Bones (previously boiled for their grease) are introduced into retorts
similar to those used in gas works, and heat being applied, the volatile
products are conveyed away by iron pipes to cisterns where the condensable
portion is collected. As soon as the process of distillation is finished,
the solid residuum in the retorts, while still red hot, is removed through
their lower ends into wrought-iron canisters, which are instantly closed
by air-tight covers and luted over. These are then raised to the ground by
a crane, and set aside to cool.
The bones, having been carbonised, are ground in a mill, and the resulting
coarse powder, sorted by sieves into two kinds, one, granular, somewhat
resembling gunpowder, for decolorising liquids, and the other, quite fine,
to be used as a pigment. The first is sold under the name of animal
charcoal; the second as bone or ivory black. The latter and other fine
varieties of animal charcoal are fully described under the head of BLACK
PIGMENTS.
_Uses, &c._ This crude animal charcoal possesses the valuable property of
taking lime and other saline matter from syrups and other aqueous
solutions, especially organic ones, at the same time that it decolours
them. Its power as a decoloriser may be tested by adding it to a solution
of brown sugar or of molasses, or to water containing 1/1000 part of
indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid. The test should be made in a small
glass tube. By well washing and carefully reburning it, this charcoal may
be used any number of times. As a decoloriser and deodoriser, animal
charcoal is vastly superior to vegetable charcoal.
Dr Stenhouse has invented a charcoal respirator to cover over the mouth
and nostrils of a person going into an infected atmosphere. Charcoal is
also used with excellent effect to prevent the escape of noxious vapours
and offensive effluvia from the ventilating openings of sewers. The
charcoal condenses and oxidises the escaping sewer gas in its pores. Dr
Garrod has proposed animal charcoal as a general antidote in cases of
poisoning.
PREPARED ANIMAL CHARCOAL. Hydrochloric acid, 1 lb.; water, 1 pint; mix,
add bone black, 7 lbs.; make a paste; in 2 or 3 days stir in boiling
water, 1 quart; and the next day wash it with fresh water until the
washings cease to affect litmus paper or a solution of carbonate of
sodium; then collect it in a cloth, and drain, press, and dry it; lastly,
heat it to redness, as before. Used to decolour syrups, &c.; and
occasionally by the distillers and rectifiers.
The most powerful charcoal is prepared by calcining blood, and well
washing the residue, and which is the method of the last 'London
Pharmacop[oe]ia.' The B. P. directs it to be made by burning bones in a
closed vessel.
_Concluding Remarks._ Animal charcoal, however prepared, if intended to be
used as a deodoriser or decoloriser, should be kept thoroughly excluded
from the air, as by exposure it loses all its valuable properties, and
becomes absolutely inert. Freshly burnt charcoal is therefore to be
employed whenever it can be obtained.
=Charcoal, Wood.= _Syn._ VEG'ETABLE CHARCOAL; CAR'BO LIG'NI, L. The
residue obtained after heating wood without access of air to about 572°
Fahr. It is extremely porous, and retains the structure of the wood from
which it is derived. It consists essentially of carbon and of the fixed or
inorganic matter which exists in wood; but if carbonisation be imperfectly
effected, it may contain a sensible amount of hydrogen.
Charcoal burning is effected in the open air in piles or stacks provided
with a yielding cover, in pits, in closed chambers of brick or stone, and
in iron retorts heated externally like common gas retorts. The latter
method is only practised by the manufacturers of pyroligneous acid and
gunpowder.
CHARCOAL FOR FUEL, &c. The method of pile burning is that which is most
extensively practised. Pieces of wood of equal length are piled
concentrically round a sort of chimney formed by driving 3 stakes in the
ground; those nearest the centre are almost vertical, and the surrounding
pieces have a slight but gradually increasing inclination; a second row,
and in the case of very large piles even a third, may be stacked in a
similar manner one above the other. The pile is covered with turf and
soil, and kindled by filling the space within the 3 central stakes with
easily inflammable wood, which is ignited. The character of the smoke
which issues from vents made in the piles indicates exactly the degrees of
carbonisation in different parts. When the charcoal is drawn from the pile
it is extinguished by cold water, or if that is not at hand, by charcoal
dust or dry soil. In some parts of Sweden the wood is charred in large
rectangular stacks, and in China the method of charring in pits is
practised.
CHARCOAL FOR GUN'POWDER; CYL'INDER CHARCOAL. The charcoal employed in the
manufacture of gunpowder is burnt in close iron cylinders, and has hence
received the name of cylinder charcoal. For this and other nice purposes
it is essential that the last portion of the tar and vinegar should be
suffered to escape, and the reabsorption of the crude vapours prevented by
cutting off the communication between the cylinders and the condensing
apparatus; as without this precaution, on the fire being withdrawn, a
retrograde movement of the product takes place, and the charcoal is much
reduced in quality. Alder and willow are the woods chiefly used for making
charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The Dutch white willow, and after that the
Huntingdon willow, are said to yield the best charcoal for gunpowder. The
charcoal from the cylinders of the pyroligneous acid (wood vinegar) works
is also called cylinder charcoal, and is that chiefly used for chemical
purposes; but it is inferior to that prepared for gunpowder.
CHARCOAL FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. The box-wood charcoal, employed in
voltaic electricity, is prepared by putting prismatic pieces of box-wood,
about 1 inch long by 1/2 inch thick, into a crucible, which is then filled
with clean, dry sand, covered up, and exposed to a red heat for about an
hour.
_Uses, &c._ These are numerous and varied. Charcoal is extensively
employed as a fuel; and in metallurgy for tempering metals, making steel,
&c.; reduced to powder, it is used to surround vessels and bodies required
to retain their heat for some time; a coating of charcoal, formed on piles
and stakes of wood by charring them, promotes their preservation. Fresh
burnt charcoal, in coarse powder, restores tainted meat and putrid water,
discolours vegetable solutions, deodorises fetid substances, and withdraws
lime from syrups filtered through it. Exposed on trays it is used as a
disinfectant and deodoriser in the wards of hospitals and in dissecting
rooms, also as a material for water filters.
In _medicine_, charcoal is principally used as a deodoriser and
disinfectant, either in the form of powder or made into a poultice. It has
been given internally in dyspepsia, diarrh[oe]a, dysentery, heartburn,
agues, constipation, sickness of pregnancy, and various other diseases,
with advantage. As a prophylactic of cholera and fevers it is invaluable
and superior to all other substances. It forms the best tooth powder
known, as it both whitens the teeth and deodorises the breath.--_Dose_, 10
gr. to a teaspoonful, or more _ad libitum_. An ointment made with lard and
charcoal has been successfully employed in some skin diseases. In all
cases, to be useful, the charcoal must be both fresh-burnt and
fresh-powdered, and carefully preserved, out of contact with the air,
until about to be administered. Fresh carbonised bread forms an excellent
charcoal, both for a prophylactic and a tooth powder.
Charcoal varies in its qualities according to the substance from which it
is prepared: that of the soft woods (willow or alder) is best for crayons
and gunpowder; that of the hard woods for fuel, and for blowpipe supports.
That made by a low red heat, not exceeding cherry red, and which has a
dull surface, is the most valuable. If the heat be carried much beyond
this point, the charcoal acquires a brilliant surface, and deteriorates in
quality. Chestnut charcoal is preferred by smiths for forging, as it not
only burns slowly, but deadens as soon as the blast ceases. Areca-nut
charcoal is preferred as a dentifrice; but the willow charcoal or box-wood
charcoal is usually substituted for it by shopkeepers.
_Ant., &c._ Poisoning or suffocation, resulting from respiring the fumes
of burning charcoal, has been already alluded to, and the treatment
briefly pointed out. See CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE.
=CHAR'GES (for Cattle).= See VETERINARY MEDICINE.
=CHAR'RING (Surface).= The operation by which the surface of wood is
carbonised, to prevent its decay from exposure to air and moisture. Stakes
and piles are generally thus treated before they are driven into the
ground. Casks are charred on the inside by coopers when they are intended
to hold water. In both these cases the fire is commonly applied directly
to the wood. A new method has, however, been lately employed with apparent
success. This consists in washing the wood with the strongest oil of
vitriol. In this way not only the outer surface, but the surface of all
the cracks and holes, get carbonised, which is not the case when heat is
employed. It succeeds admirably with musty casks and vats.
=CHATHAM LIGHT.= A flash light used for military signals. It is produced
by blowing a mixture of pulverised rosin and magnesium dust through the
flame of a spirit lamp.
=CHEESE.= _Syn._ CA'SEUM, CA'SEUS, L. The curd of milk compressed into a
solid mass. That of commerce is usually salted and dried, and in some
varieties it is also coloured and flavoured.
The process of cheese-making is one which is eminently interesting and
scientific, and which, in every gradation, depends on principles which
chemistry has developed and illustrated. When a vegetable or mineral acid
is added to milk, and heat applied, a coagulum is formed, which, when
separated from the liquid portion, constitutes cheese. Neutral salts,
earthy and metallic salts, sugar, and gum Arabic, as well as some other
substances, also produce the same effect; but that which answers the
purpose best, and which is almost exclusively used by dairy farmers, is
rennet, or the mucous membrane of the last stomach of the calf. Alkalies
dissolve this curd at a boiling heat, and acids again precipitate it. The
solubility of casein in milk is occasioned by the presence of the
phosphates and other salts of the alkalies. In fresh milk these substances
may be readily detected by the property it possesses of restoring the
colour of reddened litmus paper. The addition of an acid neutralises the
alkali, and so precipitates the curd in an insoluble state. The philosophy
of cheese-making is thus expounded by Liebig:--
"The acid indispensable to the coagulation of milk is not added to the
milk in the preparation of cheese, but it is formed in the milk at the
expense of the milk-sugar present. A small quantity of water is left in
contact with a small quantity of a calf's stomach for a few hours, or for
a night; the water absorbs so minute a portion of the mucous membrane as
to be scarcely ponderable; this is mixed with milk; its state of
transformation is communicated (and this is a most important
circumstance), not to the cheese, but to the milk-sugar, the elements of
which transpose themselves into lactic acid, which neutralises the
alkalies, and thus causes the separation of the cheese. By means of litmus
paper the process may be followed and observed through all its stages; the
alkaline reaction of the milk ceases as soon as the coagulation begins. If
the cheese is not immediately separated from the whey, the formation of
lactic acid continues, the fluid turns acid, and the cheese itself passes
into a state of decomposition.
"When cheese-curd is kept in a cool place a series of transformations
takes place, in consequence of which it assumes entirely new properties;
it gradually becomes semi-transparent, and more or less soft, throughout
the whole mass; it exhibits a feebly acid reaction, and develops the
characteristic caseous odour. Fresh cheese is very sparingly soluble in
water, but after having been left to itself for two or three years it
becomes (especially if all the fat be previously removed) almost
completely soluble in cold water, forming with it a solution which, like
milk, is coagulated by the addition of the acetic or any mineral acid. The
cheese, which whilst fresh is insoluble, returns during the maturation, or
ripening, as it is called, to a state similar to that in which it
originally existed in the milk. In those English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses
which are nearly inodorous, and in the superior kinds of French cheese,
the caseine of the milk is present in its unaltered state.
"The odour and flavour of the cheese is owing to the decomposition of the
butter; the non-volatile acids, the margaric and oleic acids, and the
volatile butyric acid, capric and caproic acids are liberated in
consequence of the decomposition of glycerin. Butyric acid imparts to
cheese its characteristic caseous odour, and the differences in its
pungency or aromatic flavour depend upon the proportion of free butyric,
capric, and caproic acids present." In the cheese of certain dairies and
districts, valerianic acid has been detected along with the other acids
just referred to. Messrs Jljenko and Laskowski found this acid in the
cheese of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in that of Roquefort.
"The transition of the insoluble into soluble casein depends upon the
decomposition of the phosphate of lime by the margaric acid of the butter;
margarate of lime is formed, whilst the phosphoric acid combines with the
casein, forming a compound soluble in water.
"The bad smell of inferior kinds of cheese, especially those called meagre
or poor cheeses, is caused by certain fetid products containing sulphur,
and which are formed by the decomposition or putrefaction of the casein.
The alteration which the butter undergoes (that is, in becoming rancid),
or which occurs in the milk-sugar still present, being transmitted to the
casein, changes both the composition of the latter substance and its
nutritive qualities.
"The principal conditions for the preparation of the superior kinds of
cheese (other obvious circumstances being of course duly regarded) are a
careful removal of the whey, which holds the milk-sugar in solution, and a
low temperature during the maturation or ripening of the cheese."
Cheese differs vastly in quality and flavour, according to the method
employed in its manufacture and the richness of the milk of which it is
made. Much depends upon the quantity of cream it contains, and
consequently, when a superior quality of cheese is desired, cream is
frequently added to the curd. This plan is adopted in the manufacture of
Stilton cheese and others of a like description. The addition of a pound
or two of butter to the curd for a middling size cheese also vastly
improves the quality of the product. To ensure the richness of the milk,
not only should the cows be properly fed, but certain breeds chosen. Those
of Alderney, Cheddar, Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Guernsey, and North
Wiltshire deserve a preference in this respect.
The materials employed in making cheese are milk and rennet. Rennet is
used either fresh or salted and dried; generally in the latter state. The
milk may be of any kind, according to the quality of the cheese required.
Cows' milk is that generally employed; but occasionally ewes' milk is
used; and sometimes, though more rarely, that from goats.
In preparing his cheese, the dairy farmer puts the greater portion of the
milk into a large tub, to which he adds the remainder, sufficiently heated
to raise the temperature to that of new milk. The whole is then whisked
together, the rennet or rennet liquor added, and the tub covered over. It
is now allowed to stand until completely "turned," when the curd is gently
struck down several times with the skimming-dish, after which it is
allowed to subside. The vat covered with cheese-cloth is next placed on a
"horse" or "ladder" over the tub, and filled with curd by means of the
skimmer, care being taken to allow as little as possible of the oily
particles or butter to run back with the whey. The curd is pressed down
with the hands, and more added as it sinks. This process is repeated until
the curd rises to about two inches above the edge. The newly formed
cheese, thus partially separated from the whey, is now placed in a clean
tub, and a proper quantity of salt added, as well as of annotta, when that
colouring is used, after which a board is placed over and under it, and
pressure applied for about 2 or 3 hours. The cheese is next turned out and
surrounded by a fresh cheese-cloth, and then again submitted to pressure
in the cheese press for 8 or 10 hours, after which it is commonly removed
from the press, salted all over, and again pressed for 15 to 20 hours. The
quality of the cheese especially depends on this part of the process, as
if any of the whey is left in the cheese it rapidly becomes bad-flavoured.
Before placing it in the press the last time the common practice is to
pare the edges smooth and sightly. It now only remains to wash the outside
of the cheese in warm whey or water, to wipe it dry, and to colour it with
annotta or reddle, as is usually done.
The storing of the newly-made cheese is the next point that engages the
attention of the maker and wholesale dealer. The same principles which
influence the maturation or ripening of fermented liquors also operate
here. In England, a cool cellar, neither damp nor dry, and which is
uninfluenced by change of weather or season, is commonly regarded as the
best for the purpose. If possible, the temperature should on no account be
permitted to exceed 50° or 52° Fahr. at any portion of the year. An
average of about 45° is preferable when it can be procured. A place
exposed to sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for storing cheese
as it is for storing beer. "The quality of Rochefort cheese, which is
prepared from sheep's milk, and is very excellent, depends exclusively
upon the places where the cheeses are kept after pressing and during
maturation. Those are cellars, communicating with mountain grottoes and
caverns, which are kept constantly cool, at about 41° to 42° Fahr., by
currents of air from clefts in the mountains. The value of these cellars
as storehouses varies with their property of maintaining an equable and
low temperature. Giron mentions that a certain cellar, the construction of
which had cost only 480_l._ (12,000 francs), was sold for 8600_l._
(215,000 francs), being found to maintain a suitable temperature, a
convincing proof of the importance attached to temperature in the
preparation of these superior cheeses." (Liebig.)
It will thus be seen that very slight differences in the materials, in the
preparation, or in storing of the cheese, materially influence the quality
and flavour of this article. The richness of the milk--the addition to or
subtraction of cream from the milk--the separation of the curd from the
whey with or without compression--the salting of the curd--the collection
of the curd, either whole or broken, before pressing--the addition of
colouring matter, as annotta or saffron, or of flavouring--the place and
method of storing--and the length of time allowed for maturation, all tend
to alter the taste and odour of the cheese in some or other particular,
and that in a way readily perceptible to the palate of the connoisseur. No
other alimentary substance appears to be so seriously affected by slight
variations in the quality of the materials from which it is made, or by
such apparently trifling differences in the methods of preparing it.
_Var._ The varieties of cheese met with in commerce are very numerous, and
differ greatly from each other in richness, colour, and flavour. These are
commonly distinguished by names indicative of the places in which they
have been manufactured, or of the quality of the materials from which they
have been prepared. Thus, we have Dutch, Gloucester, Stilton,
skimmed-milk, raw-milk, cream, and other cheeses; names which explain
themselves. The following are the principal varieties met with in
Europe:--
CHEESE, BRICKBAT. From its form; made in Wiltshire of new milk and cream.
CHEESE, CHEDDAR. A fine, spongy kind of cheese, the eyes or vesicles of
which contain a rich oil; made up into round, thick cheeses, of
considerable size (150 to 200 lbs.).
CHEESE, CHESHIRE. From new milk, without skimming, the morning's milk
being mixed with that of the preceding evening, previously warmed, so that
the whole may be brought to the heat of new milk. To this the rennet is
added, in less quantity than is commonly used for other kinds of cheese.
On this point much of the flavour and mildness of the cheese is said to
depend. A piece of dried rennet, of the size of half-a-crown, put into a
pint of water over night, and allowed to stand until the next morning, is
sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of milk. In large, round, thick cheeses
(100 to 200 lbs. each). They are generally solid, homogeneous, and dry,
and friable rather than viscid.
CHEESE, COTTENHAM. A rich kind of cheese, in flavour and consistence not
unlike Stilton, from which, however, it differs in shape, being flatter
and broader than the latter.
CHEESE, CREAM. From the "strippings" (the last of the milk drawn from the
cow at each milking), from a mixture of milk and cream, or from raw cream
only, according to the quality desired. It is usually made in small
oblong, square, or rounded cakes, a general pressure only (that of a 2 or
4 lb. weight) being applied to press out the whey. After twelve hours it
is placed upon a board or wooden trencher, and turned every day until dry.
It ripens in about three weeks. A little salt is generally added, and
frequently a little powdered lump sugar.
CHEESE, DERBYSHIRE. A small, white, rich variety, very similar to Dunlop
cheese.
CHEESE, DUNLOP. Rich, white, and buttery; in round forms, weighing from 30
lbs. to 60 lbs.
CHEESE, DUTCH. (Holland.) Of a globular form. 5 to 14 lbs. each. Those
from Edam are very highly salted; those from Gouda less so.
CHEESE, GLOUCESTER. Single Glo'ster; from milk deprived of part of its
cream; Double Glo'ster, from milk retaining the whole of the cream. Mild
tasted, semi-buttery consistence, without being friable; in large, round,
flattish forms.
CHEESE, GREEN or SAGE. From milk mixed with the juice or an infusion or
decoction of sage leaves, to which marygold flowers and parsley are
frequently added.
CHEESE, GRUYÈRE. A fine description of cheese made in Switzerland, and
largely consumed on the Continent. It is firm and dry, and exhibits
numerous cells of considerable magnitude. Its flavour is peculiar, and is
not generally liked by English people.
CHEESE, LINCOLN. From new milk and cream; in pieces about 2 inches thick;
soft, and will not keep over 2 or 3 months.
CHEESE, NEUFCHÂTEL. A much-esteemed variety of Swiss cheese; made of
cream, and weighs about 5 or 6 oz.
CHEESE, NORFOLK. Dyed yellow with annotta or saffron; good, but not
superior; in cheeses of 30 lbs. to 50 lbs.
CHEESE, PARMESAN. (Parma, &c.) From the curd of skimmed milk, hardened by
a gentle heat. The rennet is added at about 120°, and an hour afterwards
the curdling milk is set on a slow fire until heated to about 150° Fahr.;
during which the curd separates in small lumps. A few pinches of saffron
are then thrown in. About a fortnight after making the outer crust is cut
off, and the new surface varnished with linseed oil, and one side coloured
red.
CHEESE, ROQUEFORT. From ewes' milk; the best prepared in France. It
greatly resembles Stilton, but is scarcely of equal richness or quality,
and possesses a peculiar pungency and flavour.
CHEESE, SLIPCOAT or SOFT. A very rich white cheese, somewhat resembling
butter; for present use only.
CHEESE, STILTON. The richest and finest cheese made in England. From raw
milk to which cream taken from other milk is added; in cheeses generally
twice as high as they are broad. Like wine, this cheese is vastly improved
by age, and is therefore seldom eaten before it is 2 years old. A spurious
appearance of age is sometimes given to it by placing it in a warm, damp
cellar, or by surrounding it with masses of fermenting straw or dung.
CHEESE, SUFFOLK. From skimmed milk; in round, flat forms, from 24 lbs. to
30 lbs. each. Very hard and horny.
CHEESE, SWISS. The principal cheeses made in Switzerland are the Gruyère,
the Neufchâtel, and the Schabzieger or green cheese. The latter is
flavoured with melilot.
CHEESE, WESTPHALIAN. In small balls or rolls of about 1 lb. each. It
derives its peculiar flavour from the curd being allowed to become
partially putrid before being pressed. In small balls or rolls of about 1
lb. each.
CHEESE, WILTSHIRE. Resembles poor Cheshire or Glo'ster. The outside is
generally painted with a mixture of reddle or red-ochre or whey.
CHEESE, YORK. From cream: it will not keep.
_Qual., &c._ Cheese has been objected to as an article of diet, but
without sufficient reason, since it is, when of good quality, eminently
nutritious, wholesome, and digestible. Like all other food, cheese digests
more readily when well masticated, and the neglect of this precaution is
one reason why it frequently disagrees with delicate stomachs. It is
rendered more agreeable to many palates by toasting it, but becomes less
digestible by that operation. The basis of cheese is casein or coagulated
curd, a protein substance; it therefore cannot fail to prove nutritious,
provided it is properly digested. Cheese-curd, carefully freed from water
and milk by expression, and the addition of salt, is a mixture of casein
and butter. It contains all the phosphate of lime and part of the
phosphate of soda of the milk. (Liebig.) When taken as a condiment,
especially when rich and old, it powerfully promotes the secretion of the
saliva and gastric juice, and thereby aids the stomach in performing its
proper functions. Rotten cheese is very unwholesome.
We give below the composition of some of the principal varieties of
cheese:--
Cheddar. Double Skim.
Gloucester.
Water 36·64 35·61 43·64
Casein 23·38 21·76 45·64
Fatty matter 35·44 38·16 5·76
Mineral matter 4·54 4·47 4·96
------ ------ ------
100·00 100·00 100·00
Stilton. Cotherstone.
Water 32·18 38·28
Butter 37·36 30·89
Casein 24·31 23·93
Milk, sugar, and extractive } 2·22 3·70
matters }
Mineral matter 3·93 3·20
------ ------
100·00 100·00
Gruyère. Ordinary
Dutch.
Water 40·00 36·10
Casein 31·50 29·40
Fatty matter 24·00 27·50
Salts 3·00 ·90
Non-nitrogenous organic } 1·50 6·10
matter and loss }
------ ------
100·00 100·00
_Concluding Remarks._--It is surprising that cheese is not more frequently
made an article of domestic manufacture, especially by housewives resident
in the country. The operations of cheese-making are all exceedingly
simple, and not laborious, and will, in most cases, amply repay the outlay
for the milk. Besides, cheese is not unfrequently coloured with stains and
pigments which are injurious, and even poisonous, the risk of taking which
is not encountered when it is made at home. Several persons have nearly
lost their lives from eating cheese coloured with annotta, for instance.
This substance, though harmless in itself, is frequently adulterated with
red lead, so that the cheesemonger may very innocently introduce a poison,
when he only intends to improve the colour of his goods.
When a whole cheese is cut, and the consumption small, it is generally
found to become unpleasantly dry, and to lose flavour before it is
consumed. This is best prevented by cutting a sufficient quantity for a
few days' consumption from the cheese, and keeping the remainder in a cool
place, rather damp than dry, spreading a thin film of butter over the
fresh surface, and covering it with a cloth or pan to keep off the dirt.
This removes the objection existing in small families against purchasing a
whole cheese at a time. The common practice of buying small quantities of
cheese should be avoided, as not only a higher price is paid for any given
quality, but there is little likelihood of obtaining exactly the same
flavour twice running. Should cheese become too dry to be agreeable, it
may be used for stewing, or for making grated cheese or Welsh rare-bits.
=Cheese, Ap'ple.= The pomace or ground apples from the cider press.
=Cheese, Dam'son.= _Prep._ From damsons boiled with a little water, the
pulp passed through a sieve, and then boiled with about one fourth the
weight of sugar, until the mixture solidifies on cooling; it is next
poured into small tin moulds previously dusted out with sugar. Cherry
cheese, gooseberry cheese, plum cheese, &c., are prepared in the same way,
using the respective kinds of fruit. They are all very agreeable candies
or confections.
=Cheese, Facti'tious Roque'fort.= _Prep._ (Roulle.) The gluten of wheat is
kneaded with a little salt, and a small portion of a solution of starch,
and made up into cheeses. It is said that this mixture soon acquires the
taste, smell, and unctuosity of cheese, and when kept a certain time is
not to be distinguished from the celebrated Roquefort cheese, of which it
possesses all the peculiar pungency. By slightly varying the process other
kinds of cheese may be imitated.
=Cheese, Legumin.= The Chinese prepare an actual cheese from peas, called
"tao-foo," which they sell in the streets of Canton. The paste from
steeped ground peas is boiled, which causes the starch to dissolve with
the casein; after straining the liquid, it is coagulated by a solution of
gypsum; this coagulum is worked up like sour milk, salted, and pressed
into moulds.
=Cheese, Toasted.= This much relished article is seldom well prepared. The
following has been recommended as an excellent receipt:--Cut the cheese
into slices of moderate thickness, and put them into a tinned copper
saucepan, with a little butter and cream; simmer very gently until they
are quite dissolved, then remove the saucepan from the fire, allow the
whole to cool a little, add some yolk of egg, well beaten, add spice, make
the compound into a "shape," and brown it before the fire. See FONDUE.
=CHELSEA PENSIONER.= _Prep._ From gum guaiacum, 1/4 oz.; rhubarb, 1/2 oz.;
cream of tartar, 2 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 4 oz.; nutmegs, 2 in number
(all in powder); honey, 1-1/2 lb., or q. s.; made into an electuary by
beating them together in a mortar.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, night
and morning, in gout and chronic rheumatism. The name is said to have been
given to it from the circumstance of a Chelsea pensioner having cured Lord
Amherst with it.
=CHEL'TENHAM SALTS.= See SALTS.
=CHEM'IQUE= or =CHEM'IC BLUE=. See INDIGO.
=CHEROOT.= A species of cigar imported from Manilla, in the Philippine
Islands, distinguished by extreme simplicity of construction as well as
delicacy of flavour. The cigars now so commonly sold as cheroots in
England are, for the most part, made of inferior tobacco, and are often
much adulterated articles.
=CHER'RIES= are the fruit of different species of the genus _Cerasus_.
They are regarded as wholesome, cooling, nutritive, laxative, and
antiscorbutic. Brandy flavoured with this fruit or its juice is known as
cherry-brandy. Morello cherries preserved in brandy are called brandy
cherries. See BRANDY, FRUIT, &c.
=CHER'RY LAUR'EL.= _Syn._ LAU'REL. The _Cerasus Lauro-Cerasus_, a shrub
common in every garden in England, and often confounded with the true
laurel or Sweet Bay, which does not possess any of its deleterious
properties. Leaves, occasionally used instead of bay leaves in cookery.
The distilled oil and distilled water are both poisonous. See OIL, WATER.
=CHESTNUT.= Both the horse-chestnut and the edible variety have been
employed for the adulteration not only of coffee, but of chicory.
[Illustration: Microscopic view of the chestnut.]
=CHI'CA.= The red colouring matter deposited by a decoction of the leaves
of _Bignonia Chica_ in cooling. Used by the American Indians to stain
their skin. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, oil, fat, and alkaline lyes,
and slightly so in boiling water.
=Chi'ca.= See MAIZE BEER.
=CHIC'ORY.= _Syn._ WILD SUC'CORY; CICHOR'IUM INTY'BUS (Linn.), L. A plant
belonging to the natural order Compositæ. It is indigenous to this and
many other countries of Europe, and is extensively cultivated for the sake
of its roots, which are sliced, roasted, and ground, to form the chicory
of the shops. Nearly 100 millions of pounds are annually consumed in
Europe. Much of the chicory used in Britain is of home growth; but still
more is imported in a raw state from Holland and other parts of the
Continent. A blue dye has been prepared from the leaves of this plant.
The FRESH ROOT OF CHICORY (_ra'dix chico'rii re'cens_) is reputed to be
alterative, attenuant, diuretic, febrifuge, hepatic, resolvent, and tonic;
and in large doses aperient. It is now seldom used in medicine, although
it appears to possess similar qualities and equal activity to those of
dandelion. "An infusion of the root, mixed with syrup, becomes thick;
forming the GOMME SACCHO-CHICORICE of Lacarterie." (Fee.)
_Analysis of Chicory_ (the raw root):--
Moisture 77·0
Gummy matter (like pectin) 7·5
Glucose, or grape sugar 1·1
Bitter extractive 4·0
Fatty matter 0·6
Cellulose, inulin, and woody matter 9·0
Ash 0·8
-----
100·0
The ROASTED ROOT is prepared by cutting the full-grown root into slices,
and exposing it to heat in iron cylinders, along with about 1-1/2% or 2%
of lard, in a similar way to that adopted for coffee. When ground to
powder in a mill, it constitutes the CHICORY of the grocers (CHICORY
COFFEE, SUCCORY C.; RADIX CHICO'RII TORREFAC'TA, R. C. T. CONTRI'TA); so
generally employed both as a substitute for coffee and as an adulterant of
that article. The addition of 1 part of good, fresh roasted chicory to 10
or 12 parts of coffee forms a mixture which yields a beverage of a fuller
flavour, and of a deeper colour than that furnished by an equal quantity
of pure or unmixed coffee. In this way a less quantity of coffee may be
used, but it should be remembered that the article substituted for it does
not possess in any degree the peculiar exciting, soothing, and
hunger-staying properties of that valuable product. The use, however, of a
larger proportion of chicory than that just named imparts to the beverage
an insipid flavour, intermediate between that of treacle and liquorice;
whilst the continual use of roasted chicory, or highly chicorised coffee,
seldom fails to weaken the powers of digestion and derange the bowels.
"There can be no doubt that roasted chicory must, when taken largely, have
a tendency to excite diarrh[oe]a." (Pereira.)
_Pur., &c._ The ground chicory of the shops, like ground coffee, is almost
universally adulterated. Pigments are added to it to colour it, and
various vegetable substances to lessen its value. The following articles
have been reported to have been detected in roasted chicory, or to have
been known to be used to adulterate it:--Venetian red, reddle, and red
clay; roasted acorns, beans, carrots, damaged dog-biscuits, damaged bread,
damaged wheat, horse-chestnuts, mangel wurzel, parsnips, peas, rye, and
sugar; coffee flights (coffee husks), coffina (roasted lupins), Hambro'
powder (roasted peas coloured with reddle), and the marc of coffee;
exhausted bark (from the tan yards), logwood dust, mahogany dust, &c. It
has also been asserted that the scorched livers of bullocks, horses, and
dogs have been applied to the same purpose; but of this there is not
sufficient evidence. The only way to avoid being thus cheated or poisoned
is to buy the chicory whole, and to grind it at home.
[Illustration: Microscopic appearance of chicory root.]
Roasted chicory is highly absorbent of moisture, and should, therefore, be
always kept in close vessels (bottles or canisters), the same as coffee.
If the lumps become tough or soft, or the powder cakes together, it is
unfit for use; but in some cases it may be recovered, by exposing it on a
plate in an oven until it again becomes perfectly dry or brittle.
_Tests._--1. Powdered chicory thrown on water turns it reddish-brown and
rapidly sinks, leaving light impurities either floating or diffused
through the liquid.--2. The cold decoction tested with tincture, or
solution of iodine, gives a brown colour; if it turns purple, blue, or
black, it indicates the presence of roasted peas, beans, rye, or some
other like substance, containing starch.--3. Persulphate or perchloride
of iron, added in the same way, should not materially affect the liquid;
if it turns it bluish or blackish, it indicates the presence of roasted
acorns, oak-bark tan, or some other substance containing tannin.--4. Water
acidulated with vinegar, digested on the powder, should not be blackened,
or even materially darkened, by tincture of galls or a solution of red
prussiate of potash; the contrary shows the presence of ferruginous
colouring matter.--5. The dry powder, when incinerated, should not leave
more than 4-1/2 to 5% of ash, which should be of a greyish or fawn colour;
the contrary indicates the presence of reddle, red clay, ochre, or the
like.--6. To the above may be added attention to the odour, colour, and
appearance, both to the naked eye and under the microscope; by the latter,
adulteration may be easily detected. See COFFEE.
=CHIL'BLAIN.= _Syn._ PER'NIO, L. An inflammatory swelling, of a purple or
lead colour, produced by the action of cold. Chilblains (PERNIO'NES)
exclusively attack the extremities of the body, and are generally confined
to the fingers, toes, and heels. The common symptoms are itching and
irritation, more or less intense, often accompanied with shooting pains,
and tenderness, and tumefaction of the parts. Children, especially those
of a scrofulous habit, and elderly persons, are generally the most liable
to chilblains. The common cause of chilblains is holding the hands or feet
to the fire after exposure to cold. The sudden change of temperature
partially destroys the vitality of the minute surfacial vessels, and thus
prevents the proper flow of blood through the part. The best preventives
of chilblains are woollen socks or stockings, good waterproof shoes,
woollen gloves, exercise, and friction. These act by promoting the
circulation of the blood in the extremities, and protecting them from
vicissitudes of temperature. When chilblains have once formed, the best
treatment is friction with stimulants, as spirits of wine and camphor, oil
of turpentine, opodeldoc, dilute spirits, camphorated oil, hartshorn and
oil, &c. Linnæus recommends bathing the part with dilute muriatic acid,
just strong enough to faintly prick the skin. When the inflamed parts have
ulcerated, they are commonly called KIBES. In this state they should be
dressed with a little resin cerate or elemi ointment. If fungous
granulations appear, they must be removed by touching them with nitrate of
silver or blue vitriol. See CHAPS, &c.
REMEDIES FOR CHILBLAINS.--The following have been strongly recommended by
different parties, and may all prove useful in their turns, as
circumstances and convenience may suggest:--