which varies in breadth from 1 to 6 diameters of the moon, having the
lower edge sharply defined, and the upper edge only when the breadth of
the arch is small. This arch may be considered to be a part of a luminous
ring, elevated at a considerable distance above the earth's surface and
having its centre corresponding with some point near the north pole. The
preceding description indicates the general features of the appearance of
the aurora borealis; but several auroras have been described which
presented striking peculiarities. Sometimes the phenomenon assumed the
form of one or more curtains of light, depending from dingy clouds whose
folds were agitated to and fro as if by the wind. Sometimes this curtain
appeared to consist of separate ribbons of light, arranged side by side in
groups of different lengths, and attaining their greatest brilliancy at
the lower edges. In this country the aurora borealis seldom assumes the
distinctness and brilliancy which characterise its appearance in northern
latitudes, but the description thus given indicates the type to which such
appearance of the meteor more or less approaches. During the winter that
prevails in the northern hemispheres the inhabitants of the arctic zone
are deprived for months together of the sun's light, and their long dreary
night is relieved by the light emanating from this beautiful meteor, which
shines with great frequency and brilliancy in those regions.
A remarkable connection has been observed between the aurora and the
earth's magnetism, the magnetic needle showing great disturbance during a
display of the aurora. The arches of the aurora most commonly traverse the
sky at right angles to the magnetic meridian, though deviations from this
direction are not rare. Sir J. Franklin found that the disturbance of the
needle was not always proportionate to the agitation of the aurora, but
was always greater when the quick motion and vivid light were observed to
take place in a hazy atmosphere. The aurora is most frequent and vivid in
high latitudes, towards either pole, but the meteor is not confined to
these parts, as Dr Hooker states that one of the most brilliant displays
he ever witnessed was under the tropical sky of India; and other observers
have recorded instances of its appearance in the equatorial districts of
the globe.
The attitude of the aurora varies considerably; there appears to be little
doubt, however, that it frequently occurs at small elevations. Both
Franklin and Parry record instances where it appeared below the level of
the clouds, which they describe as having been hidden behind the masses of
its light, and as reappearing when the meteor vanished. It would seem that
there are two distinct kinds of aurora one dependent upon local causes, as
in the cases last given, while in the other causes are probably cosmical,
and the auroral effects are seen at very distant points of the earth's
surface.
=AURORA POMADE.= For promoting the action of the skin. Cocoa butter with
orris.
=AUTOG'ENOUS= (t[)o]j'-). _Syn._ AUTOGE''NEAL; AUTOG'ENUS (t[)o]j'). L.
Self-generating or affecting; acting without the aid of foreign matter. In
_anatomy_, &c., developed from distinct and independent centres; as parts
or processes. Among _metallists_, it denotes a method of joining metals by
fusing the parts in contact, by means of a flame of hydrogen, or of a
mixture of hydrogen and common air, without the intervention of a fusible
alloy or solder. Lead, and even ordinary hard solders, are, however,
sometimes so employed, and the name, though improperly, retained.
=AUTOMAT'IC.= _Syn._ AUTOMATI'CUS, AUTOM'ATUS, L.; AUTOMATIQUE, Fr.;
AUTOMATISCHE, Ger. Self-acting or self-moving, or that seems to be so;
mechanical; of or resembling an automaton. In _physiology_, involuntary,
applied to functions which are performed without the operation of the
will; as the movements in respiration, the contractions and dilations of
the heart, the persistent contraction of the sphincters, &c. In
_mechanics_, &c., moving and acting from concealed machinery; also, as
applied to _machinery_, self-regulating and directing, within the limits
prescribed by its author, though moved by external power. To the last
class belongs the self-acting machinery of our flax and cotton mills, our
engineering establishments, &c.; in which the elemental powers are made to
animate, as it were, millions of complex organs, infusing into forms of
wood, iron, and brass, an agency resembling that of intelligent beings.
The manufactures in which such machinery is employed are termed the
AUTOMATIC ARTS.
=AUTOPSY.= Literally, personal observation or examination; ocular view.
The term, however, is now applied, rather loosely, to a post-mortem
investigation. A post-mortem may be performed with the object of
endeavouring to ascertain the cause of death in a medico-legal inquiry, or
in the furtherance of the study of pathology. It is also a preliminary to
embalmment, and is sometimes had recourse to as a means of saving the
child when a woman dies in full pregnancy.
In France no post-mortem examination is permitted to take place until at
least 24 hours after death, this delay being enforced as a safeguard
against the possibility of the body operated upon being still alive. In
England no post-mortem can be made without the consent of the friends of
the deceased, unless by warrant from a coroner; although in many public
institutions this consent is dispensed with. Whenever, however, a prisoner
dies in gaol an inquest and post-mortem are held on the body.
An autopsy is to be discouraged in cases where a person has died from
infectious disease; but should the law require it to be undertaken,
disinfectants both during and after the operation should be liberally had
recourse to.
=AUTUMNAL FEVER.= This term is chiefly employed by American medical
writers to designate typhoid fever, because of its prevalence in the
autumn.
=AUXILION.= A packet of small plasters for the painless and radical cure
of corns. Each plaster is to be worn for about a week, and then the horny
pustule is to be removed with a sharp knife. The plaster is a compound of
1 part of resin plaster and 2 parts of lead plaster, and is likely to
promote the removal and solution of the thick skin of the corns. (Hager.)
=AVA.= _Syn._ KAVA-KAVA. The native names of the root, a species of piper,
the _piper methysticum_, cultivated in Tahiti, Hawaii, the Society and
Tongan Islands, the natives of which make it into an intoxicating drink.
It is said to have been used in France with excellent effect in
gonorrh[oe]a; and a tincture of it has been strongly recommended both for
external and internal administration in gout. "For medicinal purposes it
is used in the form of infusion," a drachm of the scraped root being
macerated in a quart of water for five minutes. Its action appears to vary
with the amount taken; in small doses it is generally stated to act as a
stimulant and tonic, but when taken in large doses it produces an
intoxication which differs from that caused by alcohol, in being of a
silent and drowsy nature accompanied by incoherent dreams"
('Pharmaceutical Journal,' August 19th, 1876, which consult for further
information.')
=AVE'NA.= [L.] The oat; oats.
=AVE'NIN= (-n[)i]n). _Syn._ AVENA'INE* ([)a]v-e-) AVENI'NA, &c., L.;
AVÉNINE, &c., Fr. A nitrogenous compound, analogous to, and probably
identical with, casein, obtained from oats, and on which its nutritiveness
chiefly depends.
_Prep._ The grain, reduced to the state of powder or meal, is washed on a
sieve, and the milky liquid, after being allowed to deposit its starch, is
heated to about 200° Fahr., to coagulate the albumen; when cold, acetic
acid is added as long as a white powder falls, which is AVENIN; this is
collected on a filter, drained, and dried by a gentle heat.
=AVEN'TURIN, Avant'urin= (-[=u]-r[)i]n; -v[)o]_ng_-t[=o][=o]--Knowles and
Smart). [Eng. Fr.] A beautiful iridescent variety of rock crystal,
minutely spangled throughout with yellow scales of mica (AVENTURIN, A.
QUARTZ). A variety of felspar (A. FELSPAR) of somewhat similar appearance
is found in the Continent and the Peninsula, of which the finer kinds are
called A. ORIENTALE and PIERRE DE SOLEIL by the lapidaries. Both varieties
are now imitated by the glass and porcelain manufacturers. See GLASS,
GLAZE, PASTE, &c.
=A'VIARY= (-ve-). _Syn._ AVIA''RIUM, L.; VOLIÈRE, Fr.; VOGELHAUS,
VOGELHECKE, Ger. A place for keeping birds; generally applied to an
enclosed space or building in which birds are kept, or bred, on account of
their rarity, plumage, or song; and not for food.
_Situa., &c._ For exotic birds, a place should be selected where the
temperature can be maintained at a proper degree throughout the year, and
which is well protected from the weather. This is commonly done by
choosing a space attached to the summerhouse or hot-house. When the aviary
is only intended for birds of climates similar to our own, any part of the
open garden may be chosen, and a portion closed in, either with
trellis-work or wire-work, or netting; care being taken to provide, in
some easily accessible portion of it, full protection from vicissitudes of
weather and season. Nor must cleanliness, and due ventilation and
protection from foul air or noxious fumes, be left unattended to.
=AVIGNON' BERRIES= ([)a]v-veen-yo_ng_). French berries.
=AV'OIRDUPOIS'= ([)a]v-[)e]r-du-pois'). The common weight of 16 oz. or
7000 gr. to the lb., used in these realms for all kinds of goods, except
jewelry and the precious metals, and medicines in dispensing, or as
ordered in the 'British Pharmacop[oe]ia' of 1867.
=AX'IS.= [L., Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AXE, Fr.; ACHSE, Ger. Primarily, that on
or around which anything acts or performs; an axle or axle-tree. In
_anatomy_, that on or around which any organ or part rests, gravitates, or
centres. In _astronomy_, the diameter on or about which a celestial body
revolves. In _botany_, part or parts about which particular organs are
arranged; an imaginary line passing from the base to the apex of a
pericarp &c. In _crystallography_, imaginary lines passing through the
central points of a crystal, and about which the molecules or particles of
matter composing it may be conceived to be symmetrically built up. In
_geology_, the centre of a mountain-group. In _mechanics_, the straight
line, real or imaginary, about which any body oscillates or revolves. See
CRYSTAL, &c.
=AX'LE, Ax'le-tree= ([)a]ks'l). _Syn._ ESSIEU, Fr.; AXE (am rade), &c.,
Ger. In _mechanics_, the pin, rod, or material line, on which a wheel,
&c., turns. See ANTI-ATTRITION, FRICTION, &c.
=AX'UNGE= (-[)u]nje). _Syn._ AXUN'GIA, L. _Primarily_, 'wheel-grease,' the
lard or fat of an animal; restricted in _pharmacy_ to hog's lard.--AXUNGIA
CURA'TA, A. PREPARA'TA, is prepared or washed hog's lard (which _see_).
=AYER'S PILLS.= Sold in long wooden boxes, each containing 25 pills,
covered with sugar and starch, and composed of pepper, colocynth, gamboge,
and aloes. (Hager.)
=AZADIRACHTA INDICA.= (Ind. Ph.) Nim or Margosa Tree. (Ind. Ph.)
_Habitat._ Common throughout India; often cultivated in gardens.
_Officinal parts._--1. The bark (_Azadirachtæ cortex_, Nim bark). It
varies much in appearance, according to the size and age of the tree
producing it. The bark from the trunk of a tree above three or four years
of age is covered with a thick scaly epidermis, and varies in thickness
from 1/4 to 1/2 inch. That from the smaller branches is smooth, of a
dullish purple colour, marked by longitudinal lines of ash-coloured
epidermis, from 1/8th to 1/12th of an inch apart. The inner layer of the
bark, of a whitish colour in the fresh state, is powerfully bitter, far
more so than the outer dark-coloured layer, which, however, possesses a
greater amount of astringency. It contains a crystallisable principle
(margosine) and an astringent principle (catechin).--2. The fresh leaves
(_Azadirachtæ folia_, Nim leaves).--_Properties._ Bark astringent tonic
and antiperiodic; leaves stimulant.--_Therapeutic uses._ In intermittent
and other paroxysmal fevers, in general debility, and convalescence after
febrile and other diseases, the bark has been employed with success. The
leaves form a useful application to ulcers and skin diseases when a mild
stimulant is required.--_Dose._ Of the powdered bark, a drachm three or
four times a day.
_Preparations._ DECOCTION OF NIM BARK (Decoctum Azadirachtæ). Take of the
inner layer of nim bark, bruised, 2 _oz._; water, a pint and a half. Boil
for 15 minutes, and strain whilst hot.--_Dose._ As an antiperiodic, from
1-1/2 to 3 _fl. oz._, every second hour previous to an expected paroxysm.
As a tonic, 1 or 2 _fl. oz._ twice or thrice daily. As this decoction soon
decomposes in hot weather, it should be prepared fresh for use when
required.
TINCTURE OF NIM BARK (_Tinctura Azadirachtæ_). Take of the inner layer of
nim bark, bruised, 2-1/2 _oz._; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for seven
days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter,
and add sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint. It may also be prepared by
percolation in the same manner as Tincture of Calumba, q. v.--_Dose._ From
1/2 to 2 _fl. dr._ as a tonic.
POLTICE OF NIM LEAVES (Cataplasma Azadirachtæ). Take of fresh nim leaves a
sufficiency; bruise and moisten with tepid water. A good stimulant
application to indolent and ill-conditioned ulcers. Should it cause pain
and irritation, as it sometimes does, equal parts of rice-flour and
linseed-meal may be added. The bitter oil of the seeds is held in high
repute by the natives as an anthelmintic, and as an external application
in rheumatism. It is also said to be an insecticide.
=AZOERYTH'RYN= (-r[)i]th'-r[)i]n). A substance obtained, by Kane, from
archil. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and water; but is very soluble
in alkaline lyes, to which it imparts a port-wine colour.
=AZO'IC.= _Syn._ AZÖOT'IC; AZO'ICUS, AZÖOT'ICUS, &c., L. Lifeless; wholly
destitute of organic life. In _geology_, &c., applied to strata which do
not contain organic remains.
=AZOLIT'MIN= ([)a]z-o-l[)i]t'-m[)i]n). A dark-red substance obtained, by
Kane, from litmus, of which it forms a large portion of the colouring
matter. It is insoluble in alcohol, and in water unless alkalised.
=AZ'OTE*= ([)a]z'[=o]te; a'-z[=o]te). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AZO'TUM*, L.;
AZOT*, Ger. Nitrogen (because it is unfit for respiration, _i.e._ destroys
life).
=AZOT'IC.= _Syn._ AZOT'ICUM, L.; AZOTIQUE, Fr.; AZOTISCH, Ger. Of or like
azote, or containing it or formed from it; irrespirable; destructive to
life.--AZOTIC ACID[dagger] is nitric acid; A. GAS[dagger],
nitrogen.--AZO'TOUS ACID[dagger] was nitrous acid.
=AZ'OTISED= (-t[=i]zd). _Syn._ NITROGENISED, Containing azote or nitrogen;
a common epithet of nitrogenous substances used as food.
=AZ'URE= ([)a]zh'-[=u]re; [=a]'zhure--Knowles, Smart, Walker). _Syn._
CÆRU'LEUM, L.; AZUR, Fr.; HELLBLAU, HIMMELBLAU, Ger. In _dyeing_ and
_painting_, sky-blue; also the name of one or more pigments which possess
this colour. See BLUE DYES, BLUE PIGMENTS, SMALTS, ULTRAMARINE, &c.
=AZ'URE-STONE.= Lapis lazuli.
=AZ'URITE= (-[=i]te). In _mineralogy_, lazulite; blue malachite;
sometimes, lapis lazuli (the name being, unfortunately, very loosely
applied by different writers).
=AZ'YMOUS[dagger]= (-e-m[)u]s). _Syn._ AZ'YMUS, L. Unleavened;
unfermented; as sea-biscuit. Unleavened bread was formerly termed
AZ'YME[dagger] (-e-me) and AZ'YMUS[dagger] by theologists.
=BAB'LAH.= The rind or shell of the fruit of _mimosa cineraria_. According
to Dr Ure, it contains a considerable quantity of gallic acid, some
tannin, a red colouring principle, and an azotised substance, and is the
article imported from the East Indies and Senegal under the name of
NEB-NEB.--Used as a cheap dye-stuff for various shades of drab and grey.
=BAC'CA= (b[)a]k'-[)a]). [L.; pl., bac'cæ, b[)a]k'-s[=e].] A berry.
=BACK.= [D., bak, a bowl or cistern.] _Syn._ BAC. In _brewing_, a large,
open, flat reservoir or cistern; commonly that in which wort is cooled. In
_distillation_, the vessel into which the wort is pumped from the coolers,
in order to be 'worked' with yeast. The LIQUOR-BACK in a brewery,
distillery, or rectifying house is the water reservoir or cistern.
=BACKS.= In the _leather trade_, the thickest and stoutest portion of the
hide, used for sole-leather.
=BACON= (b[=a]'-kn). [W., baccun, prob. from Ger., bache, a wild sow; "old
Fr., for dried flesh or pork"--Craig.] The flesh of swine salted and
dried, and subsequently either smoked or not. The term is usually
restricted to the sides and belly so prepared; the other parts of the
animal having distinctive names. Sometimes, though rarely, the term is
extended to the flesh of bears, and of other like animals, cured in a
similar manner.
_Qual., &c._ When bacon has been properly prepared from young and well-fed
animals, and is neither 'stale' nor 'rusty,' it forms a very wholesome and
excellent article of food, especially adapted for a light or hasty meal,
or as a relish for bread or vegetables. For persons with a weak stomach,
and for invalids, great care should be taken to cook it without injuring
its flavour, or rendering it indigestible. This is best effected by
cutting it into slices of moderate thickness, and carefully broiling or
toasting it; avoiding dressing it too hastily, too slowly, or too much.
The common practice of cooking it in almost wafer-like slices, until it
becomes brown and crisp, renders it not merely indigestible, but also a
most fertile source of heartburn and dyspepsia. Fried bacon is remarkably
strong, and is hence more likely to offend the stomach than when it is
broiled, or preferably toasted before the fire; the last being, of all
others, the best way of dressing it so as to preserve its delicacy and
flavour. Gourmands, however, often esteem, as 'une bonne bouche,' bacon
dressed in the flame arising from the dropping of its own fat.
_Choice._ Good bacon has a thin rind, and an agreeable odour, the fat has
a firm consistence and a slightly reddish tinge; the lean is of a pleasing
red colour, is tender, and adheres, whilst raw, strongly to the bone. When
the fat is yellow, it is either 'rusty' or becoming so, and should be
avoided. The streaky parts are not only those which are most esteemed, but
are the most wholesome.
Bacon should be broiled or toasted in front of the fire. The rashers
should be in thin slices, and the rind should be removed. The melted fat
from the bacon should never be wasted. To partake of all broiled meats in
perfection they should be served up as soon as they are taken off the
gridiron.
=BACTERIUM= (BACTERION, a little rod). Since the publication of the
researches of Professor Cohn, of Breslau, upon the nature of this
organism, the idea previously entertained by Ehrenberg and others as to
its animal origin has been long abandoned, and microscopists now very
generally regard it as belonging to the vegetable kingdom. It is probably
one of the lowest and most simple forms of vegetable or animal life, and
consists of an envelope more or less enclosing protoplasm--the nitrogenous
substance from which the cell nucleus is formed. Dr Lionel Beale very
carefully crushed a very large bacterium while under observation by the
microscope, and when the external membrane was ruptured the protoplasm was
seen to escape, and to exhibit what Dr Beale regards as vital movement. In
form, bacteria may be either globular, rod-shaped, egg-shaped, or
filamentous. Cohn has described a variety presenting the appearance of
beaded chains, or aggregations.
Bacteria vary considerably in size, some being as much as 1/3000th of an
inch in length, whilst others are less than 1/10000th, and are only
visible by the aid of a glass of very high power, such as the 1/50th of an
inch objective. Dr Beale says, "The germs from which the little particles
spring are far more minute and more difficult to identify. They appear as
minute specks, the largest of them exhibiting a circular outline, and
probably being spherical. The smallest are too minute to be discerned with
the highest magnifying powers at our command. If a specimen of fluid in
which these particles are rapidly growing and multiplying be carefully
examined, many points will be observed to appear from time to time. After
watching with great care for a considerable time a given spot I have
assured myself that new particles actually come into existence; and that
one does not, after intently watching for a time and concentrating the
attention upon a certain space, merely see one coming into view one after
another, as star after star. The material in which the minute germs of
bacteria are imbedded, and which, at least in part, consists of formed
material produced by the bacteria, is much softer than the matter of which
the capsule of fungi consists. It is, perhaps, almost as soft as mucus. I
believe that even the most minute bacterium germ is surrounded by a layer
of such soft formed matter, in which very minute particles of bioplasm
(protoplasm) divide and subdivide before they attain even the 1/100000th
of an inch in diameter. When, therefore, bacteria in an early stage of
development dry, it is not possible to identify them. When moistened, the
dry mass swells up, and the bioplasm in the soft mucus-like matter grows,
each particle producing a fresh investment of formed material, and then if
the conditions are favorable, the germs either at once divide and
subdivide for a time, or grow into perfect bacteria, which move freely and
grow and multiply in this more advanced stage of development."
Bacteria increase by bisection, and when the surrounding conditions are
favorable their rate of production is marvellous. It has been computed
that an individual bacterium will generate nearly 17,000,000 of its
fellows within twenty-four hours. The very probable vegetable origin and
nature of bacteria insisted upon by Professor Cohn not only appears to
derive great support from his researches into the metamorphoses they
undergo during development, &c., but also from their behaviour with
certain chemical reagents. For instance, it was found that boiling them in
solution of potash had no effect, and also when treated with sulphuric
acid and iodine they deported themselves somewhat as cellulin does under
like circumstances; although from their extreme minuteness any changes
that take place in their tissue are very difficult to observe. Another
remarkable analogy presented between bacteria and plants is the manner in
which they both assimilate the elements of which they are built up; for
they derive their nitrogen not from previously existing albuminous
compounds, but from ammonia.
They may be made to develop themselves in any fluid if the fluid contains
an organic substance in which carbon is present, a nitrogenous substance
which need not be organic, and a phosphate. They appear to derive their
carbon by the decomposition of almost any substance, containing this
element except carbonic acid, and they will obtain their nitrogen from a
nitrate, the nitrate becoming reduced to the state of a nitrite. A
knowledge of these facts will of course indicate the method to be followed
if we wish to obtain bacteria. All that we have to do is to prepare a
liquid that fulfils the conditions just stated. Dr J. Burdon Sanderson
gives the following formula for one:--Phosphate of potassium 1/2 per
cent., sulphate of magnesium, 1/2 per cent., dissolve in water having a
trace of phosphate of calcium in suspension, and then add a per cent. of
tartrate of ammonium, and boil the mixture. If properly boiled the liquid
will be free from bacteria; but the contact of almost any organic
substance, for example, a drop of water, a pinch of hay, a morsel of meal,
&c., will cause their appearance.
The tenacity of life exhibited by the bacteria is extremely great. Dr
Beale says, "Extreme dryness does not destroy them, and they withstand a
temperature far below the freezing point; and that under adverse
circumstances they remain dormant, and are not destroyed by a degree of
heat which is fatal probably to every other living organism." Bastian says
that the germs of bacteria are destroyed at a temperature of 160° F., but
others are of opinion that under certain circumstances these germs are not
killed at 212°, and that they may increase and multiply after having been
exposed to this degree of heat. Professor Tyndall indeed has shown that in
one experiment heating for a quarter of an hour at a temperature of 230°
F. was insufficient to destroy them, whilst in another the five minutes'
exposure of an atmosphere containing them to the incandescence of the
voltaic current failed to kill them.
Cohn relates that manufacturers of pots of preserved peas at Lubek have
since 1858 been obliged to cook them in a solution of 28 per cent. of
salt, at a temperature of 226° F., to prevent the putrefaction of their
contents, as in warm years nearly half the pots were found to be spoiled.
In experiments made in conjunction with Dr Hare, Cohn found that in
infusions boiled for less than fifteen minutes organisms were, without
exceptions, developed. Somewhat lower temperature proved fatal to the
great majority of bacteria. Those that survived were all found to belong
to the genus _Bacillus_, and among _bacilli_ to the species _Bacillus
subtilis_.
The experiments of Drs Ferrier and Burdon Sanderson would seem to show
that bacteria do not nominally exist in the fluids and tissues of the
body, but that their presence in the animal fluids may be traced to
external surface contamination with ordinary water, the extent of their
development being in proportion to the amount of the contamination. They
contend that different varieties of water possess different degrees of
what they term the 'zymotic power.' They examined the waters supplied by
the several London water companies, and they found them to consist of
varying degrees of bacterian impurity. They assert that all except freshly
distilled water teems with invisible germs of bacteria. Writing of the
universality of the presence of bacteria and bacterian germs, Dr Beale
remarks:--"It would be difficult to say where bacterium germs do not
exist. In air, in water, in the soil adhering to tiny particles of every
kind, in every region of the earth, from the poles to the equator, they
are found. In the substance of the tissues--nay, in the cells of almost
all plants, and in the interstices of the tissues of many
animals--bacteria germs exist. I know not what part of the body of man and
the higher animals is entirely destitute of particles which under
favorable circumstances develop into bacteria. Upon the skin and the
surface of the mucous membranes they exist in profusion, and they abound
in the mouth and in the follicles and glands."
Dr Eberth, of Zurich, states that he has found on ordinary sweat small
oval-shaped bacteria which are frequently united in strings of two or
three, and endowed with rather active movements. The author thinks that
they very likely conduce to produce certain chemical modifications of
sweat.
Drs Ferrier and Sanderson appear to have satisfactorily proved that fungi
are not developed from microzymes, and that their apparent association is
one of juxtaposition only. They give the following reasons for adopting
this conclusion:--(1) The quick appearance of _torula_ cells in Pasteur's
solution whenever it is exposed to the air, and the rapid development and
luxuriant fructification of the higher form (_penicillium_) show that so
far as the chemical composition of the liquid is concerned, there exist in
it all the conditions favorable to the process. (2) When precautions are
taken to prevent contamination by impure surfaces or liquids, the
development which ends in _penicillium_ goes on from first to last without
the appearance of microzymes. (3) Whenever it is possible to impregnate
the test-liquid with microzymes, without at the same time introducing
torula cells or germs, the development of the former begins and continues
by itself without any transformation into the latter. Thus _fungi_ are not
developed, notwithstanding the presence of microzymes in the same liquid
in which, microzymes being absent, but air having access, they appear with
the greatest readiness. As we have already seen the germs of bacteria
exist largely in air; the experiments of Hiller, of Berlin, would seem to
negative the theory of Ferrier and Sanderson, as they tend to show that
bacteria have little influence on putrefaction.
We are indebted to Dr Lionel Beale for these illustrations, which are
taken from his very interesting work on 'Disease Germs.'
[Illustration]
Hiller's experiments tend to show that putrefaction is independent of the
presence of bacteria, that bacteria can develop in liquids such as urine
without producing its decomposition, and that the degree of their
development and the rate of their multiplication depend upon the amount of
assimilable material.
The following is the definition given to the word 'microzyme' (which
occurs above) by its originator, Dr Sanderson: "I proposed the word
'microzyme' as a convenient general term for the first organic forms which
present themselves in organic nitrogenous liquids when about to undergo
spontaneous decomposition."
From the experiments of Béchamp it appears that under some circumstances
the mother of vinegar, a conglomeration of microzymes, can be transformed
into bacteria, and under other circumstances into a cellular ferment which
can excite normal alcoholic fermentation in cane sugar. Subsequent
researches have shown that the converse of this is also true, and that the
cellular ferment may be transformed into microzymes and bacteria.
A mixture of starch and yeast kept at a temperature of 24° to 35° soon
liquefies, and the yeast undergoes remarkable changes. The cells swell,
become transparent, and gradually disappear. Myriads of microzymes of
great agility spring into existence, then vibrios appear, and as these
increase the microzymes diminish. The vibrios in their turn are succeeded
by myriads of bacteria, and finally the bacteria disappear, leaving
nothing but microzymes, single or coupled together. During these changes a
small quantity of gas is disengaged, no butyric acid is formed, and but
little acetic or lactic acids.
As then the mother of vinegar when changed into bacteria becomes lactic or
butyric ferment, and when transformed into cellular matter becomes
alcoholic ferment, and as beer yeast becomes lactic or butyric ferment
when reduced to microzymes, vibrios, or bacteria, it is evident that the
property of being a ferment of any particular nature does not depend
essentially upon the nature of the ferment, but upon its organisation or
structure.
A contributor to the 'Medical Times and Gazette' of February 2nd, 1878,
advances the opinion that many of the bacteria are only parts of a plant
which has other forms and other modes of growth and propagation when not
confined to the living organism or to fluids, and regards the bacterium as
a transitional or provisional and not as a permanent form, but an abnormal
phase of life thrust upon the plant by accident.
=BACTERIA AS ORIGINATORS OF DISEASE.=--The researches of many eminent
microscopists and physiologists afford abundant evidence of the presence
of bacteria in the blood of persons affected with various infectious
diseases. For instance, Core and Feltz, of Strasbourg, found a linked
bacterium in the blood of those attacked with septicæmia, typhoid, and
puerperal fevers. The same investigators also discovered bacteria in the
blood of patients suffering from scarlet fever; this blood when injected
into the veins of rabbits set up a feverish disease that proved fatal.
Again, in the blood of man and the sheep attacked with smallpox, a
bacterium of the globular or sphere-shaped variety was found by Keber,
Hallier, and Zurn.
Bacteria have also been found in the blood during measles, and in the
splenic apoplexy of sheep and cattle. They have likewise been identified
in diphtheritical exudations both from the kidneys and womb, as well as in
the blood during an attack of rheumatic fever, and they are undoubtedly
present in the same fluid during many feverish disorders. Drs Lewis and
Cunningham failed to discover them in the blood of cholera patients.
Professors Cohn and Koch stand prominently forward as the advocates of the
germ theory of disease by bacteria. Professor Cohn divides the bacteria
into groups, genera, and species, and assigns to each species a different
function.
For instance, he considers the ferment of contagion to be due to the
presence of a variety of the sphere-shaped bacterium--one of his groups.
He divides the whole group into three--the chromogen, zymogen, and
pathogen, the bacteria of pigmentation, of fermentation, and of contagion,
respectively. He says those organisms are exceedingly minute, darkish or
coloured granules, so small as to be immeasurable. They frequently present
the appearance of beaded chains or the form of aggregations. They are
motionless and are occasionally found with the _Bacterium termo_ in
putrefying organic liquids.
Messrs Chauveau and Sanderson have discovered a bacterium in vaccine lymph
which believers in the germ theory class among the pathogen bacteria, and
which they have named the _Micrococcus vaccinæ_. Amongst the pathogen
bacteria they also include the _Micrococcus dipthericus_ and _Micrococcus
septicus_, the former found in the epithelium of certain organs during
certain forms of pyæmia, and the latter in the miliary eruption of typhus,
pyæmia, and other diseases. The chromogen or pigmentary bacteria have
occasionally been the means of working miracles. Several instances of
bread exuding blood, under supernatural circumstances, are related by
Rivola. Ehrenberg found this colour on some bread in the house of a
patient who had died of cholera, and he ascertained the pigment to be due
to the presence of the _Monas prodigiosa_, small round bodies which
Professor Cohn classes with the micrococci, a variety of the sphere-shaped
bacterium.
The recent investigations of Koch were directed to the cause of splenic
fever, and Cohn on examining his specimens found that they were examples
of Bacteria of the species called _Bacillus anthracis_, which seems to
present little or no difference to the _Bacillus subtilis_ of hay
infusions. Koch found that _bacilli_ increase with enormous rapidity in
the blood, and in the fluid of tissues of living animals, by developing in
length and dividing transversely. The animals employed were chiefly mice,
and a small incision being made at the root of the tail, as minute a drop
as possible of the fluid containing the _bacilli_ was injected into the
system. The spleen invariably became enormously swollen, and filled with a
large number of crystalline-looking rods of varying size, never exhibiting
movement or spore formation; they increased in numbers solely by division.
The number of _bacilli_ found in the blood varies in different animals;
thus in the guinea-pig it was enormous, sometimes exceeding that of the
blood-corpuscles; in the rabbit much smaller, so that sometimes several
drops had to be examined before any were found, in the mouse often _nil_.
In the blood of dead animals or other suitable fluids the _bacilli_ grow
to very long straight leptothorax-like filaments (within certain limits of
temperature, and with the presence of air), while the formation of
numerous spores goes on at the same time.
Kohl believes that it is to the presence of the spores that the occurrence
of splenetic fever appears to be referable. When living, inoculation with
them always produced the disease; but if killed, as by drying, or a high
temperature, inoculation failed; it was necessary either that living
spores should be present, or that the filaments should be capable of
generating spores, in order that the disease should be propagated by
inoculation.
Koch tried whether the poisonous bacilli spores could gain entrance
through the digestive organs, but found that mice and rabbits could eat
them with impunity. Koch draws attention to the similarity of splenic
fever to typhus and cholera. He says it presents analogies to typhus in
its dependence on soil-water, its preference for low grounds, its sporadic
occurrence throughout the year, and its development into an epidemic in
the late summer and autumn. Like cholera, again, he says, it is connected
with soil-water, and it also agrees with cholera in the point which has
been so well made out by Pettenkofer, that on board ship an interval of
three or four weeks is sufficient to prevent its further development.
Hence Koch is disposed to hope that the contagium of typhus and cholera
may still be discovered in the form of some _Schizophyte_ or spheroidal
bacterium, though practical observers have hitherto sought for them in
vain.
Many pathologists, however, refuse to accept the accuracy of these
deductions, and regard the presence of bacteria in the blood and tissues
during disease as of no significance; whilst they deny that it is
satisfactorily proved that they are the cause of disease.
Dr Lionel Beale says:--"Changes in the processes of digestion are soon
followed by the multiplication of bacteria in every part of the alimentary
canal, and within a few hours countless millions may be developed. They
multiply in the secretions under certain circumstances, almost as soon as
these are formed, and I have adduced evidence to show that bacteria germs
exist even in healthy blood. In the very substance of some cells I have
seen them, and in many cases in which little granules have been discerned
in connection with bioplasts. There is reason to believe that some of them
are really bacteria germs, passive as long as the higher life is
maintained in its integrity, but ready to grow and multiply the instant a
change favorable to them, and adverse to us, shall occur."
And again he remarks:--"Bacteria prey upon morbid structure, and upon the
substances resulting from the death of bioplasm (protoplasm). We ought
not, therefore, to be surprised at their existence in disease. They are
found in great numbers amongst pus-corpuscles which have ceased to live,
and they grow and multiply with great rapidity in fluids which contain
disease germs, as soon as these begin to lose their specific powers and to
undergo decomposition." See GERMS.
=BAD''GER= (b[)a]j'-[)e]r). _Syn._ ME'LES, L.; BLAIREAU, Fr.; DACHS, Ger.
The _ur'sus me'les_ (Linn.), one of the plantigrade carnivora, a burrowing
nocturnal animal, common in Europe, Asia, and North America. Since the
extirpation of the bear, the badger is the sole representative of the
ursine family in our indigenous zoology. Its habits are "nocturnal,
inoffensive, and slothful; its food consists of roots, earth-nuts, fruits,
the eggs of birds, insects, reptiles, and the smaller quadrupeds; its
noxious qualities are consequently few and of slight moment, and by no
means justify the exterminating war unintermittently waged against it."
(Brande.) Its "muscular strength is great, its bite proverbially powerful;
and a dog must be trained and encouraged to enter willingly into combat"
with it. (Id.)
_Uses, &c._ The flesh of the badger is prized as food; the skin used for
pistol furniture; the hair made into brushes. The American badger is
commonly called the GROUND-HOG. The Cape badger produces HYRACEUM (which
_see_).
=BAD'IANE= (-e-[)a]hn). [Fr.] _Syn._ BAD'IAN, B.-SEED. Star-anise seed.
=BADI''GEON= (b[)a]-d[)i]zh'[=o]ne; b[)a]d'-e-zh[)u]n[double-dagger], or
b[)a]-d[)i]j'[)u]n[double-dagger]--Smart). Among operatives and artists,
any cement used to fill up holes and to cover defects in their work. Among
statuaries, a mixture of plaster and free-stone is commonly used for this
purpose; among joiners and carpenters, a mixture of sawdust and glue, or
of whiting and glue; and among coopers, one of tallow and chalk. The name
is also given to a stone-coloured mixture used for the fronts of houses,
and said to be composed of wood-dust and lime, slaked together, stone
powder, and a little ochre, umber, or sienna; the whole being mixed up
with weak alum water to the consistence of paint, and laid on in dry
weather.
=BAEL.= [Nat.] _Syn._ INDIAN BAEL, BEL*; BAEL, B. IN'DICUS, BE'LA, B.
IN'DICA, L. The _[oe]g'le marmelos_ (Correa; _cratæva m._, Linn.) one of
the Aurantiaceæ (DC.). Dried half-ripe fruit imported from the E. Indies,
under the name of INDIAN BAEL. Astringent and refrigerant; highly extolled
in chronic dysentery, diarrh[oe]a, English cholera, and relaxations
generally. It is also used in bilious fevers, hypochondriasis,
melancholia, &c. Root-bark, stem-bark, and expressed juice of the leaves,
particularly the first, also used in the same cases in India. Ripe fruit
fragrant and delicious; used, in the E. I., as a warm cathartic, and
regarded as a certain cure for habitual costiveness. Mucus of the seeds
used by painters as size; also as a cement. Unripe fruit used to dye
yellow. It is generally administered under the form of DECOCTION or
EXTRACT (which _see_).
=BAGASSE'= (-g[)a]s'). [Fr.] The dry refuse stalks of the sugar cane as
they leave the crushing-mill.--Used as fuel in the colonial sugar-houses.
=BAGG'ING.= The cloth or materials of which bags or sacks are made. In
_agriculture_, applied to a method of reaping corn by a chopping, instead
of a drawing cut. See RATS, &c.
=BAHIA POWDER.= See ARAROBA.
=BAHR'S NON-POISONOUS MEDICAL SNUFF.= A snuff largely advertised in the
Berlin journals, composed chiefly of powdered galls. (Hager.)
=BAIN-MARIE.= [Fr.] In _old chemistry_, a water bath; also, sometimes, a
sand bath. In _cookery_, a shallow vessel containing heated water, in
which saucepans, &c., are placed, when it is necessary either to make them
hot, or to keep them so, without allowing them to boil. It is extremely
useful in making sauces, warming soups and small dishes, and when dinners
are delayed after they are ready to be served.
=BA''KING= (b[=a]ke'-). _Syn._ ACTION DE CUIRE AU FOUR, Fr. The
process of cooking, or of heating, drying, and hardening any
substance in an oven or kiln, or by the rays of the sun; the art or
trade of a baker[double-dagger]; also technically, a batch or
ovenful, or the quantity baked at once (= FOURNÉE, Fr.).
In _cookery_, baking is, perhaps, of all others, the cheapest, most
convenient, and best way of dressing dinners for small families, where a
good domestic oven is at hand. Though the flavour of baked meat is
generally considered barely equal to that of the same parts roasted, there
are some joints and dishes to which it appears particularly suitable.
Among these may be mentioned legs and loins of pork, legs and shoulders of
mutton, fillets of veal, &c. A baked pig, if it has been occasionally
basted, and the heat has not been too great, eats equal to a roast one.
Geese and ducks treated in the same way are also excellent. A baked hare
which has been basted with raw milk and butter also eats well; and so do
various pieces of beef, especially the buttock. Cooks tell us that this
last should be sprinkled with a little salt for a day or two before
dressing it, and after being washed is preferably baked, along with about
a pint of water, in a glazed earthen pan tied over with writing paper,
'three or four times thick.' A baked ham is said to be preferable to a
boiled one; to be tenderer, fuller of gravy, and finer flavoured. It
should be soaked in water for about an hour, wiped dry, and covered with a
coarse thin paste or batter. Ordinary dishes require similar treatment in
baking to that given them when roasted.
For domestic use, where the kitchen-range does not include a really good
oven, the portable articles known as a 'DUTCH-OVEN,' and an 'American
oven,' form an excellent substitute, admirably adapted for small joints,
poultry, &c., all of which, when these utensils are skilfully employed,
possess a delicacy and flavour fully equal to the same when roasted;
whilst not more than one half the fire is required for the purpose.
According to Miss Acton they also "answer excellently for delicate sweet
puddings, and for cakes." See BREAD, CAKES, ROASTING, &c.
=Baking Pow'der.= See POWDERS.
=Baking Powder, American.= For making light pastry. Tartaric acid and
chalk. (Reichardt.)
=Baking Powder, Borwick's German=, is an artificial fermentation powder,
compounded with coarse maize-flour. (Gädike.)
=Baking Powder, Goodall's=, is a compound of 2 parts of rice flour with 1
part of a mixture of tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda. (K. Boschan.)
=Baking Powder or Yeast Powder, Professor Horsford's= (Cambridge, U.S.).
This is a powder supplied in two packets. The one contains an acid
phosphate of lime and magnesia made up with a certain quantity of flour,
and the other is bicarbonate of soda, with a little chloride of potassium.
=BAL'ANCE.= As in the process of what is termed gravimetric analysis the
chemist has to determine the weights of the different substances employed
as well as found, it will be self-evident that for his results to be
trustworthy the balance he employs must be perfectly accurate and
reliable.
The accompanying drawing, from Roscoe, represents a common form of
chemical balance.
[Illustration]
The apparatus consists of a perforated brass beam (AA), vibrating about
its centre, at which is fixed a triangular knife-edge of agate (C); this
rests upon a horizontal agate plane attached to the upright brass pillar.
To each end of the beam light brass pans (BB) are hung, each pan being
suspended by an agate plane, upon an agate knife-edge fixed on the end of
the beam at DD. This arrangement is rendered necessary in order to reduce
as much as possible the friction of the edges on their supports, which
friction, if unchecked, would seriously impair the sensibility of the
balance.
In order to prevent the agate edges being worn away by constantly rubbing
on the agate planes, the beam and the ends (DD) are supported by the brass
arm (EE), when the balance is not in use, so that the agate surfaces are
not in contact. The beam and pans are released when required by turning
the handle (F). The movement of the brass arm (EE) is accompanied by means
of a rod descending through the upright brass pillar, and resting on a
simple eccentric, by the turning of which by the handle (F) it may be
gradually raised or lowered. The substance to be weighed (held by a tube,
watch glass, &c.) is placed in one of the pans, and weights added one by
one in the other, until the beam is in equilibrium: this is ascertained by
the long pointer(G) oscillating to an equal distance on each side of the
central mark or index, this latter being subdivided into equal spaces, so
that the oscillations can be measured. A spirit level is also a necessary
appendage to the instrument, since it enables the operator to place the
beam on an exactly horizontal level.
The beam of the balance is generally graduated into decimals. This saves
the trouble of placing a weight on the scale, since it enables the
operator to weigh the milligramme and its fractions by suspending a
centigramme rider or hook on or between the indicated points of a
graduated line.
The balance is enclosed in a glass case, which serves not only to protect
it from dust, but to allow of the weighing being carried on away from the
outer air, in which the prevalence of draughts proves a source of
considerable annoyance to the weigher. The front of the scale case
generally consists of three parts, viz. a fixed centre piece and two
lateral frames or doors, all of course of glass. It is of importance that
the air inside the balance case should be perfectly dry, since a humid
atmosphere would not only affect the weight of many hygroscopic substances
when placed in the pans, but likewise be liable to attack the instrument
itself. To guard against these casualties a small beaker containing oil of
vitriol, or chloride of calcium, or freshly-burnt lime, should be kept in
the case. A balance capable of weighing 70 or 80 grammes in each scale
will be found to meet the needs of most chemists.
Fresenius says, "The ACCURACY of a balance depends upon the following
conditions:
"_a._ The fulcrum must be placed above the centre of gravity of the beam.
"_b._ The suspension points of the scales must be on an exact level with
the fulcrum.
"_c._ The beam must be sufficiently strong and inflexible to bear without
bending the greatest weight that the construction of the balance admits
of.
"_d._ The arms of the balance must be of equal length; _i.e._ the points
of suspension must be equidistant from the fulcrum or point of support.
"The SENSIBILITY or DELICACY of a balance depends upon the following
conditions:
"_a._ The friction of the edges upon their supports must be as slight as
possible.
"_b._ The centre of gravity must be as near as possible to the fulcrum.
"_c._ The beam must be as light as possible."
The following are the tests given by the same authority for the accuracy
and sensibility of a balance:
"1. The balance is in the first place accurately adjusted, if necessary,
either by the regulating screws, or by means of tinfoil, and a milligramme
weight is then placed in one of the scales. A good and practically useful
balance must turn distinctly with this weight; a delicate chemical balance
should indicate the one tenth of a milligramme with perfect distinctness.
"2. Both scales are loaded with the maximum weight the construction of the
balance will admit of; the balance is then _accurately_ adjusted, and a
milligramme added to the weight in one scale. This ought to cause the
balance to turn to the same extent as in 1. In most balances, however, it
shows somewhat less on the index.
"3. The balance is accurately adjusted should it be necessary to establish
a perfect equilibrium between the scales by loading the one with a minute
portion of tinfoil (this tinfoil must be left remaining upon the scale
during the experiment); both scales are then equally loaded, say with
about fifty grammes each, and if necessary the balance is again adjusted
(by the addition of small weights, &c.). The load of the two scales is
then interchanged, so as to transfer that of the right scale to the left,
and _vice versâ_. A balance with perfectly equal arms must maintain its
absolute equilibrium upon the interchange of the weights of the two
scales.
"4. The balance is accurately adjusted; it is then arrested, subsequently
set in motion, and again allowed to recover its equilibrium; the same
process should be repeated several times. A good balance must invariably
reassume its original equilibrium.
"A balance of which the end edges afford too much play to the hook resting
upon them, so as to allow the latter slightly to alter its position, will
show perceptible differences in different trials. This fault, however, is
possible only with balances of defective construction.
"A balance to be perfectly useful for the purposes of quantitative
analysis _must_ stand the first, second, and last of these tests. A slight
inequality of the arms is of no great consequence, since this may be
readily and completely remedied by the manner of weighing." See WEIGHTS.
=Balance, Hydrostat'ic.= See SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
=Balance, Tor'sion.= A delicate instrument, invented by Coulomb, for
measuring the intensities of the electrical and magnetic forces.
=BALD'NESS= (bawld'-). _Syn._ CAL'VITAS, CALVI''TIES (v[)i]sh'-e-[=e]z),
L.; CALVITIE, CHAUVETÉ, Fr.; KAHLHEIT, KAHLKOPF, KAHLKÖPFIGHEIT, Ger.
Primarily, absence or loss of any natural covering; appr., destitution or
loss of hair, more especially of that of the top and fore-part of the
head. In _botany_, absence of beard or awn.
Grey hair and baldness dependent on old age are natural consequences of
man's infirmity, and must be regarded as evidence of failing vigour,
rather than in the light of a disease. Premature loss of hair may be
induced by various causes. It is common after severe fevers, and is
frequently caused by external pressure, friction, or violence, and by such
other local actions and conditions which, when long continued, interrupt
the normal functions of the skin. Persons with a consumptive, scorbutic,
scrofulous, or syphilitic taint, or of a general bad habit of body,
frequently lose their hair early. In these cases it probably arises from
debility or paralysis of the cutaneous vessels, and the consequent
insufficient nutrition of the hair-bulbs. When it occurs in persons under
the middle age, and apparently enjoying good health, it may be often
traced to the pernicious practice of constantly wearing a hard
non-ventilating hat, or to disordered stomach, habitual smoking or hard
drinking, irregular habits, or late hours. Excessive anxiety or grief, and
intense study and thoughtfulness, also tend to promote the early decay of
the hair. The natural baldness of the aged, and frequently the premature
baldness of earlier years, arises from the gradual attenuation of the
scalp, which ultimately becomes too thin to afford room for the
performance of the functions of the hair-producing organs, and too
scantily supplied with blood for their due nutrition and support.[104]
[Footnote 104: In such cases it will be found that, owing to this
attenuation, the scalp covers a larger portion of the skull than
previously; and that its sides have somewhat receded from the top of the
head, so that the roots of the remaining hair descend lower towards the
forehead, temples, and back of the neck, than when the parts were in
vigorous health. This may be perceived by applying the open hand to the
part, and then gently closing the fingers, when the scalp may be drawn
into its original position, and will then appear loose and wrinkled over
the occiput, &c.; and this in a manner very different to what occurs when
the top of the head is covered, or well-covered, with hair.]
_Treatm._ The baldness of senility and that arising from the permanent
injury or destruction of the hair-bulbs, admit of no cure, notwithstanding
the daily assurances of advertising impostors to the contrary. In other
cases, when a disposition to baldness exists, shown by the hair falling
off in large quantities, or ceasing to grow with its usual vigour and
rapidity, the frequent but gentle use of the hair-brush, and of any bland
stimulating oil, pomade, or wash, if adopted in time, will generally prove
sufficient to arrest the progress of decay, and, very frequently, to
restore the hair to its pristine condition. The head may be advantageously
washed in cold water, at least once a day; or what is better, a shower
bath may be taken on rising in the morning. Should this plan not succeed,
the head, or the upper part of it, may be shaved, and a wig, or a scalp,
adopted for a time. The effect of keeping the hair closely cropped or
shaved is to make it grow thicker, stiffer, and stronger, and this often
when all other means fail.
Among more active and less common remedies for baldness may be
mentioned--mild streaming electricity, stimulant fomentations,
cantharidised, ioduretted, phosphoretted, &c., oils and lotions, a
night-cap that, without pressing injuriously on the head, lifts, as it
were, the scalp into its natural position, &c., all of which are noticed
elsewhere.
The celebrated John Wesley recommended rubbing the part morning and
evening with a raw onion until it became red, and then applying a little
honey. The vendors of Rowland's 'Macassar Oil' recommend the head to be
rubbed with a towel (or hair-brush), until somewhat red, each time before
applying their nostrum; and the advice is certainly good, as independent
of the stimulus thus given to the skin, and the increased flow of blood
through the minute vessels of the scalp, it is rendered more absorbent and
sensitive to the action of medicaments. At the same time the reader must
be cautioned against placing any reliance on external applications, unless
he assists their action by due attention to diet, exercise, ventilation,
and such other matters as tend to promote the general health and vigour of
the body.
The substances usually employed to medicate hair-cosmetics, the general
management of the hair, and the formulæ for various applications to
promote its growth, preservation, and beauty, are noticed in the articles
HAIR, HAIR-COSMETICS, POMADES, OILS, WASHES, &c., to which the reader is
referred.
=BALEEN'= (-l[=e]ne'). [Fr. _baleine._] The fisher's name for whalebone.
=BALL= (bawl). [Eng., Ger., Swed.] _Syn._ BALLE, BOULE, Fr.; BAL, BOL,
Dau.; GLOB-U-LUS, PI'LA, L. In _commerce_, _veterinary medicine_,
_perfumery_, &c., applied to various substances made up into a globular,
spheroidal, or even a cylindrical form, as ash-balls, horse-balls,
soap-balls, &c.
=BALLOON'= (-l[=o][=o]n'). _Syn._ BALLON, Fr., Ger. Any hollow spherical
body of which the sides are extremely thin or attenuated in comparison
with its diameter or bulk. In _aërostatics_, a machine or apparatus for
elevating and sustaining bodies in the air. In _chemistry_, a globular
glass-receiver, with either one or two necks (= GROS RÉCIEIENT, FR.;
GROSSE R., Ger.). In _pyrotechny_, a hollow case or ball of pasteboard
filled with fire-works or combustibles, which explodes in the air on being
fired from a mortar.
=Balloon.= In _aërostation_, a bag or hollow pear-shaped vessel, made of
varnished silk or other light material, and inflated with some gas or
vapour lighter than the air, as hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, heated
air, &c., so as to rise and float in the atmosphere. When filled with gas
it is called by way of distinction an AIR-BALLOON (_aérostat_, &c., Fr.,
_lufball_, _luft-schiff_, &c., Ger.); when with heated air, a FIRE-BALLOON
or MONTGOLFIER B. (_ballon à feu_, &c., Fr.).
In the early days of aërostation, and indeed for some years afterwards,
balloons were inflated with hydrogen gas, obtained by the action of
sulphuric acid and water on iron filings or small fragments of iron; but
this method of filing them ultimately gave place to the cheaper and more
convenient supply afforded by the gas-light companies. Of late years, the
coal-gas furnished by the gas-works has been generally, if not solely,
used for the inflation of balloons.
The principles of ballooning may be referred to the well-known difference
in the specific gravity of bodies, and to the physical properties of the
atmosphere. Pure hydrogen, weighed at the level of the sea, is about 16
times lighter than common air; but when prepared on the large scale, and
containing water, and other impurities, it is only from 7 to 11 times
lighter than the atmosphere. A globe of atmospheric air of 1 foot in
diameter, under like circumstances, weighs 1/25 _lb._; a similar globe of
hydrogen (reckoning it only as 6 times lighter than common air, will,
therefore, have an ascensional force of 1/30 _lb._). Now, the weight of
the body of air which a balloon displaces must exceed the gross weight of
the balloon and all its appendages, in order for the latter to ascend in
the atmosphere. The difference of the two weights expresses the
ascensional force. The aërostatic power of balloons is proportional to
their dimensions, in the ratio of the cubes of their diameters. Thus, it
appears that a balloon of 60 feet diameter filled with common hydrogen
will ascend with a weight of nearly 7000 _lbs._, besides the gas case;
whilst one of only 1-1/2 foot in diameter will barely float, owing to the
less proportionate volume of gas to the weight of the case containing it.
In round numbers the buoyancy of a balloon may be reckoned as equal to 1
_oz._ for every cubic foot of hydrogen it contains, _less_ the weight of
the case and appendages. The carburetted hydrogen supplied by the
gas-works is much heavier than hydrogen gas, and consequently much less
buoyant, for which due allowance must be made. That which possesses the
least illuminating power is the lightest, and consequently the best
adapted for aërostation.
The fabric of which the cases of air-balloons are made is strong thin
silk, covered with an elastic varnish of drying oil or india rubber, or,
what is better, a solution of india rubber in either chloroform or
bisulphide of carbon; the netting is of strong light silk or flaxen cord;
and the car of basket-work. Fire-balloons, on the small scale, are
generally made of silver-paper, and are inflated with the fumes of burning
spirit of wine, by means of a sponge dipped in that liquid, and suspended
just within the mouth of the apparatus.
Owing to the increasing rarity of the atmosphere as we ascend from the
earth's surface, balloon cases are made very much larger than is required
to contain the necessary quantity of gas, to allow for its expansion as it
rises into a rarer medium. A cubical foot of gas measured at the level of
the sea occupies a space of two feet at an elevation of 3-1/2 miles.
The following _Table_ will prove useful to the amateur aëronaut or
balloonist:--
TABLE _showing the relations between the diameters,
surfaces, and capacities of spheres_.
---------------------------------------------
| Diameters. | Surfaces. | Cubical contents.|
---------------------------------------------
| 1 | 3·141 | ·523 |
| 2 | 12·567 | 4·188 |
| 3 | 28·274 | 14·137 |
| 4 | 50·265 | 33·51 |
| 5 | 78·54 | 65·45 |
| 10 | 314·159 | 523·6 |
| 15 | 706·9 | 1767·1 |
| 20 | 1256·6 | 4189· |
| 25 | 1963·5 | 8181· |
| 30 | 2827· | 14137· |
| 40 | 5026· | 33510· |
---------------------------------------------
See ATMOSPHERE, GAS, HYDROGEN, PARACHUTE, VARNISH, &c.
=BALLOON'ING[double-dagger].= _Syn._ BALLOON'RY[dagger]*. The act, art, or
practice of ascending or travelling in balloons; aërostation. A
BALLOON'IST[double-dagger] is an aëronaut (particularly an amateur or
enthusiastic one).
=BALLS.= The application of this term in _commerce_, _perfumery_,
_veterinary medicine_, &c., has been already noticed. (See BALL.) The
following may be inserted here:--
=Balls, Al'mond= (ah'-m[)u]nd). _Syn._ BOULES D'AMANDE, Fr. _Prep._ 1.
Spermaceti, 4 _oz._; white wax (pure) 8 _oz._; oil of almonds, 1 pint;
melt them together in a glazed earthenware-vessel, by the heat of a water
bath, and when the mixture has cooled a little, add essential oil of
almonds, and expressed oil of mace, of each 2 _dr._; stir assiduously
until it begins to cool, and then pour it into the moulds, which may be
ounce-gallipots with smooth bottoms (very slightly warmed), when it will
form beautiful hemispherical cakes. Very fine.
2. Hard clarified suet, 1-1/4 _lb._; white wax, 1/4 _lb._; ess. oil of
almonds, 1-1/2 _dr._; oil of cloves (or of pimento), 1/2 _dr._; as before.
_Uses, &c._ To soften the skin, and in winter to prevent chaps and
chilblains. Sometimes these balls are coloured, which is done whilst the
mixture is in the liquid state. A rich pink or red may be given by a
little alkanet-root or dragon's blood; a yellow, by palm oil or annotta; a
blue, by a little finely powdered indigo; and a green, with spinage
(steeped in the oil before use), or a few grains of verdigris. The most
appropriate tint for them is a pale yellow or amber.
=Balls, Barèges= (-r[=a]zhe'). _Syn._ BOULES DE BARÈGES, Fr. _Prep._ 1.
Extract of soap-wort, 3 _oz._; good glue or gelatin, 1-1/2 _oz._; water, 4
_oz._; dissolve with heat, and add of sulphide of calcium, 6 _oz._; common
salt, 1 _oz._ (both in powder); mix thoroughly, and form the mass into
balls weighing 2-1/2 _oz._ each, adding a little powdered gum, if
required, to thicken it, and using powdered starch to roll them in.
2. Gelatin, 8 _oz._; sulphide of calcium, 12 _oz._; common salt, 2 _oz._;
water, q. s.; after solution and admixture, add carbonate of soda and
Castile soap, of each (in powder), 2-1/2 _oz._ One ball is added to the
water of a bath for an adult, to be used as a substitute for that of
Barèges.
=Balls, Bitter.= _Prep._ 1. Powdered gentian, 2 _lbs._; extract of
gentian, 1 _lb._; grains of paradise (ground), 1/2 _lb._ syrup, q. s.; mix
with heat, and divide into half-pound rolls. For ALE.
2. To the above add of Spanish-juice, 1-1/2 _lb._; previously softened
with a little boiling water For PORTER and STOUT. Both are used by
fraudulent brewers; and by publicans in reducing their beer.
=Balls, Black'ing.= _Prep._ 1 (Bailey's). Gum-tragacanth, 1 _oz._; water,
4 _oz._; dissolve, add of sugar candy, 4 _oz._; and afterwards,
ivory-black and Prussian blue (in very fine powder), of each 2 _oz._;
neat's foot oil, 2 _fl. oz._; thoroughly incorporate, and evaporate by a
gentle heat, constantly stirring, until of a proper consistence, then pour
it into oiled moulds.
2. Gum-arabic, moist sugar, and ivory-black, of each 1/2 _lb._;
lamp-black, 1/4 _lb._; glue (melted with a little water), 2 _oz._; water,
1 quart, or q. s.; neat's foot oil, 1/4 pint; as before.--Used by the
shoemakers, harness-makers, &c., to blacken and polish leather. See BALLS,
HEEL.
=Balls, Breech'es.= See BALLS, SCOURING.
=Balls, Bronze.= See BALLS, COPYING.
=Balls, Cam'phor.= _Syn._ CAM'PHOR-CAKES, CHAP'-BALLS[double-dagger],
CHIL'BLAIN B.[double-dagger], &c.; GLOB'ULI CAMPHORA'TI, PLACEN'TÆ
CAMPHORA'TÆ, &c., L. _Prep._ 1. Spermaceti and white wax, of each 2
_oz._; almond or olive oil, 1/4 pint; melt together by a gentle heat, add
of camphor (in small pieces), 1 _oz._; when dissolved, stir until partly
cold, and then pour it into moulds, as directed under ALMOND-CAKES
(_above_).
2. Clarified suet, 1 _lb._; spermaceti and white wax, of each, 3 _oz._;
camphor, 2 _oz._; as before.
3. Spermaceti cerate (Ph. L.), 1 _lb._; spermaceti, 2 _oz._; camphor,
1-1/2 _oz._; as before.
4. To either of the above add of balsam of Peru, 1/4 to 1/2 _oz._; and,
after solution, either strain the mixture through muslin, or allow it to
settle, and decant the clear portion from the dregs.
_Use, &c._ A popular preventive of chapping and chilblains. A little is
well rubbed into the skin, previously washed clean and wiped dry. Some
persons add colour and scent; but they are generally sold without either.
The only suitable colours are amber, pink, or yellow. The best perfumes
are allspice, ambergris, cassia, cloves, mush, nutmeg, rondoletia,
vanilla, and violets. See BALLS, ALMOND (_antè_).
=Balls, Clothes.= See BALLS, SCOURING.
=Balls, Contrayer'va.= _Syn._ LA'PIS CONTRAYER'VÆ, GLOB'ULI C., L.
Compound contrayerva-powder made into balls with gum-water. An obsolete
preparation, once in great repute as a stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic, and
absorbent.
=Balls, Cop'ying.= These have a similar composition to 'heel-balls' (see
_below_). For BLACK, the best colouring matter is lamp-black or plumbago
with about half its weight of indigo; for a BRONZE-COLOUR, bronze-powder
is substituted; and for a mellow BROWN, burnt terra di Sienna. These
should be all in very fine powder. The semi-fluid mass is poured into
small flat cylindrical moulds--paper pill-boxes answer the purpose
well.--Used by artists and amateurs to copy inscriptions, monumental
brasses, and other slightly raised or sunken patterns; the ball being
rubbed over the paper previously laid flat on the design, and held
securely in its place. They are sometimes rendered more permanent by
damping the wrong side with a sponge dipped in water, strong spirit, or
oil of turpentine; or by passing the wrong side over a hot iron held with
the face upwards.
=Balls, Cosmet'ic.= See SAVONETTES, &c. (also _above_).
=Balls, Cream.= See SAVONETTES, SOAP BALLS, &c.
=Balls, Dog.= See DOGS.
=Balls, Gas'coign's.= _Syn._ GLOB'ULI GASCOIG'NII, L. Gascoign's powder
made up into small balls with thin mucilage. See POWDERS.
=Balls, Heel.= _Prep._ 1. (Ullathorne's.) Bees' wax, 1 _lb._; suet, 4
_oz._; melt together, and stir in of ivory-black (very finely powdered), 4
_oz._; lamp-black (sifted), 3 _oz._; gum arabic and sugar-candy, of each
(in very fine powder) 2 _oz._; and, when thoroughly mixed and partly cold,
pour the composition into tin or leaden moulds.