CH3
/ \ OH
| |
\ /
C3H7 (iso),
a constituent of the ethereal oil of _Origanum hirtum_, oil of thyme,
oil obtained from pepperwort, and wild bergamot. It may be synthetically
prepared by the fusion of cymol sulphonic acid with caustic potash; by
the action of nitrous acid on 1-methyl-2-amino-4-propyl benzene; by
prolonged heating of 5 parts of camphor with 1 part of iodine; or by
heating carvol with glacial phosphoric acid. It is extracted from
Origanum oil by means of a 10% potash solution. It is a thick oil which
sets at -20 deg.C. to a mass of crystals of melting point 0 deg.C, and
boiling point 236-237 deg.C. Oxidation with ferric chloride converts it
into dicarvacrol, whilst phosphorus pentachloride transforms it into
chlorcymol.
CARVAJAL, ANTONIO FERNANDEZ (d. 1659), a Portuguese Marano (q.v.) or
Crypto-Jew, who came to England in the reign of Charles I. He was the
first "endenizened" Jew in England, and by his extensive trade with the
West Indies rendered considerable services to the Commonwealth. Besides
his commercial value to Cromwell, Carvajal was politically useful also,
for he acted as "intelligencer." When Manasseh ben Israel in 1655
petitioned for the return of the Jews who had been expelled by Edward
I., Carvajal took part in the agitation and boldly avowed his Judaism.
Carvajal may be termed the founder of the Anglo-Jewish community. He
died in 1659.
See Lucien Wolf, "The First English Jew," _Trans. Jewish Historical
Society_, ii. 14.
CARVAJAL, LUISA DE (1568-1614), Spanish missionary in England, was born
at Jaraicejo in Estremadura on the 2nd of January 1568. Her father, Don
Francisco de Carvajal, was the head of an old and wealthy family which
produced many men of note. Her mother, Dona Maria, belonged to the
powerful house of Mendoza. Both were people of pious character. The
mother died in 1572 from a fever contracted while visiting the poor, and
the father took the disease from his wife, and died of it. Luisa and a
brother were left to the care of their grand-aunt Maria Chacon,
governess of the young children of Philip II. On her death they passed
to the care of their maternal uncle, Francisco Hurtado de Mendoza, count
of Almazan. The count, who was named viceroy of Navarre by Philip II.,
was an able public servant in whom religious zeal was carried to the
point of inhuman asceticism. His niece attracted his favour by her
manifest disposition to the religious life; she sent her own share of
dinner to the poor, ate broken meats, wore a chain next her skin, and
invited humiliation; and at the age of seventeen she was instructed by
the count to make a surrender of her will to two female servants whom he
set over her, and by whom she was repeatedly scourged while naked,
trampled upon and otherwise ill-treated. But when Luisa came of age she
refused to enter a religious house, and decided to devote herself to the
conversion of England. The execution of the Jesuit emissary priest,
Henry Walpole, in 1596 had moved her deeply, and she prepared herself by
learning English and by the study of divinity. A lawsuit with her
brother caused temporary delay, but she secured her share of the family
fortune, which she devoted to founding a college for English Jesuits at
Louvain; it was transferred to Watten near Saint Omer in 1612, and
lasted till the suppression of the Order. In 1605 she was allowed to go
to England. She established herself under the protection of the Spanish
ambassador, whose house was in the Barbican. From this place of safety
she carried on an active and successful propaganda. She made herself
conspicuous by her attentions to the Gunpowder Plot prisoners, and won
converts, partly by persuasion, partly by helping women of the very
poorest class in childbirth, and taking charge of the children. Her
activity attracted the attention of the authorities, and she was
arrested in 1608. But the protection of the Spanish ambassador Zuniga,
and the desire of King James I. to stand well with Spain, secured her
release. In 1613, while staying at a house in Spitalfields, where she
had in fact set up a disguised nunnery, she was arrested with all the
inmates by the pursuivants of Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury, who had
been on the watch for some time. Her release was again secured by the
new Spanish ambassador Gondomar, who played with effect on the weakness
of King James. By this time, however, the Spanish authorities had begun
to discover that she was a political danger to them, and recalled her.
Luisa, who had hoped for the crown of martyrdom, was bitterly
disappointed, and resisted the order. Before she could be forced to obey
she died in the Spanish ambassador's house on her birthday, the 2nd of
January 1614. Her body remained as an object of admiration for months
till it was carried back to Spain.
The original authority for the life of Luisa de Carvajal is _La Vida y
Virtudes de la Venerable Virgen Dona Luisa de Carvajal y Mendoza_
(Madrid, 1632), by the Licentiate Lorenzo Munoz. It is founded on her
own papers collected by her English confessor Michael Walpole. It is
largely autobiographical, and contains some examples of her verse. The
_Vida y Virtudes_ is summarized by Southey in his _Letters from Spain
and Portugal_ (1808). A life was written by Lady Georgiana Fullerton
(1873), in which much that is shocking to modern sentiment is
concealed. See also _Quatre Portraits de femmes_, by La Comtesse R. de
Courson (Paris, 1895). There are several references to Luisa de
Carvajal in the _Records of the English Province of the Society of
Jesus_, by Henry Foley (1877-1883). (D. H.)
CARVER, JOHN (1575?-1621), one of the "Pilgrim Fathers," first governor
of the Plymouth colony in America, was born, probably in
Nottinghamshire, England, about 1575. Owing to religious persecution at
home he took refuge in Holland about 1607, and eventually became a
deacon in the church at Leiden of which John Robinson was the pastor. In
1620 he emigrated to America in the "Mayflower," and founded the
Plymouth colony. Before leaving England he had probably been elected
governor; after the signing of the famous "Compact" this election was
confirmed; and on the 23rd of March 1620 (1621 N.S.) Carver was
re-elected for the ensuing year. Early in April, however, he died from
the effects of sunstroke.
CARVER, JONATHAN (c. 1725-1780), American traveller, was born probably
in Canterbury, Connecticut. The date usually given for his birth, 1732,
is now considered too late, since he was apparently married in 1746. In
early life he followed the trade of a shoemaker and subsequently served
with the provincial forces in the French and Indian wars. According to
his "Journal" he conceived the idea, after the peace of 1763, of
exploring Great Britain's newly acquired territory in the north-west. He
is said to have set out in 1766, journeyed westward by way of the
Straits of Mackinac and the Fox and Wisconsin rivers to the Mississippi,
viewed the Falls of St Anthony, lived for some time among the Indians,
and received from them a grant of 100 sq. m. of territory between the
Mississippi and St Croix rivers. Returning east in 1768 by way of the
north shore of Lake Superior he proceeded in 1769 to England, where he
presented a letter of introduction to Benjamin Franklin, and made vain
efforts to interest the board of trade in his investigations. In 1778
there was published in London what purported to be his own narrative of
his explorations under the title of _Travels through the Interior Parts
of North America in the Years 1766, 1767 and 1768._ It had an immediate
success, was translated into French, German and Dutch, and was long
generally accepted as a truthful narrative of his travels and
observations, and as one of the highest authorities on the manners,
customs and language of the Indians of the northern Mississippi valley.
Carver died in London on the 31st of January 1780, having married a
second time in England although his first wife was still living in
America.
Soon after his death a new edition of the _Travels_ was brought out by
the well-known Quaker physician and author, Dr John Coakley Lettsom
(1744-1815), who "edited" the work and furnished a biographical
introduction. Some doubt seems to have been early entertained as to the
real authorship of the work, Oliver Wolcott in 1792 writing to Jedediah
Morse, the geographer, that Carver was too unlettered to have written
it, and that in his belief the book was the work of some literary hack.
Careful investigation of Indian life and north-western history, notably
by H.R. Schoolcraft in 1823, William H. Keating in his narrative of
Major Long's Expedition (1824), and Robert Greenhow in his _History of
Oregon_ (1844), showed a remarkable similarity between the _Travels_ and
the accounts of several French authorities, but these criticisms were
scarcely noticed by later writers. Finally Professor E.G. Bourne, in a
paper contributed to the _American Historical Review_ for January 1906,
proved beyond dispute that the bulk of Carver's alleged narrative was
merely a close paraphrase of Charlevoix's _Journal_, La Hontan's _New
Voyages to North America_, and James Adair's _History of the American
Indians._ Professor Bourne's theory is that the entire book was probably
the work of the facile Dr Lettsom, whose personal relations with Carver
are known to have been intimate, the "journal" alone, which constituted
an inconsiderable part of the whole, having been, in part, founded on
Carver's random notes and recollections.
See also J.G. Godfrey, _Jonathan Carver; His Travels in the
North-west, 1766-1768_ (No. 5 of the Parkman Club Publications,
Milwaukee, Wis., 1896), and Daniel S. Durrie, "Captain Jonathan Carver
and the Carver Grant," in vol. vi. of the Wisconsin Historical
Society's _Collections_ (1872).
CARVING. To carve (A.S. _ceorfan_: connected with Gr. [Greek: graphein])
is to cut, whatever the material; but apart from the domestic sense of
carving meat, the word is more particularly associated with the art of
sculpture. The name of sculptor (see SCULPTURE) is commonly reserved for
the great masters of the art, especially in stone and marble, while that
of carver is given to the artists or workmen who execute the subordinate
decorations of architecture. The word is also specially applied to
sculpture in ivory (q.v.) and its substitutes, and in wood (see
WOOD-CARVING) and other soft materials (see also GEM.)
CARVING AND GILDING, two allied operations which formerly were the most
prominent features in the important industry of frame-making. The
craftsmen who pursued the occupation were known as "carvers and
gilders," and the terms still continue to be the recognized trade-name
of frame-making, although very little of the ornamentation of frame-work
is now accomplished by carving, and much of the so-called gilt ornament
is produced without the use of gold. The trade has to do primarily with
the frames of pictures, engravings and mirrors, but many of the light
decorative fittings of houses, finished in "composition" and gilt work,
are also entrusted to the carver and gilder. Fashion in picture frames,
like all fashions, fluctuates greatly. Mouldings of the prevailing sizes
and patterns are generally manufactured in special factories, and
supplied in lengths to carvers and gilders ready for use. A large
proportion of such mouldings, especially those of a cheaper and inferior
quality, are made in Germany. What is distinctively known as a "German"
moulding is a cheap imitation of gilt work made by lacquering over the
surface of a white metallic foil. German artisans are also very
successful in the preparation of imitation of veneers of rosewood,
mahogany, walnut and other ornamental woods. The more expensive
mouldings are either in wood (such as oak or mahogany), in veneers of
any expensive ornamental wood, or real gilt.
A brief outline of the method of making a gilt frame, enriched with
composition ornaments, may be taken as a characteristic example of the
operations of the frame-maker. The foundation of such a frame is soft
pine wood, in which a moulding of the required size and section is
roughly run. To prevent warping the moulding is, or ought to be, made
from two or more pieces of wood glued together. The moulding is
"whitened up," or prepared for gilding by covering it with repeated
coatings of a mixture of finely powdered whiting and size. When a
sufficient thickness of the whitening mixture has been applied, the
whole surface is carefully smoothed off with pumice-stone and
glass-paper, care being taken to keep the angles and curves clear and
sharp. Were a plain gilt moulding only desired, it would now be ready
for gilding; but when the frame is to be enriched it first receives the
composition ornaments. Composition, or "compo," is a mixture of fine
glue, white resin, and linseed oil well boiled together, with as much
rolled and sifted whiting added as makes the whole into a doughy mass
while hot. This composition is worked in a hot state into moulds of
boxwood, and so pressed in as to take up every ornamental detail. On its
removal from the mould all superfluous matter is trimmed away, and the
ornament, while yet soft and plastic, is laid on the moulding, and
fitting into all the curves, &c., is fixed with glue. The ornamental
surface so prepared quickly sets and becomes very hard and brittle. When
very large bold ornaments are wanted for frames of unusual size they are
moulded in _papier mache._ Two methods of laying on gold--oil-gilding
and water-gilding--are practised, the former being used for frames
broken up with enrichments. For oil-gilding the moulding is prepared
with two coats of fine thin size to fill the pores of the wood, and
afterwards it receives a coat of oil gold-size, which consists of a
mixture of boiled linseed oil and ochre. When this gold-size is in a
"tacky" or "sticky" condition, gold-leaf is laid on and carefully
pressed over and into all parts of the surface; and when covered with a
coat of finish-size the gilding is complete. Water-gilding is applied to
plain mouldings and all considerable unbroken surfaces, and is finished
either "matt" or burnished. For these styles of work the mouldings are
properly sized, and after the size (which for "matt" is red in colour
and for burnish blue) is dry the gold is laid on with water. Matt-work
is protected with one or two coats of finish-size; but burnished gold is
finished only by polishing with an agate burnisher--no size or water
being allowed to touch such surfaces. The mitring up of frames, the
mounting and fitting up of paintings, engravings, &c., involve too many
minor operations to be noticed here in detail; but these, with the
cutting and fitting of glass, cleaning and repairing pictures and
prints, and similar operations, all occupy the attention of the carver
and gilder.
CARY, ALICE (1820-1871), and PHOEBE (1824-1871), American poets, were
born at Mount Healthy, near Cincinnati, Ohio, respectively on the 26th
of April 1820 and the 4th of September 1824. Their education was largely
self-acquired, and their work in literature was always done in unbroken
companionship. Their poems were first collected in a volume entitled
_Poems of Alice and Phoebe Carey_ [sic] (1850). In 1850-1851 they
removed to New York, where the two sisters, befriended by Rufus W.
Griswold (1815-1857), the _quasi-_dictator of American verse, and Horace
Greeley, occupied a prominent position in literary circles. In 1868-1869
Alice Cary served for a short time as the first president of Sorosis,
the first woman's club organized in New York. Alice, who was much the
more voluminous writer of the two, wrote prose sketches and novels, now
almost forgotten, and various volumes of verse, notably _The Lover's
Diary_ (1868). Her lyrical poem, _Pictures of Memory_, was much admired
by Edgar Allan Poe. Phoebe published two volumes of poems (1854 and
1868), but is best known as the author of the hymn "Nearer Home,"
beginning "One sweetly solemn thought," written in 1852. Alice died in
New York City on the 12th of February 1871, and Phoebe in Newport, Rhode
Island, on the 31st of July of the same year. The collected _Poetical
Works of Alice and Phoebe Cary_ were published in Boston in 1886.
See Mrs Mary Clemmer Ames's _Memorial of Alice and Phoebe Carey_ (New
York, 1873).
CARY, ANNIE LOUISE (1842- ), American singer, was born in Wayne,
Maine, on the 22nd of October 1842. She studied in Milan, and made her
debut as an operatic contralto in Copenhagen in 1868. She had a
successful European career for several years, singing in Stockholm,
Paris and London, and made her New York first appearance in 1870. She
only once returned to Europe for a brilliant Russian tour, and until she
retired in 1882, on her marriage to Charles M. Raymond, she was the most
popular singer in America.
CARY, HENRY FRANCIS (1772-1844), English author and translator, was born
at Gibraltar on the 6th of December 1772, the son of a captain in the
army. He was educated at the grammar schools of Rugby, Sutton Coldfield
and Birmingham, and at Christ Church, Oxford, which he entered in 1790.
He took holy orders, and was presented in 1797 to the vicarage of
Abbott's Bromley in Staffordshire. This benefice he held till his death.
In 1800 he was also presented to the vicarage of Kingsbury in
Warwickshire. While still at school he had become a regular contributor
to the _Gentleman's Magazine_, and had published a volume of _Sonnets
and Odes._ At Christ Church he devoted much time to the study of French
and Italian literature; and the fruits of these studies appeared in the
notes to his classic translation of Dante. The version of the _Inferno_
was published in 1805, together with the original text. Soon afterwards
Cary moved to London, where he became reader at Berkeley chapel, and
subsequently lecturer at Chiswick and curate of the Savoy. His version
of the whole _Divina Commedia_ did not appear till 1814. It was
published at Cary's own expense, as the publisher refused to undertake
the risk, owing to the failure incurred over the _Inferno_. The
translation was brought to the notice of Samuel Rogers by Thomas Moore.
Rogers made some additions to an article on it by Ugo Foscolo in the
_Edinburgh Review._ This article, and praise bestowed on the work by
Coleridge in a lecture at the Royal Institution, led to a general
acknowledgment of its merit. Gary's _Dante_ thus gradually took its
place among standard works, passing through four editions in the
translator's lifetime. It has the great merits of accuracy, idiomatic
vigour and readableness; it preserves the sincerity and vividness of the
original; and, although many rivals have since appeared in the field, it
still holds an honourable place. Its blank verse, however, cannot
represent the close woven texture and the stately music of the _terza
rima_ of the original. In 1824 Cary published a translation of _The
Birds_ of Aristophanes, and, about 1834, of the _Odes_ of Pindar. In
1826 he was appointed assistant-librarian in the British Museum, a post
which he held for about eleven years. He resigned because the
appointment of keeper of the printed books, which should have been his
in the ordinary course of promotion, was refused him when it fell
vacant. In 1841 a crown pension of L200 a year, obtained through the
efforts of Samuel Rogers, was conferred on him. Cary's _Lives of the
early French Poets_, and _Lives of English Poets_ (from Johnson to Henry
Kirke White), intended as a continuation of Johnson's _Lives of the
Poets_, were published in a collected form in 1846. He died in London on
the 14th of August 1844, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
A memoir was published by his son, Henry Cary, in 1847.
CARYATIDES (Latinized from the Greek; the plural of Caryatis, i.e. a
woman of Caryae in Laconia), in architecture, the term given to the
draped female figures used for piers or supports, as found in the
porticos of the Erechtheum and of the Treasury of Cnidus at Delphi (see
GREEK ART, fig. 17).
CARYL, JOSEPH (1602-1673), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
London in 1602. He graduated at Exeter College, Oxford, and became
preacher at Lincoln's Inn. He frequently preached before the Long
Parliament, and was a member of the Westminster Assembly in 1643. By
order of the parliament he attended Charles I. in Holmby House, and in
1650 he was sent with John Owen to accompany Cromwell to Scotland. In
1662 he was ejected from his church of St Magnus near London Bridge, but
continued to minister to an Independent congregation in London till his
death in March 1673, when John Owen succeeded him. His piety and
learning are displayed in his ponderous commentary on Job (12 vols.,
4to., 1651-1666; 2nd ed., 2 vols., fol. 1676-1677).
CARYOPHYLLACEAE, a botanical order of dicotyledonous plants, containing
about 60 genera with 1300 species, and widely distributed, especially in
temperate, alpine and arctic regions. The plants are herbs, sometimes
becoming shrubby at the base, with opposite, simple, generally uncut
leaves and swollen nodes. The main axis ends in a flower (definite
inflorescence), and flower-bearing branches are borne one on each side
by which the branching is often continued (known technically as a
dichasial cyme). The flowers are regular, with four or five sepals which
are free or joined to form a tube in their lower portion, the same
number of petals, free and springing from below the ovary, twice as
many stamens, inserted with the petals, and a pistil of two to five
carpels joined to form an ovary containing a large number of ovules on a
central placenta and bearing two to five styles; the ovary is one-celled
or incompletely partitioned at the base into three to five cells; honey
is secreted at the base of the stamens. The fruit is a capsule
containing a large number of small seeds and opening by apical teeth;
the seed contains a floury endosperm and a curved embryo.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Stitchwort (_Stellaria Holostea_). 1, Flower cut
vertically; 2, seed; 3, same cut vertically; 4, same cut horizontally.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Flowering shoot of Pink (_Dianthus_); 2,
horizontal plan of flower; 3, flower in vertical section.]
The order is divided into two well-defined tribes which are
distinguished by the character of the flower and the arrangements for
ensuring pollination.
Tribe I. _Alsineae_: the sepals are free and the flowers are open, with
spreading petals, and the honey which is secreted at the base of the
stamens is exposed to the visits of short-tongued insects, such as
flies and small bees; the petals are white in colour. It includes
several British genera, _Cerastium_ (mouse-ear chickweed), _Stellaria_
(fig. 1) (stitchwort and chickweed), _Arenaria_ (sandwort), _Sagina_
(pearlwort), _Spergula_ (spurrey) and _Spergularia_ (sandwort spurrey).
[Illustration: FIG. 3. a, Pistil of _Cerastium hirsutum_ cut vertically;
o, unilocular or monothecal ovary; p, free central placenta; g, ovules;
s, styles.
b, The same cut horizontally, and the halves separated so as to show the
interior of the cavity of the ovary o, with the free central placenta p,
covered with ovules g.]
Tribe II. _Sileneae_: the sepals are joined below to form a narrow tube,
in which stand the long claws of the petals and the stamens, partly
closing the tube and rendering the honey inaccessible to all but
long-tongued insects such as the larger bees and Lepidoptera. The
flowers are often red. It includes several British genera:--_Dianthus_
(pink) fig. 2, _Silene_ (catchfly, bladder campion), _Lychnis_ (campion,
_L. Flos-Cuculi_ is ragged robin), and _Githago_ or _Agrostemma_ (corn
cockle). Several, such as _Lychnis vespertina, Silene nutans_ and
others, are night-flowering, opening their flowers and becoming scented
in the evening or at night, when they are visited by night-flying moths.
The plants of this order are of little or no economic value, soap-wort,
_Saponaria officinalis_, forming a lather in water was formerly
officinal. _Dianthus_ (carnation and pink) _Gypsophila, Lychnis_ and
others, are garden plants.
CASABIANCA, RAPHAEL, COMTE DE (1738-1825), French general, was descended
from a noble Corsican family. In 1769 he took the side of France against
Genoa, then mistress of the island. In 1793, having entered the service
of the revolutionary government, he was appointed lieutenant-general in
Corsica in place of Pascale Paoli, who was outlawed for intrigues with
England. For his defence of Calvi against the English he was appointed
general of division, and he served in Italy from 1794 to 1798. After the
18th of Brumaire he entered the senate and was made count of the empire
in 1806. In 1814 he joined the party of Louis XVIII., rejoined Napoleon
during the Hundred Days, and in 1819 succeeded again in entering the
chamber of peers.
His nephew, LOUIS DE CASABIANCA (1762-1798), entered the French navy,
served in the convoy of the French troops sent to aid the revolted
American colonies, and took part in various naval actions off the North
American coast. He became captain in 1792, represented Corsica in the
Convention, and then received command of the _Orient_, which at the
battle of the Nile bore the flag of Admiral Brueys. When the latter was
killed, Casabianca, though badly wounded, fought the burning ship to the
end, and perished with most of the crew. His son, Giacomo Jocante, a boy
of ten years of age, refused to leave the ship and died in trying to
save his father. This heroic act was the subject of several poems,
including the well-known ballad by Mrs. Hemans.
CASABLANCA (_Dar el Baida_, "the white house"), a seaport on the
Atlantic coast of Morocco, in 33 deg. 27' N., 7 deg. 46' W. It is a wool
and grain port for central Morocco, chiefly for the provinces of Tadla
and Shawia. Third in importance of the towns on the Moorish coast,
unimpeded by bar or serious rocks, the roadstead is exposed to the
north-west winds. There is anchorage for steamers in 5 to 6 fathoms.
Vessels were loaded and discharged by lighters from the beach. In May
1907 the construction began of harbour works which afford sheltered
accommodation for ships at all states of the tide. The value of the
foreign trade of the port for the period 1897-1907 was about L750,000 a
year. A railway to Ber Reshid, the first section of a line intended to
tap the rich agricultural region of which Casablanca is the port, was
opened in September 1908, being the first railway built in Morocco. The
population, about 20,000, includes numerous foreign merchants,
Franciscan and Protestant missions, and a consular corps. Built by the
Portuguese upon the site of the once prosperous town of Anfa, which they
had destroyed in 1468, Casablanca was held by them for some time, till
trouble with the natives compelled them to abandon it. In August 1907,
in consequence of the murder of a number of French and Spanish workmen
engaged on the harbour works, the town was bombarded and occupied by the
French (see MOROCCO: _History_).
CASALE MONFERRATO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
province of Alessandria, 21 m. N.N.W. by rail from the town of
Alessandria. Pop. (1901) 18,874 (town); 31,370 (commune). It lies in the
plain on the right bank of the Po, 377 ft. above sea-level, and is a
junction for Mortara, Vercelli. Chivasso and Asti; it is also connected
by steam tramways with Alessandria, Vercelli and Montemagno. The fine
Lombard Romanesque cathedral, originally founded in 742, was rebuilt in
the early 12th century and consecrated in 1106; it suffered from
restoration in 1706, but has been brought back to its original form. It
contains some good pictures. The church of S. Domenico is a good
Renaissance edifice, and there are some fine palaces. The church of S.
Ilario is said to occupy the site of a pagan temple, but the name of the
ancient town (if any) which occupied this site is not known. About 10 m.
distant is the Sacro Monte di Crea, with eighteen chapels on its slopes
containing terra-cotta groups of statues, resembling those at Varallo.
Casale Monferrato was given by Charlemagne to the church of Vercelli,
but obtained its liberty from Frederick I. (Barbarossa). It was sacked
by the troops of Vercelli, Alessandria and Milan in 1215, but rebuilt
and fortified in 1220. It fell under the power of its marquises in 1292,
and became the chief town of a small state. In 1536 it passed to the
Gonzagas of Mantua, who fortified it very strongly. It has since been of
considerable importance as a fortress: it successfully resisted the
Austrians in 1849, and was strengthened in 1852. There is a large
Portland cement factory here.
CASAMARI, a Cistercian abbey in the province of Rome, 6 m. E.S.E. of
Veroli. It marks the site of Cereatae, the birthplace of Marius,
afterwards known, as inscriptions attest, as Cereatae Marianae, having
been separated perhaps by the triumvirs, from the territory of Arpinum.
We find it under the early empire as an independent community. The abbey
is a fine example of Burgundian early-Gothic (1203-1217), paralleled in
Italy by Fossanuova alone (which is almost contemporary with it), and is
very well preserved.
See C. Enlart, "Origines francaises de l'architecture gothique en
Italie" (_Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_,
fasc. 66), (Paris, 1894).
CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, GIOVANNI JACOPO (1725-1798), Italian adventurer,
was born at Venice in 1725. His father belonged to an ancient and even
noble family, but alienated his friends by embracing the dramatic
profession early in life. He made a runaway marriage with Zanetta
Farusi, the beautiful daughter of a Venetian shoemaker; and Giovanni was
their eldest child. When he was but a year old, his parents, taking a
journey to London, left him in charge of his grandmother, who,
perceiving his precocious and lively intellect, had him educated far
above her means. At sixteen he passed his examination and entered the
seminary of St Cyprian in Venice, from which he was expelled a short
time afterwards for some scandalous and immoral conduct, which would
have cost him his liberty, had not his mother managed somehow to procure
him a situation in the household of the Cardinal Acquaviva. He made but
a short stay, however, in that prelate's establishment, all restraint
being irksome to his wayward disposition, and took to travelling. Then
began that existence of adventure and intrigue which only ended with his
death. He visited Rome, Naples, Corfu and Constantinople. By turns
journalist, preacher, abbe, diplomatist, he was nothing very long,
except _homme a bonnes fortunes_, which profession he cultivated till
the end of his days. In 1755, having returned to Venice, he was
denounced as a spy and imprisoned. On the 1st of November 1756 he
succeeded in escaping, and made his way to Paris. Here he was made
director of the state lotteries, gained much financial reputation and a
considerable fortune, and frequented the society of the most notable
French men and women of the day. In 1759 he set out again on his
travels. He visited in turn the Netherlands, South Germany,
Switzerland--where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire,--Savoy,
southern France, Florence---whence he was expelled,--and Rome, where the
pope gave him the order of the Golden Spur. In 1761 he returned to
Paris, and for the next four or five years lived partly here, partly in
England, South Germany and Italy. In 1764 he was in Berlin, where he
refused the offer of a post made him by Frederick II. He then travelled
by way of Riga and St Petersburg to Warsaw, where he was favourably
received by King Stanislaus Poniatowski. A scandal, followed by a duel,
forced him to flee, and he returned by a devious route to Paris, only to
find a _lettre de cachet_ awaiting him, which drove him to seek refuge
in Spain. Expelled from Madrid in 1769, he went by way of Aix--where he
met Cagliostro--to Italy once more. From 1774, with which year his
memoirs close, he was a police spy in the service of the Venetian
inquisitors of state; but in 1782, in consequence of a satirical libel
on one of his patrician patrons, he had once more to go into exile. In
1785 he was appointed by Count Waldstein, an old Paris acquaintance, his
librarian at the chateau of Dux in Bohemia. Here he lived until his
death, which probably occurred on the 4th of June 1798.
The main authority for Casanova's life is his _Memoires_ (12 vols.,
Leipzig, 1826-1838; later ed. in 8 vols., Paris, 1885), which were
written at Dux. They are clever, well written and, above all, cynical,
and interesting as a trustworthy picture of the morals and manners of
the times. Among Casanova's other works may be mentioned _Confutazione
della storia del governo Veneto d'Amelot de la Houssaye_ (Amsterdam,
1769), an attempt to ingratiate himself with the Venetian government;
and the _Histoire_ of his escape from prison (Leipzig, 1788; reprinted
Bordeaux, 1884; Eng. trans, by P. Villars, 1892). Ottmann's _Jacob
Casanova_ (Stuttgart, 1900) contains a bibliography.
CASAS GRANDES ("Great Houses"), a small village of Mexico, in the state
of Chihuahua, situated on the Casas Grandes or San Miguel river, about
35 m. S. of Llanos and 150 m. N.W. of the city of Chihuahua. The railway
from Ciudad Juarez to Terrazas passes through the town. It is celebrated
for the ruins of early aboriginal buildings still extant, about half a
mile from its present site. They are built of "sun-dried blocks of mud
and gravel, about 22 in. thick, and of irregular length, generally about
3 ft., probably formed and dried _in situ._" The walls are in some
places about 5 ft. thick, and they seem to have been plastered both
inside and outside. The principal edifice extends 800 ft. from north to
south, and 250 ft. east to west; its general outline is rectangular, and
it appears to have consisted of three separate piles united by galleries
or lines of lower buildings. The exact plan of the whole is obscure, but
the apartments evidently varied in size from mere closets to extensive
courts. The walls still stand at many of the angles with a height of
from 40 to 50 ft., and indicate an original elevation of several
storeys, perhaps six or seven. At a distance of about 450 ft. from the
main building are the substructions of a smaller edifice, consisting of
a series of rooms ranged round a square court, so that there are seven
to each side besides a larger apartment at each corner. The age of these
buildings is unknown, as they were already in ruins at the time of the
Spanish Conquest. The whole district of Casas Grandes is further studded
with artificial mounds, from which are excavated from time to time large
numbers of stone axes, metates or corn-grinders, and earthern vessels of
various kinds. These last have a white or reddish ground, with
ornamentation in blue, red, brown or black, and are of much better
manufacture than the modern pottery of the country. Similar ruins to
those of Casas Grandes exist near the Gila, the Salinas, and the
Colorado and it is probable that they are all the erections of one
people. Bancroft is disposed to assign them to the Moquis.
See vol. iv. of H.H. Bancroft's _The Native Races of the Pacific
States of North America_, of which the principal authorities are the
_Noticias del Estado de Chihuahua_ of Escudero, who visited the ruins
in 1819; an article in the first volume of the _Album Mexicano_, the
author of which was at Casas Grandes in 1842; and the _Personal
Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico,
California, Sonora and Chihuahua_ (1854), by John Russell Bartlett,
who explored the locality in 1851.
CASAUBON, FLORENCE ESTIENNE MERIC (1599-1671), English classical
scholar, son of Isaac Casaubon, was born at Geneva on the 14th of August
1599. At an early age he joined his father in England, and completed his
education at Eton and Oxford (B.A. 1618). His defence of his father
against the attacks of certain Catholics (_Pietas contra maledicos
patrii Nominis el Religionis Hostes_, 1621), secured him the notice and
favour of James I., who conferred upon him a prebendal stall in
Canterbury cathedral. He also vindicated his father's literary
reputation against certain impostors who had published, under his name,
a work on _The Origin of Idolatry (Vindicatio Patris adversus
Impostores_, 1624). During the Civil War he lived a retired life, and
after its conclusion refused to acknowledge the authority of Cromwell,
who, notwithstanding, requested him to write an "impartial" history of
the events of the period. In spite of the tempting inducements held out,
he declined, and also refused the post of inspector of the Swedish
universities offered him by Queen Christina. After the Restoration, he
was reinstated in his benefice, and devoted the rest of his life to
literary work. He died at Canterbury on the 14th of July 1671. Meric
Casaubon's reputation was overshadowed by that of his father; but his
editions of numerous classical authors, and especially of the
_Meditations_ of Marcus Aurelius (also English translation, new ed. by
W.H.D. Rouse, 1900), were highly valued. Among his other works may be
mentioned: _De Quatuor Linguis Commentatio_ (1650), _Of the Necessity of
Reformation_ (1664), _On Credulity and Incredulity in Things natural,
civil and divine_ (1668).
CASAUBON, ISAAC (1550-1614), French (naturalized English) classical
scholar, was born at Geneva, on the 18th of February 1559, of French
refugee parents. On the publication of the edict of January 1562, the
family returned to France and settled at Crest in Dauphine, where Arnaud
Casaubon, Isaac's father, became minister of a Huguenot congregation.
Till he was nineteen, Isaac had no other instruction than what could be
given him by his father during the years of civil war. Arnaud was away
from home whole years together in the Calvinist camp, or the family were
flying to the hills to hide from the fanatical bands of armed Catholics
who patrolled the country. Thus it was in a cave in the mountains of
Dauphine, after the massacre of St Bartholomew, that Isaac received his
first lesson in Greek, the text-book being Isocrates _ad Demonicum_.
At nineteen Isaac was sent to the Academy of Geneva, where he read Greek
under Francis Portus, a native of Crete. Portus died in 1581, having
recommended Casaubon, then only twenty-two, as his successor. At Geneva
he remained as professor of Greek till 1596. Here he married twice, his
second wife being Florence, daughter of the scholar-printer, Henri
Estienne. Here, without the stimulus of example or encouragement, with
few books and no assistance, in a city peopled with religious refugees,
and struggling for life against the troops of the Catholic dukes of
Savoy, Casaubon made himself a consummate Greek scholar and master of
ancient learning. His great wants at Geneva were books and the sympathy
of learned associates. He spent all he could save out of his small
salary in buying books, and in having copies made of such classics as
were not then in print. Henri Estienne, Theodore de Beza (rector of the
university and professor of theology), and Jacques Lect (Lectius), were
indeed men of superior learning. But Henri, in those last years of his
life, was no longer the Estienne of the _Thesaurus_; he was never at
home, and would not suffer his son-in-law to enter his library. "He
guards his books," writes Casaubon, "as the griffins in India do their
gold!" Beza was engrossed by the cares of administration, and retained,
at most, an interest for theological reading, while Lect, a lawyer and
diplomatist, had left classics for the active business of the council.
The sympathy and help which Casaubon's native city could not afford him,
he endeavoured to supply by cultivating the acquaintance of the learned
of other countries. Geneva, as the metropolis of Calvinism, received a
constant succession of visitors. The continental tour of the young
Englishman of birth was not complete without a visit to Geneva. It was
there that Casaubon made the acquaintance of young Henry Wotton, the
poet and diplomatist, who lodged in his house and borrowed his money. Of
more consequence to Isaac Casaubon was the acquaintance of Richard
Thomson ("Dutch" Thomson), fellow of Clare College, Cambridge; for it
was through Thomson that the attention of Joseph Scaliger, settled in
1593 at Leiden, was directed to Casaubon. Scaliger and Casaubon first
exchanged letters in 1594. Their intercourse, which was wholly by
letter, for they never met, passes through the stages of civility,
admiration, esteem, regard and culminates in a tone of the tenderest
affection and mutual confidence. Influential French men of letters, the
Protestant Jacques Bongars, the Catholic Jacques de Thou, and the
Catholic convert Philippe Canaye, sieur du Fresne, aided him by presents
of books and encouragement, and endeavoured to get him invited, in some
capacity, to France.
This was effected in 1596, in which year Casaubon accepted an invitation
to the university of Montpellier, with the title of _conseiller du roi_
and _professeur stipendie aux langues et bonnes lettres_. In Montpellier
he never took root. He held the professorship there only three years,
with several prolonged absences. The hopes raised by his brilliant
reception were disappointed; he was badly treated by the authorities, by
whom his salary was only paid very irregularly, and, finally, not at
all. He was not, at any time, insensible to the attractions of teaching,
and his lectures at Montpellier were followed not only by the students,
but by men of mature age and position. But the love of knowledge was
gradually growing upon him, and he began to perceive that editing Greek
books was an employment more congenial to his peculiar powers than
teaching. At Geneva he had first tried his hand on some notes on
Diogenes Laertius, on Theocritus and the New Testament, the last
undertaken at his father's request. His debut as an editor had been a
complete Strabo (1587), of which he was so ashamed afterwards that he
apologized for its crudity to Scaliger, calling it "a miscarriage." This
was followed by the text of Polyaenus, an _editio princeps_, 1589; a
text of Aristotle, 1590; and a few notes contributed to Estienne's
editions of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Pliny's _Epistolae_. It is
not till we come to his edition of Theophrastus's _Characteres_ (1592),
that we have a specimen of that peculiar style of illustrative
commentary, at once apposite and profuse, which distinguishes Casaubon
among annotators. At the time of his removal to Montpellier he was
engaged upon what is the capital work of his life, his edition of, and
commentary on, Athenaeus.
In 1598 we find Casaubon at Lyons, superintending the passage of his
Athenaeus through the press, for which he had been unable to find
facilities at Montpellier. Here he lived in the house of Meric de Vicq,
_surintendant de la justice_, a Catholic, but a man of acquirements,
whose connexions were with the circle of liberal Catholics in Paris. In
the suite of De Vicq Casaubon made a flying visit to Paris, and was
presented to Henry IV. The king was very gracious, and said something
about employing Casaubon's services in the "restoration" of the fallen
university of Paris. Full of hope he returned to Montpellier. In January
1599, he received a summons to repair to Paris. But the terms of the
letter missive were so vague that, though it bore the sign manual,
Casaubon hesitated to act upon it. However, he resigned his chair at
Montpellier, but instead of hastening to Paris, he lingered more than a
year at Lyons, in De Vicq's house, where he hoped to meet the king, who
was expected to visit the south. Nothing more was heard about the
professorship, but instead he was summoned by De Vicq, who was then in
Paris, to come to him in all haste on an affair of importance. The
business proved to be the Fontainebleau Conference. Casaubon allowed
himself to be persuaded to sit as one of the referees who were to
adjudicate on the challenge sent to Du Plessis Mornay by Cardinal
Duperron. By so doing he placed himself in a false position, as Scaliger
said: "Non debebat Casaubon interesse colloquio Plessiaeano; erat asinus
inter simias, doctus inter imperitos" (_Scaligerana_ 2^[alpha]). The
issue was so contrived that the Protestant party could not but be
pronounced to be in the wrong. By concurring in the decision, which was
unfavourable to Du Plessis Mornay, Casaubon lent the prestige of his
name to a court whose verdict would without him have been worthless, and
confirmed the suspicions already current among the Reformed churches
that, like his friend and patron, Canaye du Fresne, he was meditating
abjuration. From this time forward he became the object of the hopes and
fears of the two religious parties; the Catholics lavishing promises,
and plying him with arguments; the Reformed ministers insinuating that
he was preparing to forsake a losing cause, and only higgling about his
price. We now know enough of Casaubon's mental history to know how
erroneous were these computations of his motives. But, at the time, it
was not possible for the immediate parties to the bitter controversy to
understand the intermediate position between Genevan Calvinism and
Ultramontanism to which Casaubon's reading of the fathers had conducted
him.
Meantime the efforts of De Thou and the liberal Catholics to retain him
in Paris were successful. The king repeated his invitation to Casaubon
to settle in the capital, and assigned him a pension. No more was said
about the university. The recent reform of the university of Paris had
closed its doors to all but Catholics; and though the chairs of the
College de France were not governed by the statutes of the university,
public opinion ran so violently against heresy, that Henry IV. dared not
appoint a Calvinist to a chair, even if he had desired to do so. But it
was designed that Casaubon should succeed to the post of sub-librarian
of the royal library when it should become vacant, and a patent of the
reversion was made out in his favour. In November 1604, Jean Gosselin
died in extreme old age; and Casaubon succeeded him as sub-librarian,
with a salary of 400 livres in addition to his pension.
In Paris Casaubon remained till 1610. These ten years were the brightest
period of his life. He had attained the reputation of being, after
Scaliger, the most learned man of the age,--an age in which learning
formed the sole standard of literary merit. He was placed above penury,
though not in easy circumstances. He had such facilities for religious
worship as a Huguenot could have, though he had to go out of the city to
Hablon, and afterwards to Charenton, for them. He enjoyed the society of
men of learning, or of men who took an interest in learned publications.
He had the best opportunities of seeing men of letters from foreign
countries as they passed through Paris. Above all, he had ample
facilities for using Greek books, both printed and in MS., the want of
which he had felt painfully at Geneva and Montpellier, and which no
other place but Paris could at that period have supplied.
In spite of all these advantages we find Casaubon restless, and ever
framing schemes for leaving Paris, and settling elsewhere. It was known
that he was open to offers, and offers came to him from various
quarters,--from Nimes, from Heidelberg, from Sedan. His friends Lect and
Giovanni Diodati wished, rather than hoped, to get him back to Geneva.
The causes of Casaubon's discomfort in Paris were various, but the
principal source of uneasiness lay in his religion. The life of any
Huguenot in Paris was hardly secure at that time, for it was doubtful if
the police of the city was strong enough to protect them against any
sudden uprising of the fanatical mob, always ready to re-enact the St
Bartholomew. But Casaubon was exposed to persecution of another sort.
Ever since the Fontainebleau Conference an impression prevailed that he
was wavering. It was known that he rejected the _outre_ anti-popery
opinions current in the Reformed churches; that he read the fathers, and
wished for a church after the pattern of the primitive ages. He was
given to understand that he could have a professorship only by
recantation. When it was found that he could not be bought, he was plied
by controversy. Henry IV., who liked Casaubon personally, made a point
of getting him to follow his own example. By the king's orders Duperron
was untiring in his efforts to convert him. Casaubon's knowledge of the
fathers was that of a scholar, Duperron's that of an adroit polemist;
and the scholar was driven to admit that the polemist was often too
hard for him. These encounters mostly took place in the king's library,
over which the cardinal, in his capacity of aumonier, exercised some
kind of authority; and it was therefore impossible for Casaubon to avoid
them. On the other hand, the Huguenot theologians, and especially Pierre
du Moulin, chief pastor of the church of Paris, accused him of conceding
too much, and of having departed already from the lines of strict
Calvinistic orthodoxy.
When the assassination of Henry IV. gave full rein to the Ultramontane
party at court, the obsessions of Duperron became more importunate, and
even menacing. It was now that Casaubon began to listen to overtures
which had been faintly made before, from the bishops and the court of
England. In October 1610 he came to England in the suite of the
ambassador, Lord Wotton of Marley (brother of Casaubon's early friend),
an official invitation having been sent him by Richard Bancroft,
archbishop of Canterbury. He had the most flattering reception from
James I., who was perpetually sending for him to discuss theological
matters. The English bishops were equally delighted to find that the
great French scholar was an Anglican ready made, who had arrived, by
independent study of the Fathers, at the very _via media_ between
Puritanism and Romanism, which was becoming the fashion in the English
Church. Casaubon, though a layman, was collated to a prebendal stall in
Canterbury, and a pension of L300 a year was assigned him from the
exchequer. Nor were these merely paper figures. When Sir Julius Caesar
made a difficulty about payment, James sent a note in his own hand:
"Chanceler of my excheker, I will have Mr Casaubon paid before me, my
wife, and my barnes." He still retained his appointments in France, and
his office as librarian. He had obtained leave of absence for a visit to
England, where his permanent settlement was not contemplated. In order
to retain their hold upon him, the government of the queen regent
refused to allow his library to be sent over. It required a special
request from James himself to get leave for Madame Casaubon to bring him
a part of his most necessary books. Casaubon continued to speak of
himself as the servant of the regent, and to declare his readiness to
return when summoned to do so.
Meanwhile his situation in London gradually developed unforeseen sources
of discomfort. Not that he had any reason to complain of his patrons,
the king and the bishops. James continued to the last to delight in his
company, and to be as liberal as the state of his finances allowed. John
Overall had received him and his whole family into the deanery of St
Paul's, and entertained him there for a year. Overall and Lancelot
Andrewes, then bishop of Ely, were the most learned men of a generation
in which extensive reading was more general among the higher clergy than
it has ever been since. These two were attracted to Casaubon by
congenial studies and opinions. With the witty and learned bishop of Ely
in particular Casaubon was always happy to spend such hours as he had to
spare from the labours of the study. Andrewes took him to Cambridge,
where he met with a most gratifying reception from the notabilities of
the university. They went on together to Downham, where Casaubon spent
six weeks of the summer of 1611, in which year he became naturalized. In
1613 he was taken to Oxford by Sir Henry Savile, where, amid the homage
and feasting of which he was the object, his principal interest was for
the MSS. treasures of the Bodleian. The honorary degree which was
offered him he declined.
But these distinctions were far from compensating the serious
inconveniences of his position. Having been taken up by the king and the
bishops, he had to share in their rising unpopularity. The courtiers
looked with a jealous eye on a pensioner who enjoyed frequent
opportunities of taking James I. on his weak side--his love of book
talk--opportunities which they would have known how to use. Casaubon was
especially mortified by Sir Henry Wotton's persistent avoidance of him,
so inconsistent with their former intimacy. His windows were broken by
the roughs at night, his children pelted in the streets by day. On one
occasion he himself appeared at Theobalds with a black eye, having
received a blow from some ruffian's fist in the street. The historian
Hallam thinks that he had "become personally unpopular"; but these
outrages from the vulgar seem to have arisen solely from the cockney's
antipathy to the Frenchman. Casaubon, though he could make shift to read
an English book, could not speak English, any more than Mme Casaubon.
This deficiency not only exposed him to insult and fraud, but restricted
his social intercourse. It excluded him altogether from the circle of
the "wits"; either this or some other cause prevented him from being
acceptable in the circle of the lay learned--the "antiquaries." William
Camden, the antiquary and historian, he saw but once or twice. Casaubon
had been imprudent enough to correct Camden's Greek, and it is possible
that the ex-head-master of Westminster kept himself aloof in silent
resentment of Casaubon's superior learning. With Robert Cotton and Henry
Spelman he was slightly acquainted. Of John Selden we find no mention.
Though Sir Henry Savile ostensibly patronized him, yet Casaubon could
not help suspecting that it was Savile who secretly prompted an attempt
by Richard Montagu to forestall Casaubon's book on Baronius. Besides the
jealousy of the natives, Casaubon had now to suffer the open attacks of
the Jesuit pamphleteers. They had spared him as long as there were hopes
of getting him over. The prohibition was taken off, now that he was
committed to Anglicanism. Not only Joannes Eudaemon, Heribert Rosweyd
and Scioppius (Gaspar Schoppe),[1] but a respectable writer, friendly to
Casaubon, Andreas Schott of Antwerp, gave currency to the insinuation
that Casaubon had sold his conscience for English gold.
But the most serious cause of discomfort in his English residence was
that his time was no longer his own. He was perpetually being summoned
out of town to one or other of James's hunting residences that the king
might enjoy his talk. He had come over from Paris in search of leisure,
and found that a new claim on his time was established. The king and the
bishops wanted to employ his pen in their literary warfare against Rome.
They compelled him to write first one, then a second, pamphlet on the
subject of the day,--the royal supremacy. At last, ashamed of thus
misappropriating Casaubon's stores of learning, they set him upon a
refutation of the _Annals_ of Baronius, then in the full tide of its
credit and success. Upon this task Casaubon spent his remaining strength
and life. He died in great suffering on the 1st of July 1614. His
complaint was an organic and congenital malformation of the bladder; but
his end was hastened by an unhealthy life of over-study, and latterly by
his anxiety to acquit himself creditably in his criticism on Baronius.
He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The monument by which his name is
there commemorated was erected in 1632 by his friend Thomas Morton when
bishop of Durham.
Besides the editions of ancient authors which have been mentioned,
Casaubon published with commentaries Persius, Suetonius, the _Scriptores
Historiae Augustae_. The edition of Polybius, on which he had spent vast
labour, he left unfinished. His most ambitious work was his revision of
the text of the _Deipnosophistae_ of Athenaeus, with commentary. The
Theophrastus perhaps exhibits his most characteristic excellences as a
commentator. The _Exercitationes in Baronium_ are but a fragment of the
massive criticism which he contemplated; it failed in bringing before
the reader the uncritical character of Baronius's history, and had only
a moderate success, even among the Protestants. His correspondence (in
Latin) was finally collected by Van Almeloveen (Rotterdam, 1709), who
prefixed to the letters a careful life of Isaac Casaubon. But this
learned Dutch editor was acquainted with Casaubon's diary only in
extract. This diary, _Ephemerides_, of which the MS. is preserved in the
chapter library of Canterbury, was printed in 1850 by the Clarendon
Press. It forms the most valuable record we possess of the daily life of
a scholar, or man of letters, of the 16th century. (M. P.)
A few minor changes have been made in the above article, compared with
its form in the 9th edition. The most complete account of Casaubon is
the full biography by Mark Pattison (1875), of which a second and
revised edition, by H. Nettleship, was published in 1892; the most
recent work on the subject is _Isaac Casaubon, sa vie et son temps_,
by L.J. Nazelle (1897); there is a monograph on the Fontainebleau
conference by J.A. Lalot (1889). Casaubon is the subject of one of St
Beuve's _Causeries_, the 30th of July 1860 (a notice of the Oxford
edition of the _Ephemerides_). See also the article in E. Haag's _La
France Protestante_ (1882), and J.E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._
vol. ii. (ed. 1908), pp. 204 foll.