).
Chalice.
Christ crucified.
Conventional and geometrical designs.
Cross.
Cross and crown.
Cross and heart.
Cross and I.N.R.I.
Crossed swords.
Fish.
Flags.
Flower.
Flower and leaves.
Initials.
Ladder.
Sacred heart.
Snake encircling forearms.
Snake coiled round forearm.
Solomon's seal.
Steam boat.
There are, in North Malabar, many individuals, whose fathers were
European. Writing, in 1887, concerning the Tiyan community, Mr. Logan
states [122] that "the women are not as a rule excommunicated if
they live with Europeans, and the consequence is that there has
been among them a large admixture of European blood, and the caste
itself has been materially raised in the social scale. In appearance
some of the women are almost as fair as Europeans." On this point,
the Report of the Malabar Marriage Commission, 1894, states that "in
the early days of British rule, the Tiyan women incurred no social
disgrace by consorting with Europeans, and, up to the last generation,
if the Sudra girl could boast of her Brahmin lover, the Tiyan girl
could show more substantial benefits from her alliance with a white
man of the ruling race. Happily the progress of education, and the
growth of a wholesome public opinion, have made shameful the position
of a European's concubine; and both races have thus been saved from
a mode of life equally demoralizing to each."
During a visit to Ootacamund on the Nilgiri hills, I was enabled
to examine the physique of the elder boys at the Lawrence Asylum,
the object of which is "to provide for children of European and
East Indian officers and soldiers of Her Majesty's Army (British and
Native), and of Europeans and East Indians in the Medical Service,
military and civil, who are serving, or have served within the limits
of the Presidency of Madras, a refuge from the debilitating effects of
a tropical climate, and from the serious drawbacks to the well-being
of children incidental to a barrack life; to afford for them a plain,
practical, and religious education; and to train them for employment
in different trades, pursuits, and industries." As the result of
examination of thirty-three Eurasian boys, I was able to testify to
the excellence of their physical condition. [123] A good climate, with
a mean annual temperature of 58°, good food, and physical training,
have produced a set of boys well-nourished and muscular, with good
chests, shoulders, and body weight.
Some final words are necessary on liability to certain diseases,
as a differentiating character between Eurasians and Europeans. The
Census Commissioner, 1891, states that Eurasians seem to be peculiarly
liable to insanity and leprosy. To these should be added elephantiasis
(filarial disease), concerning which Surgeon-Major J. Maitland writes
as follows [124] "Almost all the old writers on elephantiasis believed
that the dark races were more susceptible to the disease than white
people; but it is extremely doubtful if this is the case. It is true
that, in those countries where the disease is endemic, the proportion
of persons affected is much greater among the blacks than among the
whites; but it has to be borne in mind that the habits of the former
render them much more liable to the disease than the latter. The
majority of the white people, being more civilised, are more careful
regarding the purity of their drinking water than the Natives,
who are proverbially careless in this respect. In India, although
it is comparatively rare to meet with Europeans affected with the
disease, yet such cases are from time to time recorded. Eurasians
are proportionately more liable to the disease than pure Europeans,
but not so much so as Natives. Doctors Patterson and Hall of Bahia
[125] examined the blood of 309 persons in that place, and found the
following proportions affected with filaria; of whites, 1 in 26; of
blacks, 1 in 10-1/4; of the mixed race, 1 in 9. Doctor Laville [126]
states that, in the Society Islands, out of a total of 13 European and
American residents, 11 were affected with elephantiasis. Taking all
these facts into consideration, together with our knowledge of the
pathology of the disease, I do not think we are justified in saying
that the black races are more susceptible to the disease than white
people. On the other hand, owing to the nature of their habits, they
are much more liable to the diseases than are the white races." During
the five years 1893-97, ninety-eight Eurasians suffering from filarial
diseases were admitted into the General Hospital, Madras.
To Colonel W. A. Lee, I.M.S., Superintendent of the Government Leper
Asylum, Madras, I am indebted for the following note on leprosy in its
relation to the Eurasian and European communities. "Europeans are by
no means immune to the disease, which, in the majority of instances,
is contracted by them through coitus with leprous individuals. Leprosy
is one of the endemic diseases of tropical and sub-tropical countries,
to the risk of contracting which Europeans who settle on the plains
of India, and their offspring from unions with the inhabitants of
the land, as well as the descendants of the latter, become exposed,
since, by the force of circumstances, they are thrown into intimate
contact with the Native population. The Eurasian community furnishes
a considerable number of lepers, and the disease, once introduced
into a family, has a tendency to attack several of its members, and
to reappear in successive generations, occasionally skipping one--a
feature akin to the biological phenomenon known as atavism, but of
perhaps doubtful analogy, for the possibility of a fresh infection
or inoculation has always to be borne in mind. There are numerous
instances of such hereditary transmission among the patients,
both Native and Eurasian, in the Leper Hospital. The spread of
the disease by contagion is slow, the most intimate contact even,
such as that between parent and child, often failing to effect
inoculation. Still there is much evidence in support of its being
inoculable by cohabitation, prolonged contact, wearing the same
clothing, sharing the dwelling, using the same cooking and eating
utensils, and even by arm-to-arm vaccination. Influenced by a belief in
the last mentioned cause, vaccination was formerly regarded with much
suspicion and dislike by Eurasians in Madras. But their apprehensions
on this score have abated since animal vaccine was substituted for the
humanised material. It has also for long been a popular belief among
the same class that the suckling of their infants by infected Native
wet-nurses is a common source of the disease. Attempts to reproduce
leprosy from supposed pure cultures of the leprosy bacillus have
invariably failed, and this strengthens the belief that the disease
would die out if sufferers from the tubercular or mixed forms were
segregated, and intermarriage with members of known leprous families
interdicted. Experience shows that, where such marriages are freely
entered into, a notable prevalence of the disease results, as at
Pondicherry for example, where the so-called creole population is
said to contain a large proportion of lepers from this cause."
Writing concerning the prevalence of insanity in different classes,
the Census Commissioner, 1891, states that "it appears from the
statistics that insanity is far more prevalent among the Eurasians
than among any other class. The proportion is 1 insane person in
every 410. For England and Wales the proportion is 1 in every 307,
and it is significant that the section of the population of Madras,
which shows the greatest liability to insanity, is that which has
an admixture of European blood. I have no information regarding the
prevalence of insanity among Eurasians for any other province or
State in India except Mysore, and there the proportion is 1 in 306."
For the following tabular statement of admissions into the Government
Lunatic Asylum, Madras, I am indebted to Captain C. H. Leet-Palk,
I.M.S.:--
======+=================+=================+================
| Eurasians. | Natives. | Europeans.
-- |-----------------|-----------------|----------------
| Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female.
------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+--------
1893 | 6 | 7 | 110 | 55 | 15 | 4
1894 | 8 | 6 | 104 | 28 | 19 | 1
1895 | 10 | 6 | 113 | 18 | 11 | 4
1896 | 2 | 4 | 82 | 17 | 5 | ...
1897 | 3 | 3 | 84 | 18 | 14 | 1
======+=======+=========+=======+=========+=======+========
Leaving out of question the Europeans, in whom, owing to the
preponderance of the male sex in Madras, a greater number of male than
female lunatics is to be expected, and considering only Eurasians
and Natives, the far higher proportion of female as compared with
male lunatics in the Eurasian than in the Native community, is
very conspicuous. Taking, for example, the numbers remaining in the
Asylum in 1894. Whereas the proportion of Eurasian males to females
was 33:31, that of Natives was 30.6:6.8; and the high proportion of
female Eurasian inmates was visible in other years. The subject seems
to be one worthy of further study by those competent to deal with it.
G
Gabit.--A Bombay fishing caste returned at the census, 1901. To Malpe
in the South Canara district, during the fishing season, come fishermen
with a flotilla of keeled and outrigged sailing boats from Ratnagiri
in the Bombay Presidency. Hither also come fishermen from Goa. The
reasons given by the Ratnagiri fishermen for coming southward are that
fish are not so abundant off their own coast, competition is keener,
and salt more expensive. Moreover, the crystals of Bombay salt are
too large for successful curing, and "do not agree with the fish,
of which the flesh is turned black." If, they said contemptuously,
they were to sun-dry fish by the local method, their people would
laugh at them for bringing back, not fish, but dried cow-dung for
fuel. The Ratnagiri boats go well out of sight of land to the fishing
ground, where they catch seir, pomfret, cat-fish (Arius), and other
big fish near the surface, and sharks in deeper water. If the fishing
is not good near Malpe, they may go south as far as Mangalore. To
the Ratnagiri fishermen the seir (Cybium) is the most valuable and
lucrative fish. Under existing arrangements, by which clashing of
interests is avoided, the fishery at Malpe is divided into two zones,
viz., the deep sea fished by the large Ratnagiri boats, and the
shallow littoral water by the smaller local and Goa boats.
Gadaba.--The Gadabas are a tribe of agriculturists, coolies, and
hunters in the Vizagapatam district. Hunting is said to be gradually
decreasing, as many of the forests are now preserved, and shooting
without a license is forbidden. Men sometimes occupy themselves in
felling trees, catching birds and hares, and tracking and beating game
for sportsmen. The Gadabas are also employed as bearers in the hills,
and carry palanquins. There is a settlement of them on the main road
between Sembliguda and Koraput, in a village where they are said to
have been settled by a former Raja expressly for such service. It
is said that the Gadabas will not touch a horse, possibly because
they are palanquin-bearers, and have the same objection to the rival
animal that a cabman has for a motor-car.
There is a tradition that the tribe owes its name to the fact that
its ancestors emigrated from the banks of the Godabari (Godavari)
river, and settled at Nandapur, the former capital of the Rajas
of Jeypore. The Gadabas have a language of their own, of which a
vocabulary is given in the Vizagapatam Manual. This language is
included by Mr. G. A. Grierson [127] in the Munda linguistic family.
The tribe is apparently divided into five sections, called Bodo (big)
or Gutob, Parenga, Olaro, Kaththiri or Kaththara, and Kapu. Of these,
the last two are settled in the plains, and say that they are Bodo
and Olaro Gadabas who migrated thither from the hills. As among the
Gadabas, so among the Savaras, there is a section which has settled
on the plains, and adopted Kapu as its name. In the Madras Census
Report, 1891, nearly a thousand Gadabas are returned as belonging to
the Chenchu sub-division. Chenchu is the name of a separate jungle
tribe in the Telugu country, and I have been unable to confirm the
existence of a Chenchu sub-division among the Gadabas.
In the Madras Census Report, 1871, Mr. H. G. Turner states that "very
much akin to the Gadabas are a class called Kerang Kapus. They will
not admit any connexion with them; but, as their language is almost
identical, such gainsaying cannot be permitted them. They are called
Kerang Kapu from the circumstance of their women weaving cloths,
which they weave from the fibre of a jungle shrub called Kerang
(Calotropis gigantea)." Mr. H. A. Stuart remarks [128] that "the
Kapu Gadabas are possibly the Kerang Kapus mentioned by Mr. Turner
as akin to the Gadabas, for I find no mention of the caste under the
full name of Kerang Kapu, nor is Kerang found as a sub-division of
either Kapu or Gadaba." Writing concerning the numeral system of the
Kerang Kapus, Mr. Turner observes that it runs thus: Moi, Umbar,
Jugi, O, Malloi, Turu, Gu, Tammar, Santing, Goa, and for eleven
(1 and following numbers), they prefix the word Go, e.g., Gommoi,
Gombaro, etc. The Kerang Kapus can count up to nineteen, but have no
conception of twenty. According to Mr. W. Francis, the only tribe on
the hills which has this system of notation is the Bonda Poraja. The
Gadabas have very similar names for the first five numerals; but,
after that, lapse into Oriya, e.g., sat, at, no, das, etc. The
Bonda Poraja numerals recorded by Mr. Francis are muyi, baar, gii,
oo, moloi, thiri, goo, thamam, and so on up to nineteen, after which
they cannot count. This system, as he points out, agrees with the one
described by Mr. Turner as belonging to the Kerang Kapus. The Gutob
Gadaba numerals recorded by Mr. C. A. Henderson include muititti (1 +
a hand), and martitti (2 + a hand).
Some Gadaba women wear a bustle or dress improver, called irre or
kitte. This article of attire is accounted for by the following
tradition. "A goddess visited a Gadaba village incognito, and asked
leave of one of the women to rest on a cot. She was brusquely told that
the proper seat for beggars was the floor, and she consequently decreed
that thenceforth all Gadaba women should wear a bustle to remind them
to avoid churlishness." [129] The Gadaba female cloths are manufactured
by themselves from cotton thread and the fibre of silloluvada or ankudi
chettu (Holarrhena antidysenterica) and boda luvada or bodda chettu
(Ficus glomerata). The fibre is carefully dried, and dyed blue or
reddish-brown. The edges of the cloth are white, a blue strip comes
next, while the middle portion is reddish-brown with narrow stripes
of white or blue at regular intervals. The Gadabas account for the
dress of their women by the following legend. When Rama, during his
banishment, was wandering in the forests of Dandaka, his wife Sita
accompanied him in spite of his entreaties to the contrary. It was one
of the cruel terms of his stepmother Kaika that Rama should wear only
clothing made from jungle fibre, before leaving the capital. According
to the Hindu religion, a virtuous wife must share both the sorrows
and joys of her lord. Consequently Sita followed the example of Rama,
and wore the same kind of clothing. They then left the capital amidst
the loud lamentation of the citizens. During their wanderings, they met
some Gadaba women, who mocked and laughed at Sita. Whereupon she cursed
them, and condemned them to wear no other dress but the cloth made of
fibre. In a note on the Gadabas, [130] Mr. L. Lakshminarayan writes
that "although mill-prepared cloths are fast replacing house-spun
cloths in all communities, yet, in the case of the Gadabas, there
is a strong superstition which prevents the use of cloths prepared
outside, particularly in regard to the cloths worn by their women. The
legend (about Sita) is fully believed by the Gadabas, and hence their
religious adherence to their particular cloth. At the time of marriage,
it is absolute that the Gadaba maiden should wear this fibre-made
cloth, else misfortune will ruin the family. A bundle of twigs is
brought, and the stems freed of leaves are bruised and twisted to
loosen the bark, and are then dried for two or three days, after which
the bark is ripped out and beaten down smooth with heavy sticks,
to separate the bark from the fibre. The fibre is then collected,
and combed down smooth, and spun into a tolerably fine twist. It
is this twist that the Gadaba maiden weaves in her crude loom,
and prepares from it her marriage sari. According to a good custom
among these people, a Gadaba maiden must learn to weave her cloths
before she becomes eligible for marriage. And no Gadaba ever thinks
of marrying a wife who cannot prepare her own cloths. Men can use
cotton and other cloths, whereas women cannot do so, for they are
under the curse of Sita. But the passion for fineries in woman is
naturally so strong that the modern Gadaba woman is now taking the
liberty of putting cotton thread for the woof and ankudu fibre for
the warp, and thus is able to turn out a more comfortable and finer
cloth. But some old crones informed me that this mixed cloth is not
so auspicious as that prepared wholly from the fibre."
Some Gadaba women wear immense earrings made of long pieces of brass
wire wound into a circle, which hang down from a hole in the ear,
and sometimes reach to the shoulders. The wire is sold in the shandy
(market) at so much a cubit. The head-dress of some of the women
consists of a chaplet of Oliva shells, and strings of beads of various
sizes and colours, or the red and black berries of Abrus precatorius,
with pendants which hang over the forehead. The women also wear
bead necklaces, to which a coin may sometimes be seen attached
as a pendant. Bracelets and rings are as a rule made of brass or
copper, but sometimes silver rings are worn. Toe-rings and brass or
silver anklets are considered fashionable ornaments. Among the Olaro
Gadabas, the wearing of brass anklets by a woman indicates that she is
married. For teaching backward children to walk, the Gadabas employ
a bamboo stick split so as to make a fork, the prongs of which are
connected by a cross-bar. The apparatus is held by the mother, and
the child, clutching the cross-bar, toddles along.
Among the Bodo and Olaro sections, the following septs occur:--Kora
(sun), Nag (cobra), Bhag (tiger), Kira (parrot), and Gollari
(monkey). The Gadabas who have settled in the plains seem to have
forgotten the sept names, but will not injure or kill certain animals,
e.g., the cobra.