[1] The _tapissiers sarrasinois_ were apparently the makers of piled
or velvety carpets, and have always been written about in
contradistinction to the _tapissiers de haute lisse_ or _tapissiers
nostrez_, who it appears did not weave piled or velvety material, but
made tapestry-woven hangings and coverings for furniture.
[2] In Hakluyt's _Voyages_ mention is made of directions having been
given to Morgan Hubblethorne, a dyer, to proceed (about 1579) to
Persia to learn the arts of dyeing and of making carpets.
[3] The Royal Factory at Lahore was established by Akbar the Great in
the 16th century.
[4] A wealthy serge-maker of Swiss nationality, who had been settled
for some years in Exeter, and bought up the plant of Parisot's Exeter
works. (See _Bulletin de la societe de l'histoire de l'art francais_,
p. 97, vol. 1875 to 1878.)
CARPET-BAGGER, a political slang term for a person who stands as a
candidate for election in a locality in which he is a stranger. It is
particularly used of such a candidate sent down by the central party
organization. The term was first used in the western states of America
of speculative bankers who were said to have started business with no
other property than what they could carry in a carpet-bag, and absconded
when they failed. The term became of general use in American politics in
the reconstruction period after the Civil War, as a term of contempt for
the northern political adventurers in the South who, by the help of the
negro vote, gained control of the administration.
CARPET-KNIGHT, properly one who has been knighted in time of peace on
the carpet before the king's throne, and not on the field of battle as
an immediate reward for valour. It is used as a term of reproach for a
soldier who stays at home, and avoids active service and its hardships,
with a particular reference to the carpet of a lady's chamber, in which
such a _saineant_ soldier lingers.
CARPI, GIROLAMO DA (1501-1556), Italian historical and portrait painter,
born at Ferrara, was one of Benvenuto Garofalo's best pupils. Becoming
infatuated with the work of Correggio, he quitted Ferrara, and spent
several years in copying that master's paintings at Parma, Modena and
elsewhere, succeeding in aping his mannerisms so well as to be able to
dispose of his own works as originals by Correggio. It is probable that
not a few pictures yet attributed to the great painter are in reality
the work of his parasite. Da Carpi's best paintings are a Descent of the
Holy Spirit, in the church of St Francis at Rovigo; a Madonna, an
Adoration of the Magi, and a St Catharine, at Bologna; and the St George
and the St Jerome, at Ferrara.
CARPI, UGO DA, Italian 15th-century painter, was long held the inventor
of the art of printing in chiaroscuro, afterwards brought to such
perfection by Parmigiano and by Baltasar Peruzzi of Siena. The
researches of Michael Huber (1727-1804) and Johann Gottlob Immanuel
Breitkopf (1719-1794) have proved, however, that this art was known and
practised in Germany by Johann Ulrich Pilgrim (Wachtlin) and Nikolaus
Alexander Mair (1450-c. 1520), at least as early as 1499, while the date
of the oldest of Da Carpi's prints is 1518. Printing in chiaroscuro is
performed by using several blocks. Da Carpi usually employed three--one
for the outline and darker shadows, another for the lighter shadows, and
a third for the half-tint. By means of them he printed engravings after
several pictures and after some of the cartoons of Raphael. Of these a
Sybil, a Descent from the Cross, and a History of Simon the Sorcerer are
the most remarkable.
CARPI, a Dacian tribe established upon the lower Danube from the 1st
century B.C. They rose to considerable power during the 3rd century
A.D., and claiming to be superior to the Goths accordingly demanded that
their incursions into Roman territory likewise should be bought off by
tribute. When this was refused they invaded in force, but were beaten
back by the emperor Philip. After this they joined with the Goths in
their successful inroads until both nations were defeated by Claudius
Gothicus. Later, after repeated defeats under Diocletian and Galerius,
they were taken under Roman protection and the greater part established
in the provinces of Pannonia and Moesia; some were left beyond the
Danube, and they are last heard of as allies of the Huns and Sciri in
the time of Theodosius I. Ptolemy speaks of Harpii and a town Harpis.
This was no doubt the form the name assumed in the mouths of their
Germanic neighbours, Bastarnae and Goths. (E. H. M.)
CARPI, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
Modena, 9 m. N.N.W. by rail from the town of Modena. Pop. (1905) 7118
(town), 27,135 (commune). It is the junction of a branch line to Reggio
nell' Emilia via Correggio, and the centre of a fertile agricultural
district. Carpi contains several Renaissance buildings of interest, the
facade of the old cathedral (an early Romanesque building in origin,
with some early 15th-century frescoes), the new cathedral (after 1513),
perhaps the nave of S. Niccolo and a palace, all being by Baldassare
Peruzzi: while the prince's palace (with a good court and a chapel
containing frescoes by Bernardino Loschi of Parma, 1489-1540) and the
colonnades opposite the theatre are also good. These, and the
fortifications, are all due to Alberto Pio of Carpi, a pupil of Aldus
Manutius, expelled in 1525 by Charles V., the principality being given
to the house of Este.
CARPINI, JOANNES DE PLANO, the first noteworthy European explorer of the
Mongol empire (in the 13th century), and the author of the earliest
important Western work on northern and central Asia, Russian Europe, and
other regions of the Tatar dominion. He appears to have been a native of
Umbria, where a place formerly called Pian del Carpine, but now Piano
della Magione, stands near Perugia, on the road to Cortona. He was one
of the companions and disciples of his countryman St Francis of Assisi,
and from sundry indications can hardly have been younger than the
latter, born in 1182. Joannes bore a high repute in the order, and took
a foremost part in the propagation of its teaching in northern Europe,
holding successively the offices of warden (_custos_) in Saxony, and of
provincial (_minister_) of Germany, and afterwards of Spain, perhaps of
Barbary, and of Cologne. He was in the last post at the time of the
great Mongol invasion of eastern Europe and of the disastrous battle of
Liegnitz (April 9, 1241), which threatened to cast European Christendom
beneath the feet of barbarous hordes. The dread of the Tatars was,
however, still on men's mind four years later, when Pope Innocent IV.
despatched the first formal Catholic mission to the Mongols (1245),
partly to protest against the latter's invasion of Christian lands,
partly to gain trustworthy information regarding the hordes and their
purposes; behind there may have lurked the beginnings of a policy much
developed in after-time--that of opening diplomatic intercourse with a
power whose alliance might be invaluable against Islam.
At the head of this mission the pope placed Friar Joannes, at this time
certainly not far from sixty-five years of age; and to his discretion
nearly everything in the accomplishment of the mission seems to have
been left. The legate started from Lyons, where the pope then resided,
on Easter day (April 16, 1245), accompanied by another friar, one
Stephen of Bohemia, who broke down at Kanev near Kiev, and was left
behind. After seeking counsel of an old friend, Wenceslaus, king of
Bohemia, Carpini was joined at Breslau by another Minorite, Benedict the
Pole, appointed to act as interpreter. The onward journey lay by Kiev;
the Tatar posts were entered at Kanev; and thence the route ran across
the Dnieper (_Neper, Nepere_, in Carpini and Benedict) to the Don and
Volga (_Ethil_ in Benedict; Carpini is the first Western to give us the
modern name). Upon the last-named stood the _Ordu_ or camp of Batu, the
famous conqueror of eastern Europe, and the supreme Mongol commander on
the western frontiers of the empire, as well as one of the most senior
princes of the house of Jenghiz. Here the envoys, with their presents,
had to pass between two fires, before being presented to the prince
(beginning of April 1246). Batu ordered them to proceed onward to the
court of the supreme khan in Mongolia; and on Easter day once more
(April 8, 1246) they started on the second and most formidable part of
their journey--"so ill," writes the legate, "that we could scarcely sit
a horse; and throughout all that Lent our food had been nought but
millet with salt and water, and with only snow melted in a kettle for
drink." Their bodies were tightly bandaged to enable them to endure the
excessive fatigue of this enormous ride, which led them across the
_Jaec_ or Ural river, and north of the Caspian and the Aral to the
Jaxartes or Syr Daria (_quidam fluvius magnus cujus nomen ignoramus_),
and the Mahommedan cities which then stood on its banks; then along the
shores of the Dzungarian lakes; and so forward, till, on the feast of St
Mary Magdalene (July 22), they reached at last the imperial camp called
_Sira Orda_ (i.e. Yellow Pavilion), near Karakorum and the Orkhon
river--this stout-hearted old man having thus ridden something like 3000
m. in 106 days.
Since the death of Okkodai the imperial authority had been in
_interregnum_. Kuyuk, Okkodai's eldest son, had now been designated to
the throne; his formal election in a great _Kurultai_, or diet of the
tribes, took place while the friars were at Sira Orda, along with 3000
to 4000 envoys and deputies from all parts of Asia and eastern Europe,
bearing homage, tribute and presents. They afterwards, on the 24th of
August, witnessed the formal enthronement at another camp in the
vicinity called the Golden Ordu, after which they were presented to the
emperor. It was not till November that they got their dismissal, bearing
a letter to the pope in Mongol, Arabic and Latin, which was little else
than a brief imperious assertion of the khan's office as the scourge of
God. Then commenced their long winter journey homeward; often they had
to lie on the bare snow, or on the ground scraped bare of snow with the
traveller's foot. They reached Kiev on the 9th of June 1247. There, and
on their further journey, the Slavonic Christians welcomed them as risen
from the dead, with festive hospitality. Crossing the Rhine at Cologne,
they found the pope still at Lyons, and there delivered their report and
the khan's letter.
Not long afterwards Friar Joannes was rewarded with the archbishopric
of Antivari in Dalmatia, and was sent as legate to St Louis. The date of
his death may be fixed, with the help of the _Franciscan Martyrology_
and other authorities, as the 1st of August 1252; hence it is clear that
John did not long survive the hardships of his journey.
He recorded the information that he had collected in a work, variously
entitled in the MSS. _Historia Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus_,
and _Liber Tartarorum_, or _Tatarorum_. This treatise is divided into
eight ample chapters on the country, climate, manners, religion,
character, history, policy and tactics of the Tatars, and on the best
way of opposing them, followed by a single (ninth) chapter on the
regions passed through. The book thus answers to its title. Like some
other famous medieval itineraries it shows an entire absence of a
traveller's or author's egotism, and contains, even in the last chapter,
scarcely any personal narrative. Carpini was not only an old man when he
went cheerfully upon this mission, but was, as we know from accidental
evidence in the annals of his order, a fat and heavy man (_vir gravis et
corpulentus_), insomuch that during his preachings in Germany he was
fain, contrary to Franciscan precedent, to ride a donkey. Yet not a word
approaching more nearly to complaint than those which we have quoted
above appears in his narrative. His book, both as to personal and
geographical detail, is inferior to that written a few years later by a
younger brother of the same Order, Louis IX.'s most noteworthy envoy to
the Mongols, William of Rubrouck or Rubruquis. But in spite of these
defects, due partly to his conception of his task, and in spite of the
credulity with which he incorporates the Oriental tales, sometimes of
childish absurdity, from which Rubruquis is so free, Friar Joannes'
_Historia_ is in many ways the chief literary memorial of European
overland expansion before Marco Polo. It first revealed the Mongol world
to Catholic Christendom; its account of Tatar manners, customs and
history is perhaps the best treatment of the subject by any Christian
writer of the middle ages. We may especially notice, moreover, its four
name-lists:--of the nations conquered by the Mongols; of the nations
which had up to this time (1245-1247) successfully resisted; of the
Mongol princes; and of the witnesses to the truth of his narrative,
including various merchants trading in Kiev whom he had met. All these
catalogues, unrivalled in Western medieval literature, are of the utmost
historical value. To the accuracy of Carpini's statements upon Mongol
life, a modern educated Mongol, Galsang Gomboyev, has borne detailed and
interesting testimony (see _Melanges asiat. tires du Bullet. Hist.
Philol. de l'Acad. Imp. de St Petersbourg_, ii. p. 650, 1856).
The book must have been prepared immediately after the return of the
traveller, for the Friar Salimbeni, who met him in France in the year of
his return (1247), gives us these interesting particulars:--"He was a
clever and conversable man, well lettered, a great discourser, and full
of a diversity of experience.... He wrote a big book about the Tattars
(sic), and about other marvels that he had seen, and whenever he felt
weary of telling about the Tattars, he would cause that book of his to
be read, as I have often heard and seen" ("Chron. Fr. Salimbeni
Parmensis" in _Monum. Histor. ad Prov. et Placent. pertinentia_, Parma,
1857).
For a long time the work was but partially known, and that chiefly
through an abridgment in the vast compilation of Vincent of Beauvais
(_Speculum Historiale_) made in the generation following the traveller's
own, and printed first in 1473. Hakluyt (1598) and Bergeron (1634)
published portions of the original work; but the complete and genuine
text was not printed till 1838, when it was put forth by the late M.
D'Avezac, an editorial masterpiece, embodied (1839) in the 4th volume of
the _Recueil de voyages et de memoires_ of the Geographical Society of
Paris.
Joannes' companion, Benedictus Polonus, also left a brief narrative
taken down from his oral relation. This was first published by M.
D'Avezac in the work just named.
The following four MSS. may be noticed: (1) "Corpus," i.e. Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, No. 181; (2) "Petau," i.e. Leiden
University, 77 (formerly 104)--both these are certainly earlier than
1300; (3) "Colbert," i.e. Paris, National Library, Fonds Lat. 2477, of
about 1350; (4) "London-Lumley," i.e. London, British Museum, MSS.
Reg. 13 A xiv., of late 13th century. Three other MSS. certainly
exist; yet six more are perhaps to be found, but none of these
possesses the value of those given above. Besides the editions
referred to in the body of the article, we may also mention (1) P.
Girolamo Golubovich, _Biblioteca bio-bibliografica della Terra Santa e
dell' Oriente Francescano_ (1906), vol. i. (1215-1300), pp. 190-213;
(2) _William of Rubruck ... with ... John of Pian de Carpine_, edited
by W.W. Rockhill, Hakluyt Society (1900), especially pp. 1-39; (3) C.
Raymond Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, ii. (1901), 279-317,
375-380; in. 85, 544, 553; and _Carpini and Rubruquis_, Hakluyt
Society (1903), especially pp. vii.-xviii. 43-144, 249-295.
(H. Y.; C. R. B.)
CARPOCRATES, a Gnostic of the 2nd century, about whose life and opinions
comparatively little is known. He is said to have been a native of
Alexandria and by birth a Jew. His family, however, seem to have been
converted to Christianity. With Epiphanes, his son, he was the leader of
a philosophic school basing its theories mainly upon Platonism, and
striving to amalgamate Plato's _Republic_ with the Christian ideal of
human brotherhood. The image of Jesus was crowned along with those of
Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle. Carpocrates made especial use of the
doctrines of reminiscence and pre-existence of souls. He regarded the
world as formed by inferior spirits who are out of harmony with the
supreme unity, knowledge of which is the true _Gnosis_. The souls which
remember their pre-existing state can attain to this contemplation of
unity, and thereby rise superior to all the ordinary doctrines of
religion or life. Jesus is but a man in whom this reminiscence is
unusually strong, and who has consequently attained to unusual spiritual
excellence and power. To the Gnostic the things of the world are
worthless; they are to him matters of indifference. From this position
it easily followed that actions, being merely external, were morally
indifferent, and that the true Gnostic should abandon himself to every
lust with perfect indifference. The express declaration of these
antinomian principles is said to have been given by Epiphanes. The
notorious licentiousness of the sect was the carrying out of their
theory into practice.
CARPZOV (Latinized _Carpzovius_), the name of a family, many of whose
members attained distinction in Saxony in the 17th and 18th centuries as
jurists, theologians and statesmen. The family traced its origin to
Simon Carpzov, who was burgomaster of Brandenburg in the middle of the
16th century, and who left two sons, Joachim (d. 1628), master-general
of the ordnance in the service of the king of Denmark, and BENEDIKT
(1565-1624), an eminent jurist.
BENEDIKT CARPZOV was born in Brandenburg on the 22nd of October 1565,
and after studying at Frankfort and Wittenberg, and visiting other
German universities, was made doctor of laws at Wittenberg in 1590. He
was admitted to the faculty of law in 1592, appointed professor of
institutions in 1599, and promoted to the chair _Digesti infortiati et
novi_ in 1601. In 1602 he was summoned by Sophia, widow of the elector
Christian I. of Saxony, to her court at Colditz, as chancellor, and was
at the same time appointed councillor of the court of appeal at Dresden.
After the death of the electress in 1623 he returned to Wittenberg, and
died there on the 26th of November 1624, leaving five sons. He published
a collection of writings entitled _Disputationes juridicae_.
BENEDIKT CARPZOV (1595-1666), second of the name, was the second son of
the preceding, and like him was a great lawyer. He was born at
Wittenberg on the 27th of May 1595, was at first a professor at Leipzig,
obtained an honourable post at Dresden in 1639, became ordinary of the
faculty of jurists at Leipzig in 1645, and was named privy councillor at
Dresden in 1653. Among his works which had a very extensive influence on
the administration of justice, even beyond the limits of Saxony, are
_Definitiones forenses_ (1638), _Practica nova Imperialis Saxonica rerum
criminalium_ (1635), _Opus decisionum illustrium Saxoniae_ (1646),
_Processus juris Saxonici_ (1657), and others. He did much, both by his
writings and by his official work, to systematize the body of German
jurisprudence which had resulted from the intersection of the common law
of Saxony with the Roman and Canon laws. His last years were spent at
Leipzig, and his time was entirely devoted to sacred studies. He read
the Bible through fifty-three times, studying also the comments of
Osiander and Cramer, and making voluminous notes. These have been
allowed to remain in manuscript. He died at Leipzig on the 30th of
August 1666.
JOHANN BENEDIKT CARPZOV (1607-1657), fourth son of the first Benedikt,
was born at Rochlitz in 1607. He became professor of theology at Leipzig
in 1643, made himself chiefly known by his _Isagoge in Libros
Ecclesiarum Lutheranarum Symbolicos_ (published in 1665), and died at
Leipzig on the 22nd of October 1657, leaving five sons, all of whom
attained some literary eminence.
AUGUST CARPZOV (1612-1683), fifth son of the first Benedikt,
distinguished himself as a diplomatist. Born at Colditz on the 4th of
June 1612, he studied at the universities of Wittenberg, Leipzig and
Jena, and in 1637 was appointed advocate of the court of justice
(_Hofgericht_) at Wittenberg. Entering the service of Frederick William
II., duke of Saxe-Altenburg, he took part in the negotiations which led
to the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and was appointed chancellor by the
duke in 1649. From 1672 to 1680 he was chief minister of Ernest I. and
Frederick I., dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and died at Coburg on the 19th
of November 1683. August, who was a man of earnest piety, wrote _Der
gekreuzigte Jesus_ (1679) and some treatises on jurisprudence.
JOHANN GOTTLOB CARPZOV (1670-1767), grandson of Johann Benedikt, was
born at Dresden in 1679. He was educated at Wittenberg, Leipzig and
Altdorf, became a learned theologian, and in 1719 was appointed
professor of Oriental languages at Leipzig. In 1730 he was made
superintendent and first pastor at Lubeck. His most important works were
the _Introductio in libros canonicos bibliorum Veteris Testamenti_
(1721), _Critica sacra V.T._ (1728), and _Apparatus Historico-criticus
Antiquitatum V. Test._ (1748). He died at Lubeck on the 7th of April
1767.
JOHANN BENEDIKT CARPZOV (1720-1803), great-grandson of the first Johann
Benedikt, was born at Leipzig, became professor of philosophy there in
1747, and in the following year removed to Helmstadt as professor of
poetry and Greek. In 1749 he was named also professor of theology. He
was author of various philological works, wrote a dissertation on
Mencius, and published an edition of Musaeus. He died on the 28th of
April 1803.
On the family of Carpzov, see Dreyhaupt, _Beschreibung des
Saalkreises_, Beilagen zu Theil 2. S. 26.
CARRANZA, BARTOLOME (1503-1576), Spanish theologian, sometimes called de
Miranda or de Carranza y Miranda, younger son of Pedro Carranza, a man
of noble family, was born at Miranda d'Arga, Navarre, in 1503. He
studied (1515-1520) at Alcala, where Sancho Carranza, his uncle, was
professor; entering (1520) the Dominican order, and then (1521-1525) at
Salamanca and at Valladolid, where from 1527 he was teacher of theology.
No Spaniard save Melchior Canus rivalled him in learning; students from
all parts of Spain flocked to hear him. In 1530 he was denounced to the
Inquisition as limiting the papal power and leaning to opinions of
Erasmus, but the process failed; he was made professor of philosophy and
(1533-1539) regent in theology. In 1539, as representative to the
chapter-general of his order he visited Rome; here he was made doctor of
theology, and while he mixed with the liberal circle associated with
Juan de Valdes, he had also the confidence of Paul III. Returning to
Valladolid, he acted as censor (_cualificador_) of books (including
versions of the Bible) for the Inquisition. In 1540 he was nominated to
the sees of Canaria and of Cusco, Peru, but declined both. Charles V.
chose him as envoy to the council of Trent (1546). He insisted on the
imperative duty of bishops and clergy to reside in their benefices,
publishing at Venice (1547) his discourse to the council _De necessaria
residentia personali_, which he treated as _juris divini_. His Lenten
sermon to the council, on justification, caused much remark. He was made
provincial of his order for Castile. Charles sent him to England (1554)
with his son Philip on occasion of the marriage with Mary. He became
Mary's confessor, and laboured earnestly for the re-establishment of the
old religion, especially in Oxford. In 1557 Philip appointed him to the
archbishopric of Toledo; he accepted with reluctance, and was
consecrated at Brussels on the 27th of February 1558. He was at the
deathbed of Charles V. (21st of September) and gave him extreme unction;
then raised a curious controversy as to whether Charles, in his last
moments, had been infected with Lutheranism. The same year he was again
denounced to the Inquisition, on the ground of his _Comentarios sobre el
Catechismo_ (Antwerp, 1558), which in 1563, however, was approved by a
commission of the council of Trent. He had evidently lost favour with
Philip, by whose order he was arrested at Tordelaguna (1559) and
imprisoned for nearly eight years, and the book was placed on the Index.
The process dragged on. Carranza appealed to Rome, was taken thither in
December 1566, and confined for ten years in the castle of St Angelo.
The final judgment found no proof of heresy, but compelled him to abjure
sixteen errors, rather extorted than extracted from his writings,
suspended him from his see for five years, and secluded him to the
Dominican cloister of Sta Maria sopra Minerva. Seven days after his
abjuration he died, on the 2nd of May 1576. He was succeeded in his see
by the inquisitor-general, Gaspar Quiroga. Yet the Spanish people
honoured him as a saint; Gregory XIII. placed a laudatory inscription on
his tomb in the church of Sta Maria. His real crime was not heresy but
reform. His _Summa Conciliorum et Pontificum_ (Venice, 1546) has been
often reprinted (as late as 1821), and has permanent value.
See P. Salazar de Miranda, _Vida_ (1788); H. Laugwitz, _Bartholomaus
Carranza_ (1870); J.A. Llorente, _Hist. Inquisition in Spain_ (English
abridgment, 1826); Hefele in I. Goschler's _Dict. encyclopedique de la
theol. cath._ (1858). (A. Go.*)
CARRARA, or CARRARESI, a powerful family of Longobard origin which ruled
Padua in the 14th century. They take their name from the village of
Carrara near Padua, and the first recorded member of the house is
Gamberto (d. before 970). In the wars between Guelphs and Ghibellines
the Carraresi at first took the latter side, but they subsequently went
over to the Guelphs. This brought them into conflict with Ezzelino da
Romano; Jacopo da Carrara was besieged by Ezzelino in his castle of
Agna, and while trying to escape was drowned. Another Jacopo led the
Paduans in 1312 against Cangrande della Scala, lord of Verona, and
though taken prisoner managed to negotiate a peace in 1318. To put an
end to the perpetual civil strife the Paduans elected him their lord,
and he seems to have governed well, leaving the city at his death (1324)
to his nephew Marsiglio a man famed for his cunning. But Cangrande was
bent on acquiring Padua, and Marsiglio, unable to resist, gave it over
to him and was appointed its governor. Cangrande died in 1319, being
succeeded by his nephew Martino, and Marsiglio soon began to meditate
treachery; he negotiated with the Venetians in 1336, and in the
following year he secretly introduced Venetian troops into Padua,
arrested Alberto della Scala, Martino's brother, then in charge of the
town, and thus regained the lordship. He died in 1338, and was succeeded
by his relative Ubertino, a typical medieval tyrant, who earned an
unenviable notoriety for his murders and acts of treachery, but was also
a patron of the arts; he built the Palazzo dei Principi, the castle of
Este, constructed a number of roads and canals, and protected commerce.
He died in 1345. His distant kinsman Marsiglietto da Carrara succeeded
to him, but was immediately assassinated by Jacopo da Carrara, a prince
famed as the friend of Petrarch. In 1350 Jacopo was murdered by
Guglielmo da Carrara, and his brother Jacopino succeeded, reigning
together with his nephew Francesco.
In 1355 Francesco (il Vecchio) rose against his uncle and imprisoned
him. Francesco changed the traditional policy of his house by
quarrelling with the Venetians, in the hope of obtaining more advantages
from the Visconti of Milan. When the former were at war with Hungary
over Dalmatia in 1356 and asked Carrara to help them, he refused. Their
resentment was all the more bitter when at the instance of the pope he
mediated between them and Hungary and brought about peace on terms
unfavourable to the republic. He received Feltre, Belluno and Cividale
from the Hungarian king, but in 1369 a frontier dispute led to war
between him and Venice. After some defeats, Venice was victorious and
dictated peace; Carrara had to pay a huge indemnity and ask the
republic's pardon (1373). In 1378 he joined the league against Venice
formed by Genoa, Hungary and the Scala, and took part in the siege of
Chioggia. But the Venetians were victorious, and by the peace of Turin
Carrara found himself in the _status quo ante_, but he bought Treviso
from Austria, to whom Venice had given it in the day of her trouble. In
1385 the Venetians set the Scala against Carrara, who thereupon allied
himself with the treacherous Gian Galeazzo Visconti. The Scala were
expelled from Verona, but Carrara and Visconti quarrelled over the
division of the spoils. Visconti was determined to capture Padua as well
as Verona, and made an alliance with Venice and the house of Este for
the purpose. Francesco, seeing that the situation was hopeless,
surrendered to Visconti, in whose hands he remained a prisoner until his
death in 1392.
Francesco Novello, his son, resisted bravely, but was compelled to
surrender owing to dissensions in Padua itself. He was forced to
renounce his dominions, and received a castle near Asti, but he escaped
to France, and after a series of romantic adventures succeeded in making
peace with Venice, who was becoming alarmed at the restless ambition and
treachery of Visconti; in 1390 he raised a small armed force and seized
Padua, where he was enthusiastically welcomed by the citizens, and for
several years reigned there in peace. But in 1399 Visconti recommenced
his wars of conquest, which were to have included Padua had not death
cut short his schemes in 1402. Carrara then allied himself with
Guglielmo Scala, seized Verona, and tried to capture Vicenza. But the
Vicentini had always hated the Carraresi, and after a short siege gave
themselves over to Venice. This led to a war between that republic and
Padua, for now that Visconti was dead the Venetians had no longer any
reason to protect Carrara. Padua and Verona were besieged; the latter,
defended by Novello's son Jacopo, was soon captured. Novello himself,
besieged in his capital, although repeatedly offered favourable terms,
held out for some months hoping for help from Florence and also from
certain Venetian nobles with whom he was intriguing. Hunger, plague, the
treachery of his captains and internal discontent at last forced him to
surrender (November 1405). He and his sons Francesco III. and Jacopo
were conveyed to Venice, and at first treated with consideration; but
when their intrigues with Venetian traitors for the overthrow of the
republic came to light, they were tried, condemned, and strangled in
prison (1406). Novello's other son Marsiglio made a desperate attempt to
recover Padua in 1435, but was discovered and killed. With him the house
of Carrara ceased from troubling.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Gattaro, "Istoria Padovana," in _Muratori's Rer. It.
Script._ xvii., a very full account; P.P. Vergerius, _Vitae
Carrarensium, ibid._ xii., untrustworthy; Verci, _Storia della Marca
Trivigiana_ (Venice, 1789); P. Litta, _Le Famiglie celebri italiane_,
vol. iii. (Milan, 1831); W. Lenel, _Studien zur Geschichte Paduas und
Veronas im XIII. Jahrh._ (Strassburg, 1893); G. Cittadella, _Storia
della Dominazione Carrarese in Padova_ (Padua, 1842); and Horatio
Brown's brilliant essay on "The Carraresi" in his _Studies in Venetian
History_ (London, 1907). (L. V.*)
CARRARA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Massa e Carrara,
390 ft. above sea-level, 3 m. by rail N.N.E. of Avenza, which is 16 m.
E.S.E. of Spezia. Pop. (1881) 26,325; (1905) town, 38,100; commune,
48,493. The cathedral (1272-1385) is a fine Gothic building dating from
the period of Pisan supremacy; the other churches, and indeed all the
principal buildings of the town, are constructed of the local marble, to
which the place owes its importance. The Accademia di Belle Arti
contains several Roman antiquities found in the quarries, and some
modern works by local sculptors. A large theatre was inaugurated in
1892. Some of the quarries were worked in Roman times (see LUNA), but
were abandoned after the downfall of the western empire, until the
growth of Pisan architecture and sculpture in the 12th and 13th
centuries created a demand for it. The quarries now extend over almost
the whole of the Apuan Alps, and some 600 of them are being worked, of
which 345, with 4400 workmen, are at Carrara itself, and 50 (700 men)
at Massa. The amount exported in 1899 was 180,000 tons. The quarries are
served by a separate railway, with several branch lines.
CARREL, JEAN BAPTISTE NICOLAS ARMAND (1800-1836), French publicist, was
born at Rouen on the 8th of May 1800. His father was a merchant in good
circumstances, and he received a liberal education at the college of
Rouen, afterwards attending the military school at St Cyr. He had an
intense admiration for the great generals of Napoleon, and his
uncompromising spirit, bold uprightness and independent views marked him
as a man to be suspected. Entering the army as sub-lieutenant he took a
secret but active part in the unsuccessful conspiracy of Belfort. On the
outbreak of war with Spain in 1823, Carrel, whose sympathies were
altogether with the liberal cause, sent in his resignation, and
succeeded in effecting his escape to Barcelona. He enrolled himself in
the foreign legion and fought gallantly against his former comrades.
Near Figuieres the legion was compelled to surrender, and Carrel became
the prisoner of his old general, Damas. There was considerable
difficulty about the terms of capitulation, and one council of war
condemned Carrel to death. Fortunately some informality prevented the
sentence being executed, and he was soon afterwards acquitted and set at
liberty. His career as a soldier being then finally closed, Carrel
resolved to devote himself to literature. He came to Paris and began as
secretary to Augustin Thierry, the historian. His services were found to
be of great value, and he not only obtained admirable training in habits
of composition, but was led to investigate for himself some of the most
interesting portions of English history. His first work of importance
(he had already written one or two historical abstracts) was the
_History of the Counter-Revolution in England_, an exceedingly able
political study of the events which culminated in the Revolution of
1688. He gradually became known as a skilful writer in various
periodicals; but it was not till he formed his connexion with the
_National_ that he became a power in France. The _National_ was at first
conducted by Thiers, Mignet and Carrel in conjunction; but after the
revolution of July, Thiers and Mignet assumed office, and the whole
management fell into the hands of Carrel. Under his direction this
journal became the first political organ in Paris. His judgment was
unusually clear, his principles solid and well founded, his sincerity
and honesty beyond question; and to these qualities he united an
admirable style, lucid, precise and well balanced. As the defender of
democracy he had frequently to face serious dangers. He was once in Ste
Pelagie, and several times before the tribunal to answer for his
journal. Nor was he in less danger from private enmities. Before his
last fatal encounter he was twice engaged in duels with editors of rival
papers. The dispute which led to the duel with Emile de Girardin was one
of small moment, and might have been amicably arranged had it not been
for some slight obstinacy on Carrel's part. The meeting took place on
the morning of the 22nd of July 1836. De Girardin was wounded in the
thigh, Carrel in the groin. The wound was at once seen to be dangerous,
and Carrel was conveyed to the house of a friend, where he died after
two days' suffering.
His works, with biographical notice by Littre, were published in five
volumes (Paris, 1858), A fine estimate of his character will be found
in Mill's _Dissertations_, vol. i.
CARRERA, JOSE MIGUEL (1785-1821), the principal leader in the early
fighting for the independence of Chile, was born at Santiago on the 15th
of October 1785. Sent to Spain for a military career, he served in the
Spanish army in the Napoleonic war, but returned to Chile in July 1811,
where his vigorous character and military experience enabled him by
means of a series of coup d'etats to place himself at the head of the
nationalist government. Though at first he laboured patriotically to
establish a stable administration, to promote education, and to organize
the Chilean forces, his selfish arrogant spirit produced dissensions
between himself and other patriots, and it was his rivalry with Bernardo
O'Higgins that led to the defeat of the nationalist forces at Rancagua
in 1814. In the expedition of 1817, led by Jose de San Martin and
Bernardo O'Higgins, which resulted in the liberation of Chile, Carrera
had no share, owing to his hostility to the leaders, but he attempted to
procure in the United States materials for a fresh enterprise of his
own. The Argentine government, however, suspicious of his intentions,
would not allow him to go to Chile, and Carrera, enraged by this
treatment and by the execution of his brothers at Mendoza by the San
Martin party, proceeded to organize rebellion in Argentina, but was
eventually captured and shot at Mendoza on the 4th of September 1821.
See A. Valdes, _Revolucion Chilena y Campanas de la Independencia_
(Santiago, 1888), which is practically a vindication of Carrera's
career; also P.B. Figueroa, _Diccionario biografico de Chile,
1550-1887_ (Santiago, 1888), and J.B. Suarez, _Rasgos biograficos de
hombres notables de Chile_ (Valparaiso, 1886), both giving
biographical sketches of prominent characters in Chilean history.
CARRIAGE, a term which in its widest signification is used, as its
derivation permits, for any form of "carrying"; thus, a person's
"carriage" is still spoken of in the sense of the way he bears himself.
But it is more specifically the general term for all vehicular
structures employed for the purposes of transport of merchandise and
movable goods and of human beings. Such vehicles are generally mounted
on wheels, but the sledge and the litter are types of the exception to
this rule. Within this definition a vast variety of forms is included,
ranging from the coster's barrow and rude farm-cart up to the
luxuriously appointed sleeping-cars of railways and the state carriages
of royal personages. A narrower application, however, limits the term to
such vehicles as are used for the conveyance of persons and are drawn by
horses, and it is with carriages in this restricted sense that we are
here concerned. Tramcars, railway carriages and motor-cars are dealt
with in other articles.
_History_.--A wheeled carriage appears to have been in very general use
in Egypt at an early period, called a car or chariot (q.v.); in the
Bible the word is usually translated "chariot." The bodies of these
chariots were small, usually containing only two persons standing
upright. They were very light, and could be driven at great speed. They
were narrow, and therefore suitable to Eastern cities, in which the
streets were very narrow, and to mountainous roads, which were often
only 4 ft. wide. From Egypt the use of chariots spread into other
countries, and they were used in war in large numbers on the great
plains of Asia. We read of the 900 chariots of Jabin, king of Canaan;
how David took 700 chariots from the kings of Syria and 1000 from the
king of Zobah. Solomon had 1400 chariots, and his merchants supplied
northern Syria and the surrounding countries with chariots brought out
of Egypt at 600 shekels (about L50) apiece. From the ancient sculptures
preserved from Nineveh and Babylon, some of which are in the British
Museum, we observe the use of chariots continued for the purpose of
hunting as well as for war. Homer describes the chief warriors on both
sides at the siege of Troy as going into battle and fighting from their
chariots. The Roman nation as it increased in power adopted the car,
though chiefly for purposes of show and state. A beautiful marble model
of one of these still exists at the Vatican in Rome: a copy of it and
the horses drawing it is in the museum at South Kensington. The war
chariots used by the Persians were larger; the idea seems to have been
to form a sort of turret upon the car, from which several warriors might
shoot or throw their spears. These chariots were provided with curved
blades projecting from the axle-trees. Alexander the Great, king of
Macedon, invading Asia was met upon the banks of the river Indus by King
Porus, in whose army were a number of elephants and also several
thousand chariots. On Alexander's return from India towards Persia, he
travelled in a chariot drawn by eight horses, followed by an innumerable
number of others covered with rich carpets and purple coverlets. After
Alexander's death a funeral car was prepared to convey his body from
Babylon to Alexandria in Egypt, and this car has perhaps never been
excelled in the annals of coach-building. It was designed by the
celebrated architect Hieronymus, and took two years to build. It was 18
ft. long and 12 ft. wide, on four massive wheels, and drawn by
sixty-four mules, eight abreast. The car was composed of a platform,
with a lofty roof, supported by eighteen columns, and was profusely
adorned with drapery, gold and jewels; round the edge of the roof was a
row of golden bells; in the centre was a throne, and before it the
coffin; around were placed the weapons of war and the armour that
Alexander had used.
The Romans established the use of carriages as a private means of
conveyance, and with them carriages attained great variety of form as
well as richness of ornamentation. In all times the employment of
carriages depended greatly on the condition of the roads over which they
had to be driven, and the establishment of good roads, such as the
Appian Way, constructed 331 B.C., and others, greatly facilitated the
development of carriage travelling among the Romans. In Rome itself, and
probably also in other large towns, it was necessary to restrict
travelling in carriages to a few persons of high rank, owing to the
narrowness and crowded state of the streets. For the same reason the
transport of goods along the streets was forbidden between sunrise and
sunset. For long journeys and to convey large parties the _reda_ and
_carruca_ appear to have been mostly used, but what their construction
and arrangements were is not known. During the empire the carriage which
appears in representations of public ceremonials is the _carpentum_. It
is very slight, with two wheels, sometimes covered, and generally drawn
by two horses. If a carriage had four horses they were yoked abreast,
among the Greeks and Romans, not in two pairs as now. From the _carruca_
are traced the modern European names,--the English _carriage_, the
French _carrosse_ and the Italian _carrozza_. The _sirpea_ was a very
ancient form of vehicle, the body of which was of osier basket-work. It
originated with the Gauls, by whom it was named _lenna_, and by them it
was employed for the conveyance of persons and goods in time of peace,
and baggage during war. With its name are connected the modern French
_banne, banneton, vannerie_ and _panier_,--all indicating basket-work.
The ancient Britons used a car for warlike purposes which was evidently
new to the Romans. It was open in front, instead of at the back as in
their cars; and the pole, which went straight out between the horses,
was broad, so that the driver could walk along, and if needful drive
from the end. Above all, it possessed a seat, and was called _essedum_
from this peculiarity. For war purposes this car was provided with
scythes projecting from the ends of the axle-trees. Cicero, writing to a
friend in Britain, remarks "that there appeared to be very little worth
bringing away from Britain except the chariots, of which he wished his
friend to bring him one as a pattern."
The Roman vehicles were sometimes very splendidly ornamented with gold
and precious stones; and covered carriages seem more and more to have
become appendages of Roman pomp and magnificence. Sumptuary laws were
enacted on account of the public extravagance, but they were little
regarded, and were altogether abrogated by the emperor Alexander
Severus. Suetonius states that Nero took with him on his travels no less
than a thousand carriages.
On the introduction of the feudal system the use of carriages was for
some time prohibited, as tending to render the vassals less fit for
military service. Men of all grades and professions rode on horses or
mules, and sometimes the monks and women on she-asses. Horseback was the
general mode of travelling; and hence the members of the council, who at
the diet and on other occasions were employed as ambassadors, were
called _Rittmeister_. In this manner also great lords made their public
entry into cities.
Covered carriages (see COACH) were known in the beginning of the 15th
century, but their use was confined to ladies of the first rank; and as
it was accounted a reproach for men to ride in them, the electors and
princes sometimes excused their non-attendance at meetings of the state
by the plea that their health would not permit them to ride on
horseback. Covered carriages were for a long time forbidden even to
women; but about the end of the 15th century they began to be employed
by the emperor, kings and princes in journeys, and afterwards on state
occasions. In 1474 the emperor Frederick III. visited Frankfort in a
close carriage, and again in the following year in a very magnificent
covered carriage. Shortly afterwards carriages began to be splendidly
decorated; that, for instance, of the electress of Brandenburg at the
tournament held at Ruppin in 1509 was gilded all over, and that of the
duchess of Mecklenburg was hung with red satin. When Cardinal
Dietrichstein made his entrance into Vienna in 1611, forty carriages
went to meet him; and in the same year the consort of the emperor
Matthias made her public entrance on her marriage in a carriage covered
with perfumed leather. The wedding carriage of the first wife of the
emperor Leopold, who was a Spanish princess, cost, together with the
harness, 38,000 florins. Those of the emperor are thus described: "In
the imperial coaches no great magnificence was to be seen; they were
covered over with red cloth and black nails. The harness was black, and
in the whole work there was no gold. The panels were of glass, and on
this account they were called the imperial glass coaches. On festivals
the harness was ornamented with red silk fringes. The imperial coaches
were distinguished only by their having leather traces; but the ladies
in the imperial suite were obliged to be contented with carriages the
traces of which were made of ropes." At the magnificent court of Duke
Ernest Augustus at Hanover, in 1681, there were fifty gilt coaches with
six horses each. The first time that ambassadors appeared in coaches on
a public solemnity was at the imperial commission held at Erfurt in
1613. Soon after this time coaches became common all over Germany,
notwithstanding various orders and admonitions to deter vassals from
using them. These vehicles appear to have been of very rude
construction. Beckmann describes a view he had seen of Bremen, painted
by John Landwehr in 1661, in which was represented a long quadrangular
carriage, apparently not suspended by straps, and covered with a canopy
supported by four pillars, but without curtains. In the side was a small
door, and in front a low seat or box; the coachman sat upon the horses;
and the dress of the persons within proved them to be burgomasters. At
Paris in the 14th, 15th and even 16th centuries, the French monarchs
rode commonly on horses, the servants of the court on mules, and the
princesses and principal ladies sometimes on asses. Persons even of the
highest rank sometimes sat behind their equerry on the same horse.
Carriages, however, were used at a very early period in France; for
there is still extant an ordinance of Philip the Fair, issued in 1294,
by which citizens' wives are prohibited from using them. It appears,
however, that about 1550 there were only three carriages at Paris,--one
belonging to the queen, another to Diana of Poitiers, and the third to
Rene de Laval, a very corpulent nobleman who was unable to ride on
horseback. The coaches used in the time of Henry IV. were not suspended
by straps (an improvement referred to the time of Louis XIV.), though
they were provided with a canopy supported by four ornamental pillars,
and with curtains of stuff or leather.
Occasional allusion is made to the use of some kinds of vehicles in
England during the middle ages. In _The Squyr of Low Degree_, a poem of
a period anterior to Chaucer, a description of a sumptuous carriage
occurs:
"To-morrow ye shall on hunting fare
And ride, my daughter, in a chare.
It shall be cover'd with velvet red,
And cloth of fine gold all about your head,
With damask white and azure blue
Well diaper'd with lilies new."