[1] The whole question of these harbours has been fully discussed by
Cecil Torr, Otto Meltzer, R. Ohler, S. Gsell, M. de Roquefeuil; see
Aug. Audollent, _Carthage romaine_, pp. 198 seq.; _Revue archeol._
3rd series, xxiv.; _Jahrbuch f. class. Philologie_, vols. cxlvii.,
cxlix.; also _Classical Review_, vols. v., vii., viii.
[2] i.e. "of the Poeni (Phoenicians)."
[3] The identification of this Hanno with the son of Hamilcar is
conjectural; see HANNO.
[4] For the military side of these wars see PUNIC WARS; HANNIBAL;
HASDRUBAL.
CARTHAGE, a city and the county-seat of Jasper county, Missouri, U.S.A.,
on the Spring river, about 950 ft. above sea-level, and about 150 m. S.
by E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 7981; (1900) 9416, of whom 539 were
negroes; (1910 census) 9483. It is served by the St. Louis & San
Francisco, the Missouri Pacific, and the St. Louis, Iron Mountain &
Southern railways, and is connected with Webb City and Joplin, Mo., and
Galena, Kan., by the electric line of the Southwest Missouri railway.
The town is built on high ground underlain by solid limestone, and has
much natural and architectural beauty. It is the seat of the Carthage
Collegiate Institute (Presbyterian). A Chautauqua assembly and a county
fair are held annually. In the vicinity there are valuable lead, zinc
and coal mines, and quarries of Carthage "marble," with which the county
court house is built. Carthage is a jobbing centre for a fruit and grain
producing region; live-stock (especially harness horses) is raised in
the vicinity; and among the city's manufactures are lime, flour, canned
fruits, furniture, bed springs and mattresses, mining and quarrying
machinery, ploughs and woollen goods. In 1905 the factory products were
valued at $1,179,661. Natural gas for domestic use and for factories is
piped from the Kansas gas fields. The municipality owns and operates the
electric-lighting plant. Carthage, founded in 1833, was laid out as a
town and became the county-seat in 1842, was incorporated as a town in
1868, was chartered as a city in 1873, and in 1890 became a city of the
third class under the general (state) law. On the 5th of July 1861 about
3500 Confederates under General James E. Rains and M.M. Parsons,
accompanied by Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson (1807-1862), and 1500
Union troops under Colonel Franz Sigel, were engaged about 7 m. north of
the city in an indecisive skirmish which has been named the battle of
Carthage.
CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF. During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries the town of
Carthage (q.v.) in Africa served as the meeting-place of a large number
of church synods, of which, however, only the most important can be
treated here.
1. In May 251 a synod, assembled under the presidency of Cyprian to
consider the treatment of the _lapsi_ (those who had fallen away from
the faith during persecution), excommunicated Felicissimus and five
other Novatian bishops (Rigorists), and declared that the _lapsi_ should
be dealt with, not with indiscriminate severity, but according to the
degree of individual guilt. These decisions were confirmed by a synod of
Rome in the autumn of the same year. Other Carthaginian synods
concerning the _lapsi_ were held in 252 and 254.
See Hefele, 2nd ed., i. pp. 111 sqq. (English translation, i. pp. 93
sqq.); Mansi, i. pp. 863 sqq., 905 sqq.; Hardouin, i. pp. 133 sqq.,
147 sqq.; Cyprian, _Epp._ 52, 54, 55, 68.
2. Two synods, in 255 and 256, held under Cyprian, pronounced against
the validity of heretical baptism, thus taking direct issue with
Stephen, bishop of Rome, who promptly repudiated them, and separated
himself from the African Church. A third synod, September 256,
unanimously reaffirmed the position of the other two. Stephen's
pretensions to authority as "bishop of bishops" were sharply resented,
and for some time the relations of the Roman and African Churches were
severely strained.
See Hefele, 2nd ed., i. pp. 117-119 (English translation, i. pp. 99
sqq.); Mansi, i. pp. 921 sqq., 951 sqq.; Hardouin, i. pp. 153 sqq.;
Cyprian, _Epp._ 69-75.
3. The Donatist schism (see DONATISTS) occasioned a number of important
synods. About 348 a synod of Catholic bishops, who had met to record
their gratitude for the effective official repression of the
"Circumcelliones" (Donatist terrorists), declared against the rebaptism
of any one who had been baptized in the name of the Trinity, and adopted
twelve canons of clerical discipline.
See Hefele, 2nd. ed., i. pp. 632-633 (English translation, ii. pp.
184-186); Mansi, iii. pp. 143 sqq.; Hardouin, i. pp. 683 sqq.
4. The "Conference of Carthage" (see DONATISTS), held by imperial
command in 411 with a view to terminating the Donatist schism, while not
strictly a synod, was nevertheless one of the most important assemblies
in the history of the African church, and, indeed of the whole Christian
church.
See Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 103-104 (English translation, ii. pp.
445-446); Mansi, iv. pp. 7-283; Hardouin, i. pp. 1043-1190.
5. On the 1st of May 418 a great synod ("A Council of Africa," St
Augustine calls it), which assembled under the presidency of Aurelius,
bishop of Carthage, to take action concerning the errors of Caelestius,
a disciple of Pelagius (q.v.), denounced the Pelagian doctrines of human
nature, original sin, grace and perfectibility, and fully approved the
contrary views of Augustine. Prompted by the reinstatement by the bishop
of Rome of a deposed African priest, the synod enacted that "whoever
appeals to a court on the other side of the sea (meaning Rome) may not
again be received into communion by any one in Africa" (canon 17).
See Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 116 sqq. (English translation, ii. pp.
458 sqq.); Mansi, iii. pp. 810 sqq., iv. pp. 377 sqq., 451 sqq.;
Hardouin, i. pp. 926 sqq.
6. The question of appeals to Rome occasioned two synods, one in 419,
the other in 424. The latter addressed a letter to the bishop of Rome,
Celestine, protesting against his claim to appellate jurisdiction, and
urgently requesting the immediate recall of his legate, and advising him
to send no more judges to Africa.
See Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 120 sqq., 137 sqq. (English translation,
ii. pp. 462 sqq., 480 sqq.); Mansi, iii. pp. 835 sqq., iv. pp. 401
sqq., 477 sqq.; Hardouin, i. pp. 943 sqq., 1241 sqq. (T.F.C.)
CARTHUSIANS, an order of monks founded by St Bruno (q.v.). In 1084 Bruno
and his six companions presented themselves before the bishop of
Grenoble and explained to him their desire to lead an ascetical life in
a solitary place. He pointed out to them a desolate spot named
Chartreuse, on the mountains near Grenoble, rocky and precipitous, and
snow-covered during a great portion of the year, and told them they
might there carry out their design. They built themselves three huts and
an oratory, and gave themselves up to a life of prayer and silence and
extreme austerity. After a few years Bruno was summoned to Rome by Urban
II., as an adviser in the government of the Church, c. 1090; but after a
year or so he obtained permission to withdraw from Rome, and was able to
found in the forests of Calabria near Squillace a second, and later on a
third and a fourth monastery, on the same lines as the Chartreuse. On
one of these south Italian foundations Bruno died in 1101. On leaving
the Chartreuse he had appointed a successor as superior, and the
institute steadily took more settled shape and further development.
Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, writing about forty years later,
speaks thus of the mode of life of the earliest Carthusians:--
"Warned by the negligence and lukewarmness of many of the older monks,
they adopted for themselves and for their followers greater precaution
against the artifices of the Evil One. As remedy against pride and
vain-glory they chose a dress more poor and contemptible than that of
any other religious body; so that it is horrible to look on these
garments, so short, scanty, coarse and dirty are they. In order to cut
up avarice by the roots, they enclosed around their cells a certain
quantity of land, more or less, according to the fertility of the
district; and they would not accept a foot of land beyond that limit
if you were to offer them the whole world. For the same motive they
limit the quantity of their cattle, oxen, asses, sheep and goats. And
in order that they might have no motive for augmenting their
possessions, either of land or animals, they ordained that in every
one of their monasteries there should be no more than twelve monks,
with their prior the thirteenth, eighteen lay brothers and a few paid
servants. To mortify the flesh they always wear hair shirts of the
severest kind, and their fasting is wellnigh continuous. They always
eat bread of unbolted meal, and take so much water with their wine
that it has hardly any flavour of wine left. They never eat meat,
whether in health or ill. They never buy fish, but they accept it if
it is given to them for charity. They may eat cheese and eggs only on
Sundays and Thursdays. On Tuesdays and Saturdays they eat cooked
vegetables. On Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays they take only bread
and water. They eat once a day only, save during the octaves of
Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, Epiphany and other solemnities. They
live in separate little houses like the ancient monks of Egypt, and
they occupy themselves continually with reading, prayer and the labour
of their hands, especially the writing of books. They recite the
prayers for minor canonical hours in their own dwellings, when warned
by the bell of the church; but they all assemble in church for matins
and vespers. On feast days they eat twice, and sing all the offices in
the church, and eat in the refectory. They do not say mass save on
festivals and Sundays. They boil the vegetables served out to them in
their own dwellings, and never drink wine save with their food."
(Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ clxxxix. 943.)
In its broad outlines this description of primitive Carthusian life has
remained true, even to the present day: the regulations as to food are
not quite so stringent, and the habit is now an ordinary religious habit
of white serge. It was not until 1170 that the Carthusians were formally
constituted a separate religious order by papal act. Owing to its very
nature, the institute never had any great expansion: at the middle of
the 13th century there were some 50 Charterhouses; at the beginning of
the 18th there were 170, 75 being in France.
There was no written rule before 1130, when Guigo, the fifth prior of
the Grande Chartreuse, reduced to writing the body of customs that had
been the basis of Carthusian life (Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ cliii. 631);
enlargements and modifications of this code were made in 1259, 1367,
1509 and 1681: this last form of the statutes is the present Carthusian
rule.
The life is very nearly eremitical: except on Sundays and feasts, the
Carthusians meet only three times a day in the church--for the Midnight
Office, for Mass and for Vespers; once a week, on Sundays (and feasts)
they have their meal in the refectory, and once a week they have
recreation together and a walk outside enclosure. All the rest of their
time is passed in solitude in their hermitages, which are built quite
separate from one another. Each hermitage is a house, containing
living-room, bedroom and oratory, workshop and store-room, and has a
small garden attached. The monks are supplied with such tools as they
wish to employ in workshop and garden, and with such books as they need
from the library. The Carthusian goes to bed every evening at 7 and is
called about 11, when he says in his private oratory the _Officium B.
Mariae Virginis_. Towards midnight all repair to the church for Matins
and Lauds, which are celebrated with extraordinary solemnity and
prolixity, so as to last from 2 to 3 hours, according to the office.
They then return to bed until 5, when they again go to the church for
the daily High Mass, still celebrated according to the phase of
liturgical and ritual development of the 11th century. The private
Masses are then said, and the monks betake themselves to work or study.
At 10 in summer, 11 in winter, 12 on feast days, they have their dinner,
alone except on Sundays and feasts; the dinner is supplied from the
common kitchen through a small window. On many days of the year there is
but one meal; meat is never eaten, even in sickness--this has always
been an absolute rule among the Carthusians. In the afternoon they again
assemble in the church for Vespers; the lesser portions of the canonical
office, as well as the Office of the Blessed Virgin and the Office of
the Dead, are said privately in the oratories.
This manner of life has been kept up almost without variation for eight
centuries: among the Carthusians there have never been any of those
revivals and reforms that are so striking a feature in the history of
other orders--"never reformed, because never deformed." The Carthusians
have always lived thus wholly cut off from the outer world, each one in
almost entire isolation. They introduced and have kept up in western
Europe a life resembling that of the early Egyptian monks, as under St
Anthony's guidance monasticism passed from the utter individualism of
the first hermits to the half eremitical, half cenobitical life of the
Lauras (see MONASTICISM). Owing to certain resemblances in external
matters to the Benedictine rule and practice, the Carthusians have
sometimes been regarded as one of the offshoots from the Benedictines;
but this view is not tenable, the whole Carthusian conception, idea and
spirit being quite different from the Benedictine.
The superiors of the Charterhouses are priors, not abbots, and the prior
of the Grande Chartreuse is the superior general of the order. A general
chapter of the priors is held annually at the Grande Chartreuse. The
Carthusians have always flourished most in France, but they had houses
all over western Europe; some of the Italian _Certose_, as those at
Pavia, Florence and Naples, are renowned for their wonderful beauty.
The first English Charterhouse was established in 1178 at Witham by
Selwood Forest, and at the Dissolution there were nine, the most
celebrated being those at Sheen in Surrey and at Smithfield in London
(for list see _Catholic Dictionary_, art. "Carthusians"). The
Carthusians were the only order that made any corporate resistance to
the ecclesiastical policy of Henry VIII. The community of the London
Charterhouse stood firm, and the prior and several of the monks were put
to death in 1535 under circumstances of barbarous cruelty. In Mary's
reign a community was reassembled at Sheen, and on her death it
emigrated, fifteen in number, to Flanders, and finally settled in
Nieuport; it maintained itself as an English community for a
considerable time, but gradually dwindled, and the last of the old
English Carthusian stock died in 1831. There is now one Charterhouse in
England established at Parkminster in Sussex in 1883; the community
numbers 50 choir-monks, but it is almost wholly made up of foreigners,
including many of those recently expelled from France.
At the French Revolution the monks were driven from the Grande
Chartreuse, but they returned in 1816; they were again driven out under
the Association Laws of 1901, and the community of the Grande Chartreuse
is now settled in an old Certosa near Lucca. Of late years the community
at the Grande Chartreuse had consisted of some 40 choir-monks and 20 lay
brothers. Before the recent expulsions from France there were in all
some 20 Charterhouses.
There have been since the middle of the 13th century a very few convents
of Carthusian nuns, not more than ten; in recent times there have been
but two or three, one situated a few miles from the Grande Chartreuse.
The rule resembles that of the monks, but the isolation, solitude and
silence are much less stringent. The habit of the Carthusians, both
monks and nuns, is white.
A word may be added as to the famous liqueur, known as Chartreuse, made
by the monks. At the Revolution the property of the Carthusians was
confiscated, and on their restoration they recovered only the barren
desert in which the monastery stood, and for it they had to pay rent.
Thus they were for some years in want even of the needful means of
subsistence. Then the liqueur was invented as a means of supplying the
wants of the community; it became a great commercial success and
produces a large yearly income. This income the monks have not spent on
themselves, nor does it accumulate. The first charge is the maintenance
of the Grande Chartreuse and the other Charterhouses, and out of it have
been built and established the new monasteries of the order, as at
Dusseldorf, Parkminster and elsewhere; but by far the largest portion
has been spent on religious and charitable purposes in France and all
over the world,--churches, schools, hospitals, almshouses, foreign
missions. One thing is certain: the profits made no difference at all to
the secluded and austere life of the monks of the Grande Chartreuse.
AUTHORITIES.--The most comprehensive historical work on the Carthusian
order is B. Tromby, _Storia del patriarca S. Brunone e del suo ordine_
(10 vols., 1773). References to other histories, old and new, will be
found in Max Heimbucher, _Orden u. Kongregationen_ (1896), i. S 36;
Wetzer und Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), art. "Karthauserorden";
Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3), art. "Karthauser." For the
English Carthusians, see E. Margaret Thompson, _Somerset Carthusians_
(1895), and Dom L. Hendriks, _London Charterhouse_ (1889). The best
study on St Bruno and the foundation of the order is Hermann Lobbel,
"Der Stifter des Karthauser-Ordens," 1899 (vol. v. No. 1 of
_Kirchengeschichtliche Studien_, Munster); and the best account of the
actual life is by Algar Thorold (_Dublin Review_, April 1892), who
spent some months in the noviciate at the Grande Chartreuse. A little
tract (anonymous) translated from French, _The Carthusians_, 1902
(Orphans Press, Buckley Hall, Rochdale), gives precise information on
the history, spirit and life of the Carthusians. (E. C. B.)
CARTIER, SIR GEORGES ETIENNE, Bart. (1814-1873), Canadian statesman, was
born in the province of Quebec on the 6th of September 1814. Called to
the bar in 1835, he soon gained a large practice. He took part in the
rebellion of 1837, and was forced for a time to fly the country. In 1848
he was elected to the Canadian parliament. His youthful ebullition of
1837 was soon repented of, and he became a loyal subject of the British
crown. So greatly had he changed that in 1854 he became a leading member
of the reconstructed Liberal-Conservative party. In 1855 he was
appointed provincial secretary, and in 1857 attorney-general for Lower
Canada. From 1858 to 1862 he and Sir John Macdonald were joint prime
ministers of Canada, and their alliance lasted till the death of
Cartier. He took the chief part in promoting many useful measures, such
as the abolition of seigneurial tenure in Lower Canada (see QUEBEC), and
the codification of the civil law of that province (1857-1864). Above
all he favoured the construction of railways, and to his energy and
fearless, optimism are largely due the eventual success of the Grand
Trunk railway, and the resolve to construct the Canadian Pacific. In the
face of great opposition, he carried his native province into federation
(1864-1867), which would have been impossible without his aid. In the
first cabinet of Sir John Macdonald he sat as minister of militia and
defence, and carried in 1868 an important act establishing the land
forces of Canada on a sound basis. Though a devout Catholic, he became
involved in a political quarrel with his church, and was defeated by
clerical influence at the general election of 1872. Another seat was
found for him, but his health failed and he died on the 20th of May
1873.
The _Life_, by Alfred O. De Celles (Toronto, 1904), may be
supplemented by the sketch in Dent's _Canadian Portrait Gallery_
(Toronto, 1880). (W. L. G.)
CARTIER, JACQUES (1491-1557), French navigator, discoverer of the
Canadian river St Lawrence, was born at St Malo in Brittany. Of his
early life nothing is known. On the suppression by Admiral Chabot of the
trade to Brazil, an expedition consisting of two ships and sixty-one men
was despatched from St Malo under Cartier on the 20th of April 1534, to
look for a north-west passage to the East. Cartier reached Newfoundland
on the 10th of May, and at once entered the strait of Belle Isle, then
known to the fishermen as the bay of Castles. While the ships renewed
their supply of wood and water in Belles Amours harbour on the north
side of the strait, the long-boats discovered that the coast farther
west was barren, rocky and uninviting. In view of this Cartier set sail
on Monday, the 15th of June, for the south side of the strait, by
following which he was led down almost the whole west coast of
Newfoundland. Off St George's Bay a storm drove the ships out into the
gulf, but on resuming his course Cartier fell in with the Bird Rocks.
The island south of these he named Brion Island, after Chabot. Cartier
mistook our Magdalen and Prince Edward Islands for the main shore on the
south side of this inland sea. Following the coast of New Brunswick
northward he was greatly disappointed to discover Chaleur Bay was not a
strait. During a ten days' stay in Gaspe Harbour Cartier made friends
with a tribe of Huron-Iroquois Indians from Quebec, two of whom he
carried off with him. A mirage deceived him into thinking the passage up
the river south of Anticosti was a bay, whereupon he proceeded to coast
the southern, eastern and northern shores of Anticosti. On discovering
the passage between this island and the Quebec shore a council was held,
at which it was decided to postpone the exploration of this strait until
the following year. Heading eastward along the Quebec shore, Cartier
soon regained the Strait of Belle Isle and, entering the Atlantic on the
15th of August, reached St Malo in safety on the 5th of September.
Cartier set sail again from St Malo with three vessels on the 16th of
May 1536, and passing through the strait of Belle Isle anchored on the
9th of August in Pillage Bay, opposite Anticosti. The next day he named
this the bay of St Lawrence. In course of time the name spread to the
gulf and finally to the river. Proceeding through the passage north of
Anticosti, Cartier anchored on the 1st of September at the mouth of the
Saguenay, which the two Indians who had passed the winter in France
informed him was the name of a kingdom "rich and wealthy in precious
stones." Again on reaching the island of Orleans, so named after the
third son of Francis I., they told Cartier he was now in the kingdom of
Canada, in reality the Huron-Iroquois word for village. Leaving his two
larger vessels in the St Charles, which there enters the St Lawrence,
Cartier set off westward with the bark and the long-boats. The former
grounded in Lake St Peter, but in the latter he reached, on the 2nd of
October, the Huron-Iroquois village of Hochelaga on the site of the city
of Montreal. Further progress was checked by the Lachine Rapid. From the
top of Mount Royal, a name still in use, Cartier beheld the St Lawrence
and the Ottawa stretching away to the west. On his return to the St
Charles, where during the winter twenty-five men died of scurvy, Cartier
sought further information about the rich country called Saguenay, which
he was informed could be reached more easily by way of the Ottawa. In
order to give Francis I. authentic information of this northern Mexico,
Cartier seized the chief and eleven of the headmen of the village and
carried them off to France. This time he passed south of Anticosti and,
entering the Atlantic through Cabot Strait, reached St Malo on the 16th
of July 1537.
Francis I. was unable to do anything further until the spring of 1541,
when Cartier set sail with five vessels and took up his quarters at Cap
Rouge, 9 m. above Quebec. A soldier, the seigneur de Roberval, had been
chosen to lead the men to the conquest of Saguenay; but when he did not
arrive, Cartier made a fresh examination of the rapid of Lachine,
preparatory to sending the men up the river Ottawa. Roberval at length
set sail in April 1542, but on reaching St John's, Newfoundland, met
Cartier on his way back to France. In the summer of 1543, Cartier was
sent out to bring home Roberval, whose attempt to make his way up the
Ottawa to this mythical Saguenay had proved futile. From 1544 until his
death at St Malo, on the 1st of September 1557, Cartier appears to have
done little else than give technical advice in nautical matters and act
as Portuguese interpreter.
A critical edition of Cartier's _Brief Recit de la navigation faicte
es isles de Canada_ (1545), from the MSS., has been published by the
university of Toronto. The best English version is that by James
Phinney Baxter, published at Portland, Maine, in 1906. (H. P. B.)
CARTILAGE (Lat. _cartilago_, gristle), the firm elastic and gristly
connective tissue in vertebrates. (See CONNECTIVE TISSUES and JOINTS.)
CARTOON (Ital. _cartone_, pasteboard), a term used in pictorial art in
two senses, (1) In painting, a cartoon is used as a model for a large
picture in fresco, oil or tapestry, or for statuary. It was also
formerly employed in glass and mosaic work. When cartoons are used in
fresco-painting, the back of the design is covered with black-lead or
other colouring matter; and, this side of the picture being applied to
the wall, the artist passes over the lines of the design with a point,
and thus obtains an impression. According to another method the outlines
of the figures are pricked with a needle, and the cartoon, being placed
against the wall, is "pounced," i.e. a bag of black colouring-matter is
drawn over the perforations, and the outlines are thus transferred to
the wall. In fresco-painting, the portions of the cartoon containing
figures were formerly cut out and fixed (generally in successive
sections) upon the moist plaster. Their contour was then traced with a
pointed instrument, and the outlines appeared lightly incised upon the
plaster after the portion of the cartoon was withdrawn. In the
manufacture of tapestries upon which it is wished to give a
representation of the figures of cartoons, these figures are sometimes
cut out, and laid behind or under the woof, to guide the operations of
the artist. In this case the cartoons are coloured.
Cartoons have been executed by some of the most distinguished masters;
the greatest extant performances in this line of art are those of
Raphael. They are seven in number, coloured in distemper; and at present
they adorn the Victoria and Albert Museum, in South Kensington, having
been removed thither from their former home, the palace of Hampton
Court. With respect to their merits, they count among the best of
Raphael's productions; Lanzi even pronounces them to be in beauty
superior to anything else the world has ever seen. Not that they all
present features of perfect loveliness, and limbs of faultless
symmetry,--this is far from being the case; but in harmony of design, in
the universal adaptation of means to one great end, and in the grasp of
soul which they display, they stand among the foremost works of the
designing art. The history of these cartoons is curious. Leo X. employed
Raphael in designing (in 1515-1516) a series of Scriptural subjects,
which were first to be finished in cartoons, and then to be imitated in
tapestry by Flemish artists, and used for the decoration of the Sistine
Chapel. Two principal sets of tapestries were accordingly executed at
Arras in Flanders; but it is supposed that neither Leo nor Raphael lived
to see them. The set which went to Rome was twice carried away by
invaders, first in 1527 and afterwards in 1798. In the first instance
they were restored in a perfect state; but after their return in 1814
one was wanting--the cupidity of a Genoese having induced him to destroy
it for the sake of the precious metal which it contained. Authorities
differ as to the original number of cartoons, but there appear to have
been twenty-five,--some by Raphael himself, assisted by Gianfrancesco
Penni, others by the surviving pupils of Raphael. The cartoons after
which the tapestries were woven were not, ~~ it would seem, restored to
Rome, but remained as lumber about the manufactory in Arras till after
the revolution of the Low Countries, when seven of them which had
escaped destruction were purchased by Charles I., on the recommendation
of Rubens. They were found much injured, "holes being pricked in them
for the weavers to pounce the outlines, and in other parts they were
almost cut through by tracing." It has never been ascertained what
became of the other cartoons. Three tapestries, the cartoons of which by
Raphael no longer exist, are in the Vatican,--representing the stoning
of St Stephen, the conversion of St Paul, and St Paul in prison at
Philippi.
Besides the cartoons of Raphael, two, to which an extraordinary
celebrity in art-history attaches, were those executed in competition by
Leonardo da Vinci and by Michelangelo--the former named the Battle of
the Standard, and the latter the Cartoon of Pisa--soldiers bathing,
surprised by the approach of the enemy. Both these great works have
perished, but the general design of them has been preserved. In recent
times some of the most eminent designers of cartoons have been masters
of the German school,--Cornelius, Kaulbach, Steinle, Fuhrich, &c.;
indeed, as a general rule, these artists appear to greater advantage in
their cartoons than in the completed paintings of the same compositions.
In England cartoon-work developed considerably in 1843 and 1844, when a
competition was held for the decoration of the new Houses of Parliament.
Dyce and Maclise left examples of uncommon mark in this line. The
cartoon by Fred. Walker, A.R.A., made to advertise the dramatic version
of Wilkie Collins's _Woman in White_, is now at the Tate Gallery; and
cartoons by Ford Madox Brown are in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
South Kensington. (W. M. R.)
(2) "Cartoon" is also a term now applied to the large political drawings
in the humorous or satirical papers of the day. At an earlier period
satirical prints were styled "caricatures," and were issued separately.
Gillray, Rowlandson, the three Cruikshanks, Heath and others were
popular favourites in this class of design. Even the insignificant
little cuts by Robert Seymour in _Figaro in London_, the _diableries_ in
_The Fly_, and the vulgar and rancorous political skits identified with
the flood of scurrilous little papers of the time, were dignified by the
same term. The long series of _Political Sketches_ by "H.B." (John
Doyle) were the first examples of unexaggerated statement, and fair and
decorous satire. With the advent of _Punch_ and its various rivals (_The
Peep-Show, The Great Gun, Diogenes_ and the like), the general tone was
elevated. _Punch_ at first adopted the word "pencilling" to describe the
"big cut," which dealt variously with political and social topics. But
when in 1843 there was held in Westminster Hall the great exhibition of
"cartoons" from which selection was to be made of designs for the
decoration in fresco of the new Houses of Parliament, _Punch_ jocularly
professed to range himself alongside the great artists of the day; so
that the "mad designe" of the reign of Charles I. became the "cartoon"
of that of Queen Victoria. John Leech's drawing in No. 105 of that
journal was the first caricature to be called a cartoon: it was entitled
"Substance and Shadow: the Poor ask for Bread, and the Philanthropy of
the State accords--an Exhibition." Later, _Punch_ dropped the word for a
while, but the public took it up. Yet the _New English Dictionary_
curiously attributes the first use of it to Miss Braddon in 1863.
In England the cartoon, no longer a weapon of venomous attack, has come
to be regarded as a humorous or sarcastic comment upon the topic
uppermost in the nation's mind, a witty or saturnine illustration of
views already formed, rather than as an instrument for the manufacture
of public opinion. It has almost wholly lost its rancour; it has totally
lost its ferocity--the evolutionary result of peace and contentment, for
satire in its more violent and more spontaneous form is but the outcome
of the dissatisfaction or the rage of the multitude. The cartoon, it is
agreed, must be suggestive; it must present a clear idea lucidly and, if
possible, laughably worked out; and, however reserved or restrained it
may be, or even, when occasion demands (as in the case of Sir John
Tenniel and some of his imitators), however epic in intuition, it must
always figure, so to say, as a leading article transformed into a
picture. (See CARICATURE and ILLUSTRATION.) (M. H. S.)
CARTOUCHE (a French word adapted from the Ital. _cartoccio_, a roll of
paper, Med Lat. _carta_, for _charta_, paper), originally a roll of
paper, parchment or other material, containing the charge of powder and
shot for a firearm, a cartridge (q.v.), which itself is a corruption of
cartouche. The term was applied in architecture to various forms of
ornamentation taking the shape of a scroll, such as the volute of an
Ionian capital. It was particularly used of a sculptured tablet in the
shape of a partly unrolled scroll on which could be placed an
inscription or device. Such "cartouches" are used for titles, &c., on
engravings of maps, plans, and the like. The arms of the popes and
ecclesiastics of high birth were borne on an oval cartouche; and it is
thus particularly applied, in Egyptian archaeology, for the oblong
device with oval ends, enclosing the names of royal personages on the
monuments. It is properly an oval formed by a rope knotted at one end.
An amulet of similar shape, as the symbol of the "name," was worn by men
and women as a protection against the blotting out of the name after
death.
CARTRIDGE (corruption of Fr. _cartouche_), a case, of brass or other
metal, cardboard, silk, flannel, &c., containing an explosive charge,
and usually the projectile also, for small arms and ordnance (see
AMMUNITION).
CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND (1743-1823), English inventor, younger brother of
Major John Cartwright (q.v.), was born at Marnham, Nottinghamshire, on
the 24th of April 1743, and educated at Wakefield grammar school. He
began his academical studies at University College, Oxford, and in 1764
he was elected to a fellowship at Magdalen. In 1770 he published _Armine
and Elvira_, a legendary poem, which was followed in 1779 by _The Prince
of Peace_. In 1779 he was presented to the rectory of Goadby Marwood,
Leicestershire, to which in 1786 was added a prebend in the cathedral of
Lincoln. He took the degree of D.D. at Oxford in 1806. He would probably
have passed an obscure life as a country clergyman had not his attention
been accidentally turned in 1784 to the possibility of applying
machinery to weaving. The result was that he invented a power-loom, for
which he took out a patent in 1785; it was a rude contrivance, though it
was improved by subsequent patents in 1786 and 1787, and gradually
developed into the modern power-loom. Removing to Doncaster in 1785, he
started a weaving and spinning factory; it did not, however, prove a
financial success, and in 1793 he had to surrender it to his creditors.
A mill at Manchester, in which a number of his machines were installed,
was wilfully destroyed by fire in 1791. In 1789 he patented a
wool-combing machine, for which he took out further patents in 1790 and
1792; it effected large economies in the cost of manufacture, but its
financial results were not more satisfactory to its inventor than those
of the power-loom, even though in 1801 parliament extended the patent
for fourteen years. In 1807 a memorial was presented to the government
urging the benefits that had been conferred on the country by the
power-loom, and the House of Commons voted him L10,000 in 1809. He then
purchased a small farm at Hollander, near Sevenoaks, Kent, where he
spent the rest of his life. He died at Hastings on the 30th of October
1823. Other inventions of Cartwright's included a cordelier or machine
for making rope (1792), and an engine working with alcohol (1797),
together with various agricultural implements.
CARTWRIGHT, JOHN (1740-1824), English parliamentary reformer, was born
at Marnham in Nottinghamshire on the 17th of September 1740, being the
elder brother of Edmund Cartwright, inventor of the power-loom. He was
educated at Newark grammar school and Heath Academy in Yorkshire, and at
the age of eighteen entered the navy. He was present, in his first year
of service, at the capture of Cherbourg, and served in the following
year in the action between Sir Edward Hawke and Admiral Conflans.
Engaged afterwards under Sir Hugh Palliser and Admiral Byron on the
Newfoundland station, he was appointed to act as chief magistrate of the
settlement; and the duties of this post he discharged for five years
(1765-1770). Ill-health necessitated his retirement from active service
for a time in 1771. When the disputes with the American colonies began,
he saw clearly that the colonists had right on their side, and warmly
supported their cause. At the beginning of the war he was offered the
appointment of first lieutenant to the duke of Cumberland, which would
have put him on the path of certain promotion. But he declined to fight
against the cause which he felt to be just. In 1774 he published his
first plea on behalf of the colonists, entitled _American Independence
the Glory and Interest of Great Britain._ In the following year, when
the Nottinghamshire Militia was first raised, he was appointed major,
and in this capacity he served for seventeen years. He was at last
illegally superseded, because of his political opinions. In 1776
appeared his first work on reform in parliament, which, with the
exception of Earl Stanhope's pamphlets (1774), appears to have been the
earliest publication on the subject. It was entitled, _Take your
Choice_--a second edition appearing under the new title of _The
Legislative Rights of the Commonalty vindicated_. The task of his life
was thenceforth chiefly the attainment of universal suffrage and annual
parliaments. In 1778 he conceived the project of a political
association, which took shape in 1780 as the "Society for Constitutional
Information," including among its members some of the most distinguished
men of the day. From this society sprang the more famous "Corresponding
Society." Major Cartwright worked unweariedly for the promotion of
reform. He was one of the witnesses on the trial of his friends, Horne
Tooke, John Thelwall and Thomas Hardy, in 1794, and was himself indicted
for conspiracy in 1819. He was found guilty in the following year, and
was condemned to pay a fine of L100. He died in London on the 23rd of
September 1824. He had married in 1780, but had no children. In 1831 a
monument from a design by Macdowell was erected to him in Burton
Crescent where he had lived.
_The Life and Correspondence of Major Cartwright_, edited by his niece
F.D. Cartwright, was published in 1826.
CARTWRIGHT, PETER (1785-1872), American Methodist Episcopal preacher,
was born on the 1st of September 1785 in Amherst county, Virginia. His
father, a veteran of the War of Independence, took his family to
Kentucky in 1790, and lived near Lancaster until 1793, and then until
1802 in Logan county near the Tennessee line. Peter received little
education, and was a gambler at cards and horse-racing until 1801, when
he heard John Page preach. In June he was received into the church; in
May 1802 was licensed as a regular exhorter, becoming known as the
"Kentucky Boy"; in the autumn of 1802 was licensed to form the
Livingston circuit around the mouth of the Cumberland river; in 1806 was
ordained deacon by Bishop Asbury, and in 1808 presiding elder by Bishop
McKendree, under whose direction he had studied theology. He was
presiding elder of the Wabash district in 1812, and of Green river
district in 1813-1816, and, after four years on circuit in Kentucky and
two as presiding elder of the Cumberland district, was transferred in
1823 to the Illinois conference, in which he was presiding elder of
various districts until 1869. Up to 1856 he preached some 14,600 times,
received some 10,000 persons into the church, and baptized some 12,000
persons. He died near Pleasant Plains, Sangamon county, Illinois, on the
25th of September 1872. He was a typical backwoods preacher, an able,
vigorous speaker, and a racy writer.
See the _Autobiography of Peter Cartwright, the Backwoods Preacher_,
edited by W.P. Strickland (New York, 1856).
CARTWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1835- ), Canadian statesman, was born in
Kingston, Canada, on the 4th of December 1835, son of the Rev. R.D.
Cartwright, chaplain to H.M. Forces. In 1863 he entered the Canadian
parliament as a Conservative, but soon after federation in 1867
quarrelled with his party on the question of their financial policy,
which he considered extravagant. By 1870 the breach was complete, and in
1873 he became finance minister of the Liberal ministry of the Hon.
Alexander Mackenzie. His honesty and economy were undoubted, but the
latter quality was sometimes pushed to extremes. From 1878 to 1896 he
was the chief financial critic on the side of the Liberal opposition,
and on the accession of Sir Wilfrid Laurier to power in 1896 he became
minister of trade and commerce. In 1898-1899 he represented Canada on
the Anglo-American joint high commission at Quebec. In 1904 failing
health led to his retirement to the senate. He acted in Sir Wilfrid
Laurier's absence at the Imperial Conference 1907 as acting premier.
CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS (c. 1535-1603), English Puritan divine, was born in
Hertfordshire. He studied divinity at St John's College, Cambridge, but
on Mary's accession had to leave the university, and found occupation as
clerk to a counsellor-at-law. On the accession of Elizabeth, he resumed
his theological studies, and was soon afterwards elected fellow of St
John's and later of Trinity College. In 1564 he opposed John Preston in
a theological disputation held on the occasion of Elizabeth's state
visit, and in the following year helped to bring to a head the Puritan
attitude on church ceremonial and organization. He was popular in
Ireland as chaplain to the archbishop of Armagh (1565-1567), and in 1569
he was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge; but
John Whitgift, on becoming vice-chancellor, deprived him of the post in
December 1570, and--as master of Trinity--of his fellowship in September
1571. This was a natural consequence of the use which he made of his
position; he inveighed bitterly against the hierarchy and constitution
of the Anglican Church, which he compared unfavourably with the
primitive Christian organization. So keen was the struggle between him
and Whitgift that the chancellor, William Cecil, had to intervene. After
his deprivation by Whitgift, Cartwright visited Beza at Geneva. He
returned to England in 1572, and might have become professor of Hebrew
at Cambridge but for his expressed sympathy with the notorious
"Admonition to the Parliament" by John Field and Thomas Wilcox. To
escape arrest he again went abroad, and officiated as clergyman to the
English residents at Antwerp and then at Middelburg. In 1576 he visited
and organized the Huguenot churches of the Channel Islands, and after
revising the Rhenish version of the New Testament, again settled as
pastor at Antwerp, declining the offer of a chair at St Andrews. In 1585
he returned without permission to London, was imprisoned for a short
time, and became master of the earl of Leicester's hospital at Warwick.
In 1590 he was summoned before the court of high commission and
imprisoned, and in 1591 he was once more committed to the Fleet. But he
was not treated harshly, and powerful influence soon secured his
liberation. He visited Guernsey (1595-1598), and spent his closing years
in honour and prosperity at Warwick, where he died on the 27th of
December 1603. Cartwright was a man of much culture and originality, but
exceedingly impulsive. His views were distinctly Presbyterian, and he
stoutly opposed the Brownists or Independents. He never conceived of a
separation between church and state, and would probably have refused to
tolerate any Nonconformity with his reformed national Presbyterian
church. To him, however, the Puritanism of his day owed its
systematization and much of its force.
CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM (1611-1643), English dramatist and divine, the son
of a country gentleman who had been reduced to keeping an inn, was born
at Northway, Gloucestershire, in 1611. Anthony a Wood, whose notice of
Cartwright is in the nature of a panegyric, gives this account of his
origin, which is probably correct, although it is contradicted by
statements made in David Lloyd's _Memoirs_. He was educated at the free
school of Cirencester, at Westminster school, and at Christ Church,
Oxford, where he took his M.A. degree in 1635. He became, says Wood,
"the most florid and seraphical preacher in the university," and appears
to have been no less admired as a reader in metaphysics. In 1642 he was
made succentor of Salisbury cathedral, and in 1643 he was chosen junior
proctor of the university. He died on the 29th of November of the same
year. Cartwright was a "son" of Ben Jonson and an especial favourite
with his contemporaries. The collected edition of his poems (1651)
contains commendatory verses by Henry Lawes, who set some of his songs
to music, by Izaak Walton, Alexander Brome, Henry Vaughan and others,
and the king wore mourning on the day of his funeral. His plays are,
with the exception of _The Ordinary_, extremely fantastic in plot, and
stilted and artificial in treatment. They are: _The Royal Slave_ (1636),
produced by the students of Christ Church before the king and queen,
with music by Henry Lawes; _The Lady Errant_ (acted, 1635-1636; printed,
1651); _The Siege, or Love's Convert_ (printed 1651). In _The Ordinary_
(1635 ?) he produced a comedy of real life, in imitation of Jonson,
representing pot-house society. It is reprinted in Dodsley's _Old Plays_
(ed. Hazlitt, vol. xii.).
CARUCATE, or CARRUCATE (from the Med. Lat. _carrucata_, from _carruca_,
a wheeled plough), a measure of land, based probably on the area that
could be ploughed by a team of oxen in a year; hence "carucage" means a
tax levied on each "carucate" of land (see HIDE).
CARUPANO, a town and port of the state of Bermudez, Venezuela, 65 m.
N.E. of the city of Cumana. Pop. (1908, estimate) 8600. Carupano is
situated on the Caribbean coast at the opening of two valleys, and is a
port of call for several regular steamship lines. Its mean annual
temperature is 81 deg. F., but the climate is healthy, because of its
open situation on the coast. The country immediately behind the town is
rough, but there is a considerable export of cacao, coffee, sugar,
cotton, timber and rum.
CARUS, KARL GUSTAV (1789-1869), German physiologist and psychologist,
distinguished also as an art critic and a landscape painter, was born
and educated at Leipzig. After a course in chemistry, he began the
systematic study of medicine and in 1811 became a _Privat docent_. On
the subject which he selected (comparative anatomy) no lectures had
previously been given at Leipzig, and Carus soon established a
reputation as a medical teacher. In the war of 1813 he was director of
the military hospital at Pfaffendorf, near Leipzig, and in 1814
professor to the new medical college at Dresden, where he spent the
remainder of his life. He was made royal physician in 1827, and a privy
councillor in 1862. He died on the 28th of July 1869. In philosophy
Carus belonged to the school of Schelling, and his works are thoroughly
impregnated with the spirit of that system. He regarded inherited
tendency as a proof that the cell has a certain psychic life, and
pointed out that individual differences are less marked in the lower
than in the higher organisms. Of his many works the most important
are:--_Grundzuge der vergleichenden Anatomic und Physiologie_ (Dresden,
1828); _System der Physiologie_ (2nd ed., 1847-1849); _Psyche: zur
Entwickelungsgeschichte der Seele_ (1846, 3rd ed. Stuttgart, 1860);
_Physis, zur Geschichte des leiblichen Lebens_ (Stuttgart, 1851); _Natur
und Idee_ (Vienna, 1861); _Symbolik des menschlichen Gestalts_ (Leipz.,
1853, 2nd ed., 1857); _Atlas der Kranioskopie_ (2nd ed. Leipz., 1864);
_Vergleichende Psychologie_ (Vienna, 1866).
See his autobiography, _Lebenserinnerungen und Denkwurdigkeiten_ (4
vols., 1865-1866); K. von Reichenbach, _Odische Erwiederungen an die
Herren Professoren Fortlage ... und Hofrath Carus_ (1856). His
_England und Schottland im Jahre 1844_ was translated by S.C. Davison
(1846).
CARUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor A.D. 282-283, was born probably at
Narbona (more correctly, Narona) in Illyria, but was educated at Rome.
He was a senator, and had filled various civil and military posts before
he was appointed prefect of the praetorian guards by the emperor Probus,
after whose murder at Sirmium he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers.
Although Carus severely avenged the death of Probus, he was himself
suspected of having been an accessory to the deed. He does not seem to
have returned to Rome after his accession, but contented himself with an
announcement of the fact to the senate. Bestowing the title of Caesar
upon his sons Carinus and Numerianus, he left Carinus in charge of the
western portion of the empire, and took Numerianus with him on the
expedition against the Persians which had been contemplated by Probus.
Having defeated the Quadi and Sarmatians on the Danube, Carus proceeded
through Thrace and Asia Minor, conquered Mesopotamia, pressed on to
Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and carried his arms beyond the Tigris. But his
hopes of further conquest were cut short by his death. One day, after a
violent storm, it was announced that he was dead. His death was
variously attributed to disease, the effects of lightning, or a wound
received in a campaign against the Huns; but it seems more probable
that he was murdered by the soldiers, who were averse from further
campaigns against Persia, at the instigation of Arrius Aper, prefect of
the praetorian guard. Carus seems to have belied the hopes entertained
of him on his accession, and to have developed into a morose and
suspicious tyrant.