1. ASPHYXIA ALGIDA:--_Cause._ Exposure to intense cold.--_Symp._
Countenance pale, livid, and shrivelled; limbs rigid.
2. ASPHYXIA ELEC'TRICA:--_Cause._ Stroke of lightning or
electricity.--_Symp._ Countenance pale, limbs flexible, blood
incoagulable.
3. ASPHYXIA MEPHIT'ICA:--_Cause._ Inhalation of irrespirable gases or
fumes.--_Symp._ Countenance pallid, lips wan, &c.
4. ASPHYXIA SUFFOCATIO'NIS:--_Cause._ Suffocation or strangulation, as
from drowning, hanging, &c.--_Symp._ Countenance turgid and livid.
_Treatm., &c._ No general rules can be given exactly suitable to each
variety. Whenever it is possible to procure medical aid, it should, of
course, be immediately sought, as the delay of even a single minute may
render it unavailing. In the _treatment_ of suspended animation the
principal object is to effect a restoration of the respiratory and
circulatory functions; the former of which has been arrested by the
external condition of the patient; the latter by the contact of morbidly
carbonised blood with the capillary vessels of the lungs. The first thing
to be attempted is the restoration of warmth by active friction with the
warm hands, flannels, &c.; the second, the re-establishment of natural
respiration by an available means, of which, perhaps, none is simpler or
better than alternate pressure and its relaxation, applied to the thorax
and abdomen, so as to induce expiration first, and inspiration immediately
afterwards, by the natural action and elasticity of the ribs and
diaphragm. Cold water may also be suddenly dashed on the face and general
surface previously warmed by the frictions, in the hope of inducing a more
decided inspiration. If these measures fail, artificial respiration should
be promptly had recourse to. (Dr Marshall Hall.) The warm bath, and slight
electrical shocks, or continued streaming electricity, may also be
applied.
See CHARCOAL, COLD, DROWNING, HANGING, RESPIRATION (Artificial),
SEWERS-GAS, STRANGULATION, SUFFOCATION, &c.
=ASPHYX'IATED.= _Syn._ ASPHYXIA'TUS, L.; ASPHYXIÉ, Fr.; ASPHYKTISCH,
SCHEINTODT, &c., Ger. Affected with or labouring under asphyxia. (See
_above_.)
=ASP'IC=[dagger]. Spike lavender or French lavender; also the male
lavender, spica nardi, or pseudo-nardus of old writers.
=Aspic.= In _cookery_, "savory jelly extracted from the succulence of
meat." (Soyer.)
_Prep._ (Miss Acton.) Calf's feet, 2 in no.; veal, 4 _lbs._; ham, 3 _lb._;
onions, 2 (large); carrots, 3; water, 1 gall.; boil 5 or 6 hours, or until
reduced to less than one half, strain, and when cold, put the jelly into a
stew-pan with the whites of 4 eggs well beaten, a large bunch of savoury
herbs, 3 blades of mace (in shreds), a teaspoonful of white peppercorns,
and salt, q. s.; keep it well stirred until pretty hot, then let it gently
simmer for about 15 minutes, and, after settling, pass it through a
jelly-bag till quite clear. After cooling a little, it is fit for use; or
it may be allowed to cool and be at any time remelted. French cooks
commonly flavour it with tarragon-vinegar, added after clarification.
_Uses, &c._ "Cold poultry, game, fish, plovers' eggs, truffles, and
various dressed vegetables, with many other things often elaborately
prepared, and highly ornamental, are moulded, and served in it, especially
at large déjeûners and similar repasts. It is also much used to decorate
raised pies and hams, and for many other purposes."[93]
[Footnote 93: Miss Acton's 'Modern Cookery,' Longmans, 1860{?}, p. 104.]
=ASPIRATOR.= An apparatus for drawing a stream of air through a tube or
other vessel. There are several forms of aspirator; that invented by
Brunner is perhaps one of the most convenient. It consists of two equal
cylindrical vessels placed one above the other, and communicating by tubes
which can be opened or closed, so that when the water has run from the
upper to the lower vessel, the apparatus turning for the purpose on a
horizontal axis may be inverted so as to bring the empty vessel to the
bottom and the full one to the top; the water may then again be made to
flow without the trouble of refilling. See AIR, ANALYSIS OF.
=ASS= ([)a]ss). _Syn._ AS'INUS, L.; ANE (âne), Fr.; ESEL, Ger. The _e'quus
as'inus_ (Linn.), a well-known animal found almost everywhere.
=ASSAF[OE]TIDA.= [L. and Eng.] _Syn._ ASSAFETIDA, DEVIL'S DUNG, Eng.;
ASSAF[OE]TIDA GUMMI, L.; STINKASAND, STINKENDER ASAND, TEUFELS-DRECK, Ger.
A gum resin exuded from the excised root of _narthex assaf[oe]tida_ (B.
P.); from _ferula assaf[oe]fida_, and probably from _ferula Persica_. It
yields its virtues to alcohol, and forms a clear tincture, which becomes
milky on the addition of water. It is imported into Europe from Persia,
viâ Bombay, in cases, mats, and casks.
_Comp._ Assaf[oe]tida contains from 4 to 5% of a peculiar volatile oil,
and from 50 to 60% of resin of a whitish colour, turning rose-red and
reddish-brown by exposure to the air, and giving a greenish solution with
concentrated sulphuric acid. Brande resolved this resin into two
others--one soluble in ether; the other insoluble in that menstruum.
_Pur._ The assaf[oe]tida of the shops is generally in masses of a whitish,
reddish, or violet hue, formed principally of adhering tears or grains,
possesses a peculiar f[oe]tid, alliaceous odour, and forms an emulsion
with water in all proportions. Hot sulphuric acid blackens it and forms a
dark blood-red liquid, sulphurous fumes being evolved. This solution
diluted with water, and then saturated with potassa, has a blue colour,
which is most visible by reflected light. Digested first in alcohol, and
afterwards in weak spirit-and-water, the residuum should not exceed 16%.
Sp. gr. 1·325 to 1·330. It is frequently adulterated with inferior gums,
and with chalk, clay, sand, &c. The purest and best is that which is
clear, of a more or less pale-red colour, full of white tears, and very
f[oe]tid.
_Prop., Uses, &c._ Assaf[oe]tida is stimulant, antispasmodic, emmenagogue,
expectorant, aphrodisiac, and anthelmintic, and is the most powerful of
all the f[oe]tid gum-resins. It is administered with advantage in several
uterine diseases, hysteria, chorea, flatulent colic, hooping-cough,
infantile convulsions, spasmodic asthma, and some other affections of a
spasmodic and convulsive character.--_Dose_, 5 or 6 to 30 gr.; in pills,
or preferably made into an emulsion; as an enema, 2 dr., with warm water,
q. s.--_Dose for Animals._ Similar to Assaf[oe]tida. Some oriental nations
esteem it highly as a condiment. The Brahmins use it against flatulence,
and to correct the coldness of their vegetable food. In Persia the leaves
of the plant are eaten as salad; and the root, after being roasted. In
_cookery_ it is now frequently employed as a substitute for garlic. "I am
assured by an experienced gastronome that the finest relish which a
beef-steak can possess may be communicated by" (slightly) "rubbing the
gridiron on which the steak is to be cooked with assaf[oe]tida."[94]
[Footnote 94: Pereira, 'Mat. Med. & Therap.,' 4th ed., iii, 177.]
=ASSAF[OE]TIDA, PREPARED.= As AMMONIACUM, PREPARED.
=ASSAMAR.= A substance described by Reichenbach, and found by him in the
crust of bread. It possesses the faculty of retarding tissue
metamorphosis.
=ASSAY'= (-s[=a]). _Syn._ ESSAI (_anc._, asaie), Fr. PRÜFUNG, &c., Ger.
Literally, a 'trial' or examination. In _chemistry_, the determination, by
any chemical means, of the richness of a substance in its essential
material or more valuable ingredient; more particularly applied to
quantitative analyses of the commercial alkalies, bleaching-powder, oxide
of manganese, ores, and other like articles that are employed on the large
scale. In _docimacy_ and _metallurgy_ the determination of the quantity of
metal in any ore, alloy, or other metallic compound, particularly in the
'dry way,' or by the process of cupellation; and more especially of the
quantity of pure gold, or pure silver, contained in coin, bullion, and the
commercial alloys and ores of these metals. The substance assayed*. See
ASSAYING, &c.
=ASSAY'ING.= _Syn._ ASSAY', DOC'IMACY (d[)o]os'-) DOCIMAS'TIC ART;
COUPELLATION, Fr.; ABTREIBEN AUF DER CAPELLE, Ger. The art of assay, or of
determining the quantity of gold and silver in ores and alloys of these
metals, in the 'dry way,' or by cupellation. It differs from chemical
analysis in merely furnishing the quantity of the precious metal contained
in the sample examined; instead of the nature and proportions of all, or
any, of the ingredients in the compound, at the will of the operator.
[Illustration:
_a, a_, Rollers on which the furnace rests.
_b_, Ash-pit.
_c_, One of the ash-pit dampers.
_d_, Grate supporting the muffle-plate.
_e_, Muffle containing the cupels.
_f_, The mouth-plate, upon which, during use, is piled ignited
pieces of charcoal, by which the mouth of the furnace is
closed, and heated air made to pass over the cupels.
_h_, Interior of furnace containing charcoal.
_i, i_, Walls of the furnace.
_k_, Moveable chimney for regulating the draught.]
_Materials, Appar., &c._ These are--furnace, muffle, cupels, charcoal,
&c., all of which must be provided and properly arranged for use before an
assay can be made:--
The FUR'NACE employed at the Royal Mint and at Goldsmiths' Hall, London,
is figured in section in the above _fig._, and has the following
dimensions:--Total height, 2-1/2 feet; from the bottom to the grate, 6
inches; grate, muffle-plate, and bed of loam that covers it, 3 inches;
space between the grate and the bottom of the funnel or chimney, 21-1/2
inches; funnel, 6 inches. A furnace of any other shape and size may be
employed, provided it affords a sufficient heat, and allows of the easy
introduction of the muffle.
The MUFF'LE (m[)u]f'l) is a vessel made of clay (see _engr._), and
furnished with an opening to admit of the introduction of the cupels, and
the complete inspection of the process. It is placed on the muffle-plate
(see _above_), by which it is introduced into the furnace.
[Illustration]
The CU'PEL (k[=u]'-p[)e]l) is a small, porous, shallow crucible, usually
made of bone ashes or burnt horn. The powder (slightly moistened with
water) is placed in a circular steel mould, and after being pressed down
tight, is finished off with a rammer having a convex face of polished
steel, which is forcibly struck with a mallet, until the mass becomes
sufficiently hard and adherent. The newly formed cupel is then carefully
removed and exposed in the air for a fortnight or three weeks to dry. Fig.
1 represents a cupel in section, and fig. 2 the tongs used for charging
it. The best weight for cupels ranges between 180 and 200 gr. Those used
at the Royal Mint are made of the calcined cores of ox-horns.
[Illustration]
_Proc. of Ass._ The muffle, with the cupels properly arranged on the
'muffle-plate,' is placed in the furnace, and the charcoal added and
lighted at the top by means of a few ignited pieces thrown on last. After
the cupels have been exposed for about half an hour, and have become
white-hot, the lead (see _below_) is put into them by means of the tongs.
As soon as this becomes bright red and 'circulating,' as it is called, the
specimen for assay, wrapped in a small piece of paper or lead-foil, is
added. The fire is now kept up strongly until the metal enters the lead
and circulates well, when the heat, slightly diminished, is so regulated
that the assay appears convex and more glowing than the cupel itself,
whilst the 'undulations' circulate in all directions, and the middle of
the metal appears smooth, with a margin of litharge which is freely
absorbed by the cupel. When the metal becomes bright and shining, or, in
technical language, begins to 'lighten,' and prismatic hues suddenly flash
across the globules, and undulate and cross each other, followed by the
metal becoming very brilliant and clear, and at length fixed and solid
(called the 'brightening'), the separation is ended and the process
complete. The cupels are then drawn to the mouth of the muffle, and
allowed to cool slowly. When quite cold, the resulting 'button,' if of
silver, is removed by the pliers or tongs from the cupel, and after being
flattened on a small anvil of polished steel, with a polished steel
hammer, to detach adhering oxide of lead, and cleaned with a small hard
brush, is very accurately weighed. The weight is that of the pure silver;
and the difference between the weight of the alloy before cupellation, and
that of the button of pure metal, represents the proportion of alloy in
the sample examined. (See _below_.) In the case of gold, the 'button' has
to undergo the subsequent operations of quartation, parting, and
annealing, before it is weighed, as described under that metal.
_Assayer's weights, &c._ The materials used in assaying are accurately
weighed in a balance of the most susceptible description; and the weights
are given in terms of the 'notation' employed by assayers. The 'fineness,'
'richness,' or 'degree of purity' of gold is expressed in carats. Pure
gold is spoken of as 24 carats fine; and any other sample containing in 24
parts only 12, 18, 22, &c., parts of pure gold, is said to be of as many
carats fine. Every carat is nominally divided into 4 'assay-grains,' each
assay-grain into 'quarters,' and each quarter into 'eighths' (= 1/32
carat), giving 768 "reports" for gold. On this system fractional alloys
are commonly spoken of as of so many 'carats and thirty-seconds fine.' The
real quantity taken for assay, technically termed the 'assay-pound,' is,
however, very small, generally either 12 gr. or 6 gr., which makes each
assayer's eighth-grain, or "report," equal to either the 1/64 or 1/128 gr.
Troy, as the case may be. The nominal assayer's gold carat is 12 gr. The
"journey-weight of gold" is 15 lbs. Troy (= 701 sovereigns = 1402
half-sovereigns).
The 'fineness,' 'richness,' or 'purity' of silver was formerly expressed
in pennyweights; but is now generally reckoned in 1000ths, which admits of
greater accuracy. Pure silver was said to be silver of 12 pennyweights."
If it contained 1, 2, or 3 parts of alloy, it was termed "silver of 11,
10, or 9 pennyweights," as the case might be. Every assayer's pennyweight
was nominally divided into 24 gr., and hence gave 288 fine grains, or
'reports,' for silver. The fineness of specimens containing odd grains was
given in pennyweights and fine grains. The 'assay-pound' for silver, on
this system, may be 24 Troy gr., when 2 real grains are equal to 1 'fine
pennyweight,' and 1/12 real gr. equal to 1 'fine-grain.' In the decimal
method pure silver is = 1000. The usual weight of silver taken for the
'assay-pound,' when the fineness is reckoned in 1000ths, is 20 Troy gr.,
every real grain of which represents 50/1000th of fineness; and so on of
smaller divisions. The mint "journeyweight of silver" is 60 lbs. Troy
(=3920 shillings, or a like value in other denominations).
_Ratio._ Cupellation, which is the distinctive and most important
operation in assaying gold and silver, is founded upon the feeble affinity
which these metals have for oxygen, in comparison with copper, tin, and
other cheaper metals; and on the tendency which these latter metals have
to oxidise rapidly in contact with lead at a high temperature, and to sink
with it into any porous earthen vessel, in a thin, glassy or vitriform
state. The conditions essential to the success of the process, and which
are found in the precious metals, are--that "the metal from which we wish
to part the oxides must not be volatile;" and that "it should also melt
and form a button at the heat of cupellation; for otherwise it would
continue disseminated, attached to the portion of oxide spread over the
cupel, and incapable of being collected."[95]
[Footnote 95: Ure's 'Dict. of Arts, M., & M.,' 5th ed., i, 214.]
_Concluding Remarks._ The art of assaying requires very great care, skill,
and experience, for its due exercise; and from the costliness of the
precious metals, and their general employment for coin, jewelry, plate,
&c., is of the utmost importance both to individuals and governments. Such
is the extreme delicacy of the operation of cupellation that, without the
requisites alluded to, it is more likely to fail than to give reliable
results. An assay is thought to be good when the 'button' or 'bead'
separates readily from the cupel, has a round form, with a brilliant upper
surface, and the lower one granular and of a dead metallic lustre. When
the upper surface is 'dead' and 'flat,' too much heat has been employed;
and in the case of silver, some of the metal may have been lost by fuming
or absorption. When the bead adheres to the cupel, or is spongy,
variegated, or has scales of litharge still adhering to it, either too
little heat has been used, or the process has been stopped before the
assay was complete. The remedy is re-exposure to heat in the cupel, adding
a little powdered charcoal or a few small pieces of paper, and continuing
the heat until the metal 'brightens' and 'circulates' freely. The lead
employed must be absolutely pure, or that technically called 'poor lead,'
and, for this purpose, is commonly prepared by the reduction of refined
litharge mixed with some carbonaceous matter, by heat; but, according to
the late T. H. Henry, "lead reduced from the litharge of commerce usually
contains from 10 to 15 _dwt._ of silver per ton." These remarks apply
equally to gold and silver.
The process of assaying by the cupel, however skilfully conducted, gives
much less accurate results, especially with silver, than the method of
chemical analysis, often termed 'humid' or 'volumetrical assay,' whilst it
is, in all cases, much more troublesome and expensive, and with compounds
containing only small quantities of the precious metals, is not to be
depended on. See GOLD, SILVER; also CARAT, CUPELLATION, PARTING,
LIQUATION, QUARTATION, REFINING, &c. (and _below_).[96]
[Footnote 96: Those desirous of further information on the subject than
that contained in this work, are referred to Mitchell's 'Manual of
Assaying,' and to the various memoirs of Gay-Lussac, Chaudet, D'Arcet,
Tillet, Brande, Ure, Henry, and others.]
=Assay of the Touch.= The fineness of JEWELRY, and of small quantities of
GOLD which it is either impossible or inconvenient to assay according to
the usual method, is generally determined by means of touch-needles and
touch-stones. The former are made in sets, containing gold of different
degrees of fineness, and differently alloyed with copper and silver. The
latter are usually of black basalt; but pieces of good black pottery
answer the purpose very well. The mode of using them is to mark the stone
with the sample under examination, and to compare its appearance,
hardness, colour, &c., with that produced by one or more of the needles.
When the two are similar, the quality or 'fineness' is considered to be
the same. The marks are then further examined by heating the 'touch-stone'
to redness, and moistening the strokes with aquafortis, when the
appearance resulting from oxidation, &c., differ according to the nature
and quantity of the alloy. A nearly similar method is sometimes adopted
with SILVER; but the characteristics are scarcely so distinct with the
metal. (See _above_.)
=Hu'mid Assaying, Humid Assay.= Terms applied to the estimation of the
quantity of gold and silver in ores and alloys in the moist way, more
especially by the method known as volumetrical analysis. See GOLD
(ESTIM.), SILVER (Estim.), VOLUMETRICAL ANALYSIS, &c.
=ASSIMILA'TION.= [Eng. Fr.] _Syn._ ASSIMILA'TIO, L.; ANEIGUNG,
VERÄHNLICHUNG, &c., Ger. In _physiology_, the conversion of food into
nutriment, and finally into the substances which compose the bodies of
animals and plants; the function of nutrition.
=ASTHEN'IC.= _Syn._ ASTHEN'ICUS, L.; ASTHÉNIQUE, DÉBILE, Fr.; SCHWACH,
Ger. Weak; debilitated. In _pathology_, an epithet of diseases (ASTHEN'IC
DISEASES) accompanied by great and well-marked debility.
=ASTHEN'OPY.= _Syn._ ASTHENO'PIA, L. In _pathology_, incapacity to keep
the eyes fixed on near or small objects for any length of time without
confusion of vision. The common causes are over-exertion of the eyes,
particularly by artificial light, or by a very brilliant one, or during
convalescence; congestion of the ocular vessels; debilitating discharges
or indulgences; and general nervous debility, however produced. It
"appears to consist in weakness of the apparatus by which the eye is
adjusted for the vision of near objects;" and along with this "there is
an irritable state of the retina, connected in some manner with a tendency
to internal congestion of the eyes."[97] The _treatment_ may consist of
rest to the eyes, and ablution of them in cold water, with such other
efforts to restore their tone and the general health as are noticed under
AMAUROSIS. The prospect of complete cure, when the cause is not removable,
is unfavorable; but even when confirmed the disease is not likely to end
in blindness. The use of convex spectacles of very low power will
generally be found serviceable. See EYE, SPECTACLES, VISION, &c.
[Footnote 97: T. W. Jones, 'Defects of Sight,' Lond., 1856; p. 82.]
=ASTH'MA= ([)a]st'm[)a][98]). [Eng., Ger., L., Gr.] _Syn._ ASTHME, Fr.;
ENGBRÜSTIGKEIT, Ger. In _pathology_, a well-known disease coming on by
fits, and characterised by shortness and difficulty of breathing,
accompanied by a wheezing sound, cough, stricture and tightness of the
chest, with other like symptoms. These gradually increase until the
patient can no longer remain in a recumbent position, being, as it were,
threatened with immediate suffocation; and they generally terminate, after
the lapse of a few hours, in copious expectoration. The attack usually
commences towards evening, and the symptoms increase in urgency during the
night--often occurring suddenly after the first sleep--until at length, on
the approach of morning, a remission takes place, and, in all probability,
the patient, worn out and exhausted, falls into a sound sleep. On awaking
in the morning he still feels the 'tightness' at the chest, breathes with
some difficulty, which is increased by moving, and cannot lie in bed
unless his head and shoulders are greatly raised. After a repetition of
the fits for some nights, they at length moderate, and after more
considerable remissions, pass off at last, leaving the patient in his
usual state of health for a time, or until fresh exciting causes produce a
return of the disease. For an evening or two previous to the fit the
patient generally feels drowsy, indolent, and low-spirited, and
experiences a sensation of fulness about the stomach, with headache,
general uneasiness, and indigestion--these are the premonitory symptoms.
[Footnote 98: Asth'ma (with th fully sounded), as given by Knowles, is
difficultly pronounceable, and is now obsolete.]
Asthma is principally confined to the later periods of life, and appears
in many cases to be hereditary. It is generally severest in the heat of
summer, or in the foggy or damp or windy weather of winter. The fits vary
in duration from two to several hours. Sometimes copious expectoration
commences early, which has led to the division of asthma, by nosologists,
into two kinds--dry, nervous, or spasmodic asthma (ASTHMA SIC'CUM, L.) and
humid a. (A. HU'MIDUM, L.).
The exciting causes of asthma are exposure to sudden changes of
temperature, particularly from heat to cold; unwholesome effluvia, hard
drinking, heavy meals, indigestion, violent exercise, and cold, damp,
foggy, and sometimes windy weather.
_Treatm._ A dry, warm, and airy situation as a residence should, if
possible, be sought. The use of flannel next the skin, and tepid or warm
bathing is also advantageous. The bowels should be kept regular by mild
aperients, and the stomach preserved in order by the adoption of a light
and wholesome diet; particularly avoiding excess in either eating or
drinking. The severity of the paroxysm may be generally lessened by
adopting the sitting posture, and inhaling the vapour of hot water or of
an infusion of chamomile. Small doses of camphor, ether, and opium,
frequently repeated, may also be tried. The inhalation of the vapour of a
little tar liquefied by heat is said to often produce considerable relief.
The fumes arising from the slow combustion of porous paper dipped in a
solution of nitre, and dried, have also been recommended. "The fumes of a
piece as big as one's hand being placed on an earthenware plate, and
ignited, presently become sensible throughout the room; and within a
quarter of an hour their influence in many cases is rendered evident, in
clearing the passages and gradually opening the air tubes." "Of calming
vapours that of chloroform is, however, the one likely, in respect of its
soothing power, to supersede all others. Inspired in moderate quantity,
far less than is requisite to produce general insensibility, it has been
found of singular efficacy in allaying, at once, the spasmodic distress of
an asthma-fit. But it is a remedy too potent and subtle to be entrusted to
the discretion of the patient himself." (Dr Watson); unless, indeed, he
well understands its properties and nature, and has some friend near him
to restrain his using it too freely--a thing he is, unfortunately, often
tempted, by the urgency of the symptoms, to do. "Bleeding is an imprudent
operation in every species of asthma" (Dr Bree); and has often proved
highly injurious, especially in elderly persons. It is only in full
plethoric habits, or when the paroxysms are very severe, and attended with
signs of congestion of the lungs and brain, indicated by lividity of the
countenance, stupor, extreme dyspn[oe]a, &c., that blood should be taken;
and then only by 'cupping' between the shoulders, or by leeches to the
chest. Emetics and active purgatives must also be avoided during the
paroxysm; at which time costiveness may be best removed by an aperient
clyster containing assaf[oe]tida. At other times, emetics (of ipecacuanha)
and diaphoretics, followed by mild purgatives, may be administered with
advantage; indeed, an emetic, taken a few hours before an impending fit,
will frequently prevent its accession. Dyspeptic symptoms must be treated
in the usual manner. "Chalk and opium will astonish the asthmatic, by the
excellence of their effects when the irritation proceeds from dyspepsia
of the first passages only." (Dr Bree.) The same authority also states
that vinegar, separately administered, counteracts the flatulence and
distension of the stomach.
Various other remedies have been recommended for asthma; among which are
the smoking of tobacco and stramonium. In using the latter herb, the root
and lower parts of the stem are chopped up and placed in the bowl of a
common tobacco-pipe, and a few whiffs are occasionally taken. Drinking at
the same time should be avoided. Lately _lobelia inflata_ (Indian tobacco)
has been highly extolled in asthma, in doses of--tincture, 20 or 30 drops,
to 2 teaspoonfuls--powder, 5 to 15 or 20 gr.; taken at the commencement or
shortly before the accession of the fit, and repeated after the interval
of an hour, if nausea or expectoration does not intervene. Sir John Floyer
is said to have been cured of an asthma of 60 years' standing, at the age
of 80, by the constant use of very strong coffee. Sir John Pringle adopted
the same remedy with great success. He remarks, "One quality occurred to
me which I have observed of that liquor (coffee), confirming what you have
said of its sedative powers. It is the best abater of periodic asthma
which I have seen. The coffee used ought to be the best Mocha, newly
burnt, and made very strong immediately after grinding it. I commonly
order an ounce for one dish, which is to be repeated with fresh coffee
after the interval of a quarter or half an hour; and which I direct to be
taken without milk or sugar."[99]
[Footnote 99: 'Letter to Dr Percival.']
Very recently cigars and cigarettes of _datura tatula_, Linn.--a peculiar
species of stramonium--have been prepared by Messrs Savory and Moore; and
are strongly recommended by Drs Watson, Latham, Fergusson, and many other
physicians of eminence, as the very best remedy yet introduced for asthma.
A change of diet and habits, and particularly a change of residence, will
often produce a marked improvement in asthmatic patients, and even effect
a cure, when medicines have failed. The use of bark and bitters, or mild
chalybeate tonics (when not contra-indicated), tends to improve the tone
of the system, and may be adopted, in nearly all cases, with perfect
safety. See BATH, AIR (Compressed), CIGARS, DATURA, &c.
_Treatment for Horses._ Ether and belladonna; chlorodyne; inhalation of
chloroform; or amyl nitrite; subcutaneous injection of morphine or
atropine; arsenic; and regular digestible diet.
=Asthma, Grind'er's.= See MELANOSIS.
=ASTHMA CURE.= 1. (Dr Aubrée, Ferte Vidame, Eure et Loire, France.)
Decoction of senega (10 parts of the root), 250 parts; iodide of
potassium, 50 parts; extract of opium, 4 parts; simple syrup, 500 parts;
weak spirit, 200 parts. Coloured with some cochineal tincture. (Hager.)
According to a later analysis by Schröppel, this remedy is thus
composed:--Iodide of potassium, 9 parts; French lactucarium, 1 part;
water, 288 parts; simple syrup, 48 parts; chloric ether, 1-1/2 part.
2. (Kubale, Klitschdorf, near Bunzlau.) This is a solution of iodide of
potassium, bromide of potassium, and sugar in water, strongly coloured
with a cochineal tincture containing alum. It is supplied in six bottles,
numbered 1 to 6, No. 1 being the weakest, and No. 6 the strongest in the
iodide and bromide. In No. 3, for example, we found:--Iodide of potassium,
5 grms.; sugar, 2-1/2 grms.; alum, 1/3 grm.; cochineal colouring matter,
1/2 grm.; water, 200 grms. (Hager.)
=ASTHMA TEA= (Dr Orleïn). Recommended for difficulty of breathing, dry
coughs, loss of sleep, loss of appetite, &c. Liquorice, 8 parts;
marshmallow root, 6 parts; Iceland moss, 5 parts; a sort of buckbean, 2
parts; horehound, 2 parts. (Schädler and Selle.)
=ASTHMATIC PASTILLES= (S. Kittel's, now Daniel White & Co., New York). Set
fire to the pastilles and inhale the smoke. An analysis found in 100
parts:--Nitrate of potash, 20·1 parts; impure resin of scammony, 3·5
parts; gum and sugar, 35· parts; charcoal, plant-stems, and leaves, 40·7
parts. (Dr Fleck.)
=ASTRIN'GENT= (-tr[)i]nje'-). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ASTRIN'GENS, L.;
ZUSAMMENZIEHEND, Ger. That straitens or causes wrinkling or constriction.
In _pharmacology_, an epithet of substances or agents (ASTRIN'GENTS;
ASTRINGEN'TIA, L.) which constrict animal fibre and coagulate albuminous
fluids, and thereby obviate relaxation and check excessive secretion or
discharges. In modern use, the word, both as an adj. and subst., is
chiefly applied to internal remedies, those of a like character, employed
externally, being usually termed 'styptics,' 'desiccants,' &c.
The principal astringents are--alcohol, alum, chalybeates (generally),
sulphate of copper, sulphate and perchloride of iron, acetate and
diacetate of lead, lime, bichloride of mercury, nitrate of silver,
vegetable astringents (see _below_), acetate, carbonate, chloride, oxide,
and sulphate of zinc, &c. See DESICCANTS, STYPTICS, TONICS, &c.
=Astringents, Min'eral.= See ASTRINGENT (_above_).
=Astringents, Veg'etable.= Of these the principal are--alkanet, bistort,
catechu, the cinchona barks and their alkaloids, dragon's blood, French or
red rose, galls, kino, logwood, mastiche, oak-bark, red sanders wood,
rhatany, tormentil, tannic acid, gallic acid, and areca nut. (See
_above_.)
=Astringent Prin'ciple.= A term formerly restricted to tannin; but now
commonly applied to the astringent matter of any vegetable.
=ATMOM'ETER.= _Syn._ ATMIDOM'ETER; ATMOM'ETRUM, &c., L.; ATMOMÈTRE, &c.,
Fr. In _chemistry_ and _meteorology_, an instrument for measuring the rate
of evaporation from a humid surface. It is of very simple construction,
and possesses some practical value. It consists of a long glass graduated
tube divided into inches, having attached to the bottom a hollow ball made
of porous earthenware, similar to that used in water bottles. When used,
water is poured in at the top until it rises to the zero point of the
scale. The outside of the porous ball being always covered with dew, the
more rapidly the evaporation takes place, the more quickly will the water
fall in the tube.
=AT'MOSPHERE= (-f[=e]re). _Syn._ ATMOSPHE''RA, L.; ATMOSPHÈRE, Fr.;
ATMOSPHÄRE, DUNSTKREIS, Ger. Primarily, a 'vapour-sphere,' appr., the
assemblage of respirable gas and aëriform vapours which surround the
earth; fig., any surrounding medium or influence.
_Comp., Chem. prop., Pur., Uses, &c._ See AIR (Atmospheric).
_Mechanical properties_ of the atmosphere:--
COLOUR:--The prevailing colour of the atmosphere is blue; at considerable
elevations this blue tint is lost, and the sky appears deep black. The
prevalence of blue is referred to the greater facility with which the blue
and violet rays are reflected, whilst the glowing tints of morning and
evening are conceived to arise from the red rays possessing greater
momentum than the other rays of the spectrum.
DENSITY:--The density of the atmosphere diminishes with the distance from
the earth's surface, and this is the duplicate ratio of the altitude.
Thus, if at a given altitude the density of the air is only one half what
it is at the level of the sea, at twice that elevation it possesses only
one fourth that density. On this fact depends the application of the
barometer to the determination of the elevation or depression of any point
above or below the level of the sea, taken as a standard.
_Density of the Atmosphere at Different
Elevations._ By Prof. GRAHAM.
+----------------------+-------+-------------+
|Height above the level|Volume |Height of the|
| of the Sea in miles. |of Air.| Barometer. |
+----------------------+-------+-------------+
| 0· | 1 | 30 |
| 2·705 | 2 | 15 |
| 5·41 | 4 | 7·5 |
| 8·115 | 8 | 3·75 |
| 10·82 | 16 | 1·875 |
| 13·525 | 32 | ·9375 |
| 16·23 | 64 | ·46875|
+----------------------+-------+-------------+
HEIGHT, &c.:--If the density of the air were uniform throughout its whole
extent, the height of the atmosphere, measured by a corresponding column
of mercury, would be barely 5-1/4 miles. As, however, its density
decreases with the distance from the earth's surface, its real height must
be considerably greater. Kepler found that the reflection and refraction
of the sun's rays by the atmosphere, producing twilight, ceases when that
luminary descends 18 degrees below the horizon, whence it is calculated
that the atmosphere cannot have a greater altitude than 45 miles. On the
other hand, there is reason to believe that it cannot be much less than
this sum. "With a good air-pump air may be rarefied 300 times; supposing
this to be the utmost limit to which rarefaction can be carried, the
atmosphere would still extend to an altitude of above 40 miles." Whether,
in a state of extreme tenuity in which its grosser properties are lost, it
extends indefinitely into space, was formerly a subject of controversy.
That its boundaries are limited, and that it belongs exclusively to our
earth appears almost certain. "We are warranted in concluding that the
atoms of air are not infinitely divisible, and consequently that the
atmosphere has a limit; and the limit must be situated at that height
above the earth where the gravitation of the atoms is just equal to the
force of their repulsion."[100] Under ordinary circumstances the mercury
of the barometer falls about one inch for every 1000 feet of elevation.
[Footnote 100: Brande's 'Dict. of Lit., Sci., & Art.']
PRESSURE:--The weight or pressure of the atmosphere is shown by the rise
of water in the barrel of the common 'lifting pump' and the suspension of
the mercurial column in the tube of the barometer. The last affords a
ready means of determining the actual pressure of the air, the column of
mercury, and the column of air by which it is suspended, resembling two
weights in equilibrio, at the opposite extremities of the same balance.
The mean height of the barometer at the level of the sea, in England, is
28·6 inches (= about 33-1/2 feet of water); and as a cubic inch of mercury
weighs 3425·92 gr., or ·48956 _lb._, it follows that the weight of a
column of mercury whose base is a square inch is 14·6 _lbs._ avoirdupois.
The pressure of the atmosphere is not merely downwards, but is equally
diffused in all directions, and exerts a most powerful effect in the
economy of organic beings. On the surface of the body of an adult of
ordinary size (say = 15 sq. feet, or 2160 inches), it amounts to the
enormous weight of 31,536 _lbs._, which is not sensible, only because it
is balanced by the force of the elastic fluids in the interior of the
body. Were this equilibrium to be suddenly destroyed, the consequence
would be, either that the body would be instantly torn to pieces with
explosive violence, or that it would be crushed under the overwhelming
weight that would suddenly fall upon it. Even the comparatively slight
variations of atmospheric pressure which occur with changes of wind,
weather, and season, exercise a perceptible effect on the functions of
life.
_Mean pressure of the Atmosphere at the level of the
Sea, in different latitudes, at 32° Fahr., expressed in
inches of mercury_.
-----+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------
Lat. | Height | Lat. | Height | Lat. | Height
| (inches). | | (inches). | | (inches).
-----+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------
0° | 29·930 | 40° | 30·019 | 54-1/2° | 29·926
10 | 29·975 | 45 | 30·000 | 60 | 29·803
20 | 30·064 | 49 | 29·978 | 64 | 29·606
30 | 30·108 | 51-1/2 | 29·551 | 67 | 29·673
-----+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------
TEMPERATURE:--The temperature of the atmosphere, independently of changes
arising from variations of latitude and season, diminishes, like its
density, with its elevation. In general, every 100 yards of ascent causes
the temperature to fall 1° Fahr. See AIR (Atmospheric), EPIDEMICS,
VENTILATION, &c.
=Atmosphere=. In _engineering_ and _pneumatics_, the pressure of a column
of mercury at 0° Cent. or 32° Fahr., which is 76 centimètres or 29·9218
inches high, at the mean level of the sea in latitude 45°, taken as a
standard of that exerted by other elastic fluids. In practice this is
assumed to be 15 _lbs_. to the square inch, under a barometrical pressure
of 30 inches. Thus, steam or air condensed so as to exert a pressure of 30
_lbs_. per sq. inch is said to be of two atmospheres; at 45 _lbs_., of
three atmospheres, &c.
=AT'OM (-[)u]m). Atomic Weight, Atomic Theory=. _Syn_. AT'OMUS, L.; ATOME,
Fr.; ATOM, UNTHEILBARE THEILCHEN, Ger.
ATOMIC WEIGHT. When the elements unite chemically, they invariably do so
in the proportions by weight represented by the numbers attached to them
in the following table, or in multiples of these proportions. Dalton
accounted for this law by supposing that the constituent particles of
matter are indivisible, and believed that, if it were possible to place
such particles in the balance, their relative weights would be found to
correspond with the numbers given in the table.[101] In other words, the
term _atom_, which is derived from the Greek [Greek: atomos], indivisible,
is applied in modern chemistry to the smallest quantity by weight of an
element which is capable of existing in a chemical compound, hydrogen
being taken as unity.
[Footnote 101: Strictly speaking, Dalton, the inventor of the Atomic
Theory, did not adopt the precise numbers given in the table, but others,
which, however, bear a very simple relation to them.]
--------------------+------------+-----------+------------
Name. | Symbol. | Atomic | Atomic
| | weight. | volume.
--------------------+------------+-----------+------------
=ALUMINUM= | Al | 27·5 |
ANTIMONY | Sb | 122 |
ARSENIC | As | 75 | 1/4
BARIUM | Ba | 137 |
BISMUTH | Bi | 208 |
BORON | B | 11 |
=BROMINE= | Br | 80 | 1
Cadmium | Cd | 112 | 2
Cæsium | Cs | 133 |
=CALCIUM= | Ca | 40 |
=CARBON= | C | 12 |
Cerium | Ce | 92 |
=CHLORINE= | Cl | 35·5 | 1
CHROMIUM | Cr | 52·5 |
COBALT | Co | 58·8 |
=COPPER= | Cu | 63·5 |
Didymium | D | 96 |
=FLUORINE= | F | 19 | 1
Glucinum | G | 14 |
GOLD | Au | 196·7 |
=HYDROGEN= | H | 1 | 1
Indium | In | 74 |
=IODINE= | I | 127 | 1
IRIDIUM | Ir | 198 |
=IRON= | Fe | 56 |
Lanthanum | L | 92 |
=LEAD= | Pb | 207 |
Lithium | Li | 7 |
MAGNESIUM | Mg | 24 |
=MANGANESE= | Mn | 55 |
=MERCURY= | Hg | 200 | 2
Molybdenum | Mo | 92 |
NICKEL | Ni | 58·8 |
Niobium | Nb | 97·6 |
=NITROGEN= | N | 14 | 1
Osmium | Os | 199 |
=OXYGEN= | O | 16 | 1
PALLADIUM | Pd | 106·5 |
=PHOSPHORUS= | P | 31 | 1/4
PLATINUM | Pt | 197·4 |
=POTASSIUM= | K | 39 |
RHODIUM | Rh | 104 |
Rubidium | Rb | 85·5 |
Ruthenium | Ru | 104 |
Selenium | Se | 79 | 1
=SILICON= | Si | 28·5 |
=SILVER= | Ag | 108 |
=SODIUM= | Na | 23 |
STRONTIUM | Sr | 87·5 |
=SULPHUR= | S | 32 | 1
Tantalum | Ta | 137·5 |
Tellurium | Te | 128 |
Thallium | Tl | 204 |
Thorium | Th | 231·5 |
TIN | Sn | 118 |
TITANIUM | Ti | 50 |
TUNGSTEN | W | 184 |
URANIUM | U | 120 |
Vanadium | V | 51·2 |
Yttrium | Y | 68 |
=ZINC= | Zn | 65 | 2
Zirconium | Zr | 90 |
--------------------+------------+-----------+------------
ATOMIC VOLUME. The volume or space occupied by the atomic weights of gases
at a temperature of 60° F., and under a pressure of 30 inches of the
barometer, compared with that occupied by one part by weight of hydrogen
under the same conditions.
In the same table the most important elements are distinguished by the
largest type, those next in importance by medium type, and those of rare
occurrence, or of which we know but little, by the smallest type.
=ATOMIC WEIGHTS.= See ATOM.
=ATON'IC.= _Syn._ ATON'ICUS, L.; ATONIQUE, Fr.; ATONISCH, SCHLAFF, Ger.
Weak; debilitated; deficient in tone or strength. In _pathology_, applied
to diseases or conditions of the body (ATONIC DISEASES; ATONY) in which
debility is the leading feature. In _pharmacology_, ATONICS are agents
which relax or lower the tone of the system.
=AT'ONY.= _Syn._ ATO'NIA, L.; ATONIE, &c., Fr., Ger. In _pathology_, loss
of tone, relaxation, morbid diminution of vital energy or power; commonly
applied to debility of any kind.
=AT'ROPHY= (-fe). _Syn._ ATRO'PHIA, L.; ATROPHIÉ, &c., Fr.; ATROPHIE, Ger.
In _pathology_, wasting or emaciation, with loss of strength, and
unaccompanied by fever or other sensible cause; defective nutrition;
decline.
_Classif., Causes, &c._ It is either local, as in the case of a limb which
is small, imperfectly developed, or withered; or general, affecting the
whole body. GEN'ERAL ATROPHY appears to depend on deficient nutrition,
arising from a want of due balance between the functions of assimilation
and absorption, or from profuse evacuations draining off the materials
necessary for the support of the body. In the former case only may it be
regarded as an independent disease. LO'CAL ATROPHY commonly arises from
some cause which lessens the normal circulation of blood in the part; or
from a diminution of the nervous influence, as in paralysis. General
atrophy is most frequent in infancy, childhood, and old age. In the first
two it may be often traced to bad nursing, worms, or a scrofulous taint;
and not unfrequently to continually inhaling impure or damp air. In
adults, the causes are impaired digestion and imperfect action of the
chyliferous organs, and sometimes diseased action of the liver. In many
cases it results from the use of tobacco.
_Treatm._ This consists in a close attention to diet (which should be
liberal and nutritious), exercise, clothing, ventilation, warmth, &c.,
with gentle stimulants, and chalybeate tonics where not contra-indicated;
and, in the case of adults, the moderate use of pure generous wine or
malt-liquor. Among special remedies, both in this disease and anæmia, may
be mentioned pure sweet cod-liver oil, which seldom fails to arrest or
greatly retard the progress of the disease, and in very many cases effect
an entire cure. When this affection is symptomatic of any other disease,
as worms, stomach or liver complaints, &c., the removal of the latter must
of course be first attempted. See ANÆMIA, CHLOROSIS, TABES, &c.
=ATRO''PIA= (tr[=o]pe'y'[)a]). C_{34}H_{23}NO_{6}. [L.; B. P.] _Syn._
AT'ROPINE (-pin; sometimes atro'p[)i]ne[double-dagger]), Eng., Fr.;
ATROPI'NA, ATRO''PIUM*, L. An alkaloid discovered by Brandes in _at'ropa
belladon'na_ or deadly nightshade.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P. Process.) Take of belladonna-root, recently dried, and
in coarse powder, 2 _lbs._; rectified spirit, 10 _pints_; slaked lime, 1
_oz._; diluted sulphuric acid, carbonate of potash, of each a sufficiency;
chloroform, 3 _fl. oz._; purified animal charcoal, a sufficiency;
distilled water, 10 _fl. oz._ Macerate the root in 4 pints of the spirit,
for 24 hours, with frequent stirring. Transfer to a displacement
apparatus, and exhaust the root with the remainder of the spirit by slow
percolation. Add the lime to the tincture placed in a bottle, and shake
them occasionally several times. Filter, add the diluted sulphuric acid in
very feeble excess to the filtrate, and filter again. Distil off three
fourths of the spirit, add to the residue the distilled water, evaporate
at a gentle heat, but as rapidly as possible, until the liquor is reduced
to one third of its volume and no longer smells of alcohol; then let it
cool. Add very cautiously, with constant stirring, a solution of carbonate
of potash so as nearly to neutralise the acid, care, however, being taken
that an excess is not used. Set to rest for six hours, then filter, and
add carbonate of potash in such quantity that the liquid shall acquire a
decided alkaline reaction. Place in a bottle with the chloroform; mix well
by frequently repeated brisk agitation, and pour the mixed liquids into a
funnel furnished with a glass stop-cock. When the chloroform has subsided,
draw it off by the stop-cock, and distil it on a water-bath from a retort
connected with a condenser. Dissolve the residue in warm rectified spirit;
digest the solution with a little animal charcoal: filter, evaporate, and
cool until colourless crystals are obtained.
2. Expressed juice of belladonna is evaporated over a water-bath to the
consistence of an extract, and then triturated in a marble or porcelain
mortar with a strong solution of caustic potassa; the resulting mass is
digested and well agitated for some time, at the temperature of 75° to 80°
Fahr., with benzole, q. s.; and, after repose, the benzole-solution is
carefully separated, and its volatile hydrocarbon is distilled off by the
heat of a water-bath; the residuum in the retort is now exhausted with
water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and the resulting 'acid-solution,'
after filtration, precipitated with carbonate of soda; the precipitate is
crude ATROPIA, which is collected on a filter, pressed between folds of
bibulous paper, and dried; after which it is purified by one or more
re-solutions, in alcohol, and crystallisations, which may or may not be
modified in the manner noticed. The proportion of potassa should be about
1 dr. to every quart of the expressed juice. An excellent and economical
process. The product is 0·3 to 4% of the weight of the plant from which
the juice has been obtained.
3. (Mein and Liebig.) Belladonna-root (fresh-dried and coarsely powdered)
is exhausted by alcohol (sp. gr. 0·822); slaked lime (1 part for every 24
of the dried root employed) is then added to the tincture, and the whole
digested, with agitation, for 24 hours; sulphuric acid is next added, drop
by drop, to slight excess, and, after filtration, rather more than one
half the spirit is removed by distillation; a little water is now added to
the residue, and the remainder of the alcohol evaporated as quickly as
possible by a gentle heat; after again filtering, the liquid is reduced by
further evaporation to the 1/12th part of the weight of the root employed,
and a concentrated solution of potassa dropped into the cold liquid (to
throw down a dark greyish-brown matter), carefully avoiding excess or
rendering the liquid in the slightest degree alkaline; in a few hours the
liquid is again filtered, and carbonate of potassa added as long as a
precipitate (ATROPIA) falls; after a further interval of from 12 to 24
hours, this precipitate is collected and drained in a filter, and after
pressure between folds of blotting-paper, dried by a very gentle heat. It
is purified by making it into a paste with water, again squeezing it
between the folds of blotting-paper, drying it, re-dissolving it in 5
times its weight of alcohol, decolouring it with pure animal charcoal,
distilling off greater part of the alcohol, and evaporation and
crystallisation by a very gentle heat; or only about one half the spirit
is distilled off, and 3 or 4 times its volume of water gradually agitated
with it, the resulting milky liquid being then heated to boiling, and
allowed to cool very slowly, when nearly the whole of the ATROPIA
crystallises out after a few hours. The same may be effected by at once
agitating 6 or 8 volumes of water with the alcoholic solution, and setting
aside the mixture for 12 to 24 hours, by which time the crystallisation
will be completed. This process originated with Soubeiran, was improved by
Mein, and subsequently, with slight modifications, adopted by Liebig. The
product is about 0·3% of the weight of root operated on.
4. (Bouchardat and Cooper.) The filtered tincture is precipitated with
iodine dissolved in an aqueous solution of iodide of potassium, the
resulting ioduretted hydriodate of atropia, decomposed by zinc-and-water,
the metallic oxide separated by means of carbonate of potassa, and the
alkaloid thus obtained dissolved in alcohol and crystallised.
5. (Mr Luxton.) The dry leaves of belladonna are gently boiled for 2 hours
in distilled water just sufficient to cover them, and the resulting
decoction is strained through a coarse cloth into a large precipitating
jar; this process is repeated with a second quantity of distilled water,
and the two decoctions mixed; concentrated sulphuric acid is now added in
the proportion of 2 dr. to every pound of leaves operated on, by which the
vegetable albumen of the decoction is precipitated, and the liquid becomes
clear and sherry-coloured; the clear liquor is now decanted or syphoned
off, and, if necessary, filtered; the filtrate is now decomposed by either
passing a stream of gaseous ammonia through it, or by suspending in it a
lump of carbonate of ammonia. The effect is that the liquid turns black,
and crystals of ATROPIA are slowly formed and deposited. At the expiration
of a day or two, the supernatant mother-liquid is removed with a syphon,
and the crystals thrown on a filter to drain and dry.[102] It may be
purified by re-solution and crystallisation. 1 lb. of leaves yields 40
gr.; or at the rate of fully ·57%.
[Footnote 102: 'Pharm. Journ.,' 1854-5, p. 209{?}.]
6. (Rabourdin.) To the crystallised juice of the plant (previously heated
to coagulate its albumen, filtered, and allowed to cool), 1 quart, is
added of caustic potassa 1 dr., and afterwards of chloroform 1 oz.; the
whole is then agitated well, and after half an hour's repose, the
supernatant liquor is poured from the discoloured chloroform, which, after
being washed with distilled water as long as it gives any colour to that
liquid, is placed in a small retort, and the chloroform distilled off by
the heat of a water-bath; the residuum is dissolved in a little water
acidulated with sulphuric acid, and precipitated with carbonate of
potassa, in slight excess; the precipitate is redissolved in alcohol, and
the solution, by spontaneous evaporation, yields crystals of ATROPIA.
7. (Ure.) From the expressed juice of the fresh, or the watery extract of
the dry plant, by treating it with caustic soda, in slight excess, and
then agitating the mixture with 1-1/2 times its volume of ether; the
ATROPIA taken up by the ether is again deposited after repose for some
time, and is then purified by repeating the treatment with fresh ether as
often as necessary.
8. Freshly precipitated hydrate of magnesia is added to the coagulated and
filtered expressed juice, and the mixture evaporated to dryness, as
quickly as possible, in a water-bath; the residuum is pulverised and
digested in strong alcohol, and the clear liquid allowed to evaporate
spontaneously. The crystals may be purified by repeated re-solutions in
alcohol.
_Prop., Tests, &c._ The crystals obtained from hot concentrated solutions,
colourless, transparent, silky prisms; from solutions in dilute spirit,
silky needles, like those of disulphate of quinine. It is colourless; has
a bitter, acrid, and somewhat metallic taste; dissolves in 200 parts (300
parts--Thomson) of cold and 50 to 54 parts of boiling water, in 1-1/2
parts of cold alcohol, and in 25 parts of cold, and 6 parts of boiling
ether; it has an alkaline reaction, fuses at about 194° Fahr., is slightly
volatile at common temperatures, and freely rises in vapour at 212° Fahr.;
at higher temperatures it volatilises with partial decomposition; with the
acids it forms salts, of which several are crystallisable.
_Tests._--1. Nitric acid forms with it a yellow solution:--2. With cold
sulphuric acid it gives a colourless solution, which becomes red only when
heated:--3. Aqueous solutions of atropia and its salts are--_a_, turned
red by tincture of iodine--_b_, gives a citron-yellow precipitate with
terchloride of gold--_c_, a flocculent whitish precipitate with tincture
of galls, and--_d_, a yellowish-white one with bichloride of platinum:--4.
Heated with caustic potassa or soda, it suffers decomposition, and ammonia
is evolved:--5. A weak solution cautiously applied to the eyelid or
conjunctiva, produces dilation of the pupil lasting for several hours.
_Pur., &c._ Alkaloid prepared from the root of atropa belladonna.
Crystals; white, in the form of prisms; soluble in water and rectified
spirit. It leaves no ash when burned with free access of air (B. P.).
_Phys. eff._ It is a very powerful narcotico-acrid poison.[103] Its
effects are similar to those of belladonna, but considerably more
powerful. "A very minute (imponderable) quantity applied to the eye is
sufficient to dilate the pupil." (Pereira.) The 1/12 to 1/10 gr. often
causes very serious effects in the human subject. The 1/6th of a grain
accelerates the pulse, affects the brain, causes dryness of the throat,
difficulty of deglutition, dilation of the pupil, dimness of sight,
giddiness, strangury, numbness of limbs, sense of formication in the arms,
rigidity of thighs, depression of pulse, and sometimes feebleness or loss
of voice. These symptoms continue for from 12 to 24 hours. In larger doses
death ensues.
[Footnote 103: A "cerebro-spinal poison."--Taylor.]
_Ant., &c._ These may be similar to those described under BELLADONNA and
ALKALOID.
_Uses._ Chiefly as an external agent, as a substitute for belladonna, to
cause dilation of the pupil; and as a local anæsthetic or anodyne,
especially in facial neuralgia. Internally, it has been occasionally given
in hooping-cough, chorea, and a few other nervous diseases.--_Dose_, 1/30
gr., gradually increased to 1/20, or, occasionally, even 1/15 gr. in
solution, or made into a pill with liquorice powder and honey, or syrup,
or used endermically; for a collyrium, 1 gr. to water 1 oz., a few drops
only being applied to the eye at a time, the greatest caution in each case
being observed. It is also employed to make the sulphate. In dispensing it
a single drop of acetic acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, will be found to
facilitate and ensure its perfect solution. See BELLADONNA and
BELLADONINE.
=Atropia, Sul'phate of.= _Syn._ ATRO'PIA SUL'PHAS, L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Take
of atropia, 120 _gr._; distilled water, 4 _fl. dr._; diluted sulphuric
acid, a sufficiency.
Mix the atropia with the water and add the acid gradually, stirring them
together until the alkaloid is dissolved and the solution is neutral.
Evaporate it to dryness at a temperature not exceeding 100°.
_Characters and Tests._--A colourless powder, soluble in water, forming a
solution which is neutral to test-paper, and when applied to the eye
dilates the pupil as the solution of atropia does. It leaves no ash when
burned with free access of air.
Intended for external application. It is a powerful poison.
_Uses, &c._ The same as those of the pure alkaloid.--_Dose_, 1/25 to 1/20
gr., either in solution or pills; 1 to 3 gr. to water 1 fl. oz., as a
collyrium, of which a few drops seldom fail to produce full dilation of
the pupil in about a quarter of an hour; 1 to 2 gr. to lard 1 dr. forms an
excellent ointment in neuralgic affections.
_Obs._ Sulphate of atropia (which is intended for external use only) is
rather difficult to crystallise, as it has a tendency to assume an
amorphous or gum-like condition. It is more soluble than the pure
alkaloid; and, like it, is a terrific poison.
=ATROPIA, VALERIANATÈ.= The Paris Codex directs this salt to be prepared
as follows:--Dissolve valerianic acid in ether, and add atropia just
sufficient to saturate the acid. Let the ether evaporate.
=ATROP'IC ACID.= _Syn._ ACIDUM ATROP'ICUM, L. The name given by Richter to
a volatile crystallisable substance, possessing acid properties, found in
atropa belladonna or deadly nightshade. In many respects it resembles
benzoic acid, from which, however it is distinguished by not precipitating
the salts of iron.
=ATROPI'NA, At'ropine.= See ATROPIA.
=AT'TAR.= See OTTO and VOLATILE OILS.
=ATTELETTES= (-l[)e]ts'). [Fr.] In _cookery_, small skewers, generally of
silver, with ornamental heads. The term is also applied to small dishes
(ENTRÉES, &c.) in which the articles are mounted on attelettes. Small
fish, as smelts, are often served in this way. See AIGUILLETTE.
=ATTEN'UANT= (-[=u]-[)a]nt). _Syn._ ATTEN'UANS, L.; ATTÉNUANT, Fr.;
VERDÜNNEND, Ger. That makes thin, or less dense or viscid; diluting. In
_medicine_, applied to remedies (ATTEN'UANTS, SPANÆM'ICS) which are
supposed to act by thinning, diluting, or impoverishing the blood.
=ATTENUA'TION.= _Syn._ ATTENUA'TIO, L.; ATTÉNUATION, Fr.; VERDÜNNUNG, Ger.
A thinning or diminishing; a reducing in consistence. In _medicine_, see
the adj. (_above_); in _brewing_, the decrease of the density of worts
during fermentation, arising from the gradual conversion of their
'saccharine' (sugar) into alcohol. See BREWING, DISTILLATION, WORTS, &c.
=ATTRAC'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ATTRAC'TIO, L.; ANZIEHUNG, Ger. The
power that draws together matter and resists its separation. That force
which attracts bodies towards the centre of the earth, and which keeps on
its surface those that are movable, is called GRAVITY, or the attraction
of gravitation. It is exerted at sensible, often at immense, distances,
and determines the figure and motions of the planets and comets, and
causes the descent of heavy bodies to the ground. This force it is which
confers the property of weight upon matter.
That force which unites particles of the same kind of matter, so as to
cause them to assume the condition of solid or liquid masses, _e.g._
particles of chalk to form a mass of chalk, particles of water to form a
mass of water, is called COHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF COHESION. That
force which binds together different substances without changing their
properties, as when paint sticks to wood, ink to paper, &c., is called
ADHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF ADHESION. CAPILLARY ATTRACTION is a
modification of adhesion, and is characterised by being exerted between
liquids and the internal surfaces of tubes and pervious bodies. The
absorption of water by a sponge, the ascent of oil in the wick of a lamp,
are examples of this power. The CHEMICAL FORCE or AFFINITY differs from
all other kinds of attraction in being exerted between definite and
constant quantities (atoms) of matter, usually of dissimilar natures, and
producing combinations possessing properties different from those of their
components. (See AFFINITY.) This force, as well as cohesion and adhesion,
is exerted at distances so small as to be immeasurable.
The terms ELEC'TRIC ATTRACTION and MAGNET'IC ATTRACTION are employed in
_physics_ to denote phenomena which we imperfectly understand, and which
operate between bodies at sensible distances, and simulate those of the
attraction of gravitation.
=ATTRI''TION= (tr[)i]sh'-[)u]n). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ATTRI''TIO, L.;
ABREIBUNG, AUFREIBUNG, Ger. In _mechanics_, the wearing away of parts by
friction. In _medicine_, a graze, abrasion, or solution of continuity of
the cuticle, or the act which causes it. In _surgery_, the crushing or
tearing away of any exterior portion of the body by violence. See
ABRASION, ANTI-ATTRITION, FRICTION, &c.
=AURANTIA'CEÆ= (-she-[=e]). [Lat.; DC.] The orange tribe. In _botany_, an
extensive and important natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, found
exclusively in the temperate and tropical parts of the Old World, and
unknown in a wild state in America. The fruit is pulpy, succulent,
sub-acid, and eatable, and separated into cells by membranous partitions,
and is covered with a leathery aromatic skin or rind. Some of the genera
embrace plants of great beauty and utility. A few of the Indian species
are climbers. The genus CIT'RUS, which includes the orange, lemon, citron,
lime, bergamot, and shaddock, is that best known in Europe.
=AURAN''TIIN= (-she-[)i]n). _Syn._ HESPERIDIN; AURAN'TINE* (-t[)i]n),
Eng., Fr.; AURANTII'NA, &c., L. The bitter principle of the peel of
oranges and lemons.
_Prep._ The exterior or yellow peel of the Seville orange (carefully
separated from the white matter, and air-dried) is steeped in hot water,
and the filtered liquor gently evaporated to dryness.
_Prop._, _&c._ It possesses the bitter properties of the peel without any
of its glutinosity or fragrance, and is said to agree better with delicate
stomachs. It may be taken in water either with or without the addition of
a little sugar or capillaire, or dissolved in wine.
=AU''RIC= (aw'- or awr'-). _Syn._ AURI'CUS, L. Of or relating to gold, or
containing it, or formed from it.
=AURIF'EROUS.= _Syn._ AU''RIFER, AURIF'ERUS, L.; AURIFÈRE, Fr.;
GOLDHALTIG, Ger. In, _mineralogy_, that yields or contains gold; as
auriferous sand, a. quartz, &c.
=AURIPIGMEN'TUM[dagger].= [L.] Literally, paint of gold; appr., native
orpiment. See ARSENIC.
=AURO-CHLO''RIDES= (kl[=o]re'-[=i]dz). Compounds of terchloride of gold
with chlorides of other bases. They may be prepared by mixing the
terchloride of gold with the chloride of the base, in atomic proportions,
and setting aside the solution to crystallise.
_Prop._, _&c._ Most of the auro-chlorides crystallise in prisms, dissolve
in both alcohol and water, have an orange or yellow colour, and are
decomposed at a red heat.
=AURO-CY'ANIDES= ([)i]dz). In _chemistry_, compounds of cyanide of gold
with cyanides of other bases. They may be formed in a similar manner to
the auro-chlorides. Auro-cyanide of potassium is much used in
electro-gilding.
=AURORA BOREALIS.= This luminous phenomenon, which is occasionally seen in
our own country on clear frosty nights, and much more frequently and
vividly by the dwellers in more northern latitudes, has been supposed to
have an electrical origin, and to be occasioned by the passage of
electricity through the rarefied strata of the upper regions of the
atmosphere from the poles towards the equator. But physicists look upon
this explanation as unsatisfactory, and inadequate to account for the
effects produced. The hypothesis, however, seems to derive some support
from the following fact:--
If one of Gassiot's vacuum tubes be brought near to a powerful electrical
machine, both while the machine is in motion and for some time after,
flashes of light may be seen passing from the wire at one end of the tube
to the other extremity, which flashes bear a great resemblance to the
auroral rays. The great doubt, however, is whether the conditions
necessary to the production of the aurora are similar to those prevailing
during this experiment, a doubt not lessened by the difficulty of
satisfactorily accounting for the rarefied state of the atmosphere which
is assumed to exist.
The forms which the aurora assumes are very varied and of great beauty;
there appears, however, to be some general similarity in its aspect at the
same locality. Its appearance is briefly as follows:--A dingy aspect in
the heavens in a northernly direction is usually the precursor of the
aurora; and this gradually becomes darker in colour, and assumes the form
of a circular segment surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each
end on the horizon. This dark segment presents the appearance of a thick
cloud, and is frequently seen as such in the fading twilight, before the
auroral light manifests itself. The density of this segment must, however,
be very inconsiderable, as stars may sometimes be seen shining brightly
through it.