Chaucer himself describes a chare as

"With gold wrought and pierrie."

When Richard II. of England, towards the end of the 14th century, was

obliged to fly before his rebellious subjects, he and all his followers

were on horseback, while his mother alone used a carriage. The oldest

carriages used in England were known as chares, cars, chariots, caroches

and whirlicotes; but these became less fashionable when Ann, the wife of

Riehard II., showed the English ladies how gracefully she could ride on

the side-saddle, Stow, in his _Survey of London_, remarking, "so was

riding in those whirlicotes and chariots forsaken except at coronations

and such like spectacles."

There were curious sumptuary laws enacted during the 16th century in

various Italian cities against the excessive use of silk, velvet,

embroidery and gilding, on the coverings of coaches and the trappings of

horses. In 1564 Pope Pius IV. exhorted the cardinals and bishops not to

ride in coaches, according to the fashion of the times, but to leave

such things to women, and themselves ride on horseback. The use of

coaches in Germany in the 16th century was not less common than in

Italy. The current of trade, especially from the East, had for a long

time poured into those two countries towards Holland, enriching all the

cities in its progress. Macpherson, in his _History of Commerce_, says

that Antwerp possessed 500 coaches in 1560. France and England appear to

have been behind the rest of Europe at this period.

The first coach in England was made in 1555 for the earl of Rutland by

Walter Rippon, who also made a coach in 1556 for Queen Mary, and in 1564

a state coach for Queen Elizabeth. That one of the carriages used by

Queen Elizabeth could be opened and closed at pleasure may be inferred

from her causing at Warwick during one of her progresses--"every part

and side of her coach to be opened that all her subjects present might

behold her, which most gladly they desired."

Coaches of the type now properly so-called were first known in England

about the year 1580, and were introduced, according to Stow, from

Germany by Henry Fitzalan, 12th earl of Arundel. By the beginning of the

17th century the use of coaches had become so prevalent in England that

in 1601 the attention of parliament was drawn to the subject, and a bill

"to restrain the excessive use of coaches" was introduced, which,

however, was rejected on the second reading. Their use told severely on

the occupation of the Thames watermen, and Taylor the poet and waterman

complained bitterly both in prose and verse against the new-fangled

practice:--

"Carroaches, coaches, jades, and Flanders mares

Doe rob us of our shares, our wares, our fares.

Against the ground we stand and knock our heels

Whilest all our profit runs away on wheeles."

The sneers of wits and watermen notwithstanding, coaches became so

common, that in the early part of the 17th century they were estimated

to number more than 6000 in London and its surrounding country.

We now arrive gradually at the modern conception of carriage-building.

No trace of glass windows or complete doors for coaches seems to have

existed up to 1650. But plain and rude as was the first coach of Louis

XIV., it was in his reign, which lasted till 1715, that the most rapid

progress was made. The credit for this is equally due to Germany, Italy,

France and England. There is very little mention made by historians of

steel springs, but they were first applied to wheel carriages about

1670, prior to which bodies were suspended by long straps from the four

corners to pillars erected upon the under carriage. The great advantage

of the introduction of springs was speedily recognized as reducing

vibration, enabling carriages to be built much lighter and lessening the

draught for the horses. In the diary of Samuel Pepys there are many

amusing and interesting references to the art of coach-building, which

was beginning to attract much attention at that period.

In the French _Encyclopedie_ (1772) by Diderot there are elaborate

descriptions of the art of coach-building, the workshops and tools used,

and plates of the different carriages in use. The 18th century is

remarkable for the rapid development which took place, more especially

in the manufacture of state carriages of a sumptuous and ornate

character, which were largely in demand by the various courts of Europe.

One of the most beautiful of these is that belonging to the imperial

family of Vienna, which was built in 1696, and is shaped with all the

curves that are familiar to us in cabinets and furniture of the style of

Louis XIV. The panels are beautifully painted with nymphs in the style

of Rubens. There is an unusual quantity of plate glass in the panels,

and on the centre of the roof is a large imperial crown. In 1757 was

built the elaborate state coach of the city of London, and in 1761 the

royal state coach of England, built for King George III. (see COACH).

During the reigns of George II. and George III. all English manufactures

had received an immense impulse from the energy of the men of the time,

in which they were much encouraged by the action of the Society of Arts

in offering money prizes for improvements; and in these coach-builders

largely participated.

In the year 1804 Obadiah Elliot patented his plan for hanging vehicles

upon elliptical springs, thus dispensing with the heavy wood and iron

perch and cross beds, invariably used in four-wheeled carriages up to

that time. Elliot was rewarded by the grant of a gold medal by the

Society of Arts, and extensive orders for the carriages of a lighter

character, which he was thus enabled to produce.

Of carriages much in fashion and characteristic of this period may be

mentioned the "curricle," a cabriolet (see below) on two wheels, driven

with a pair of horses, the balance being secured by an ornamental bar

across the horses' backs, connected by a leather brace to a spring under

the pole. For lack of perfect safety this was gradually superseded by

the "gentleman's cabriolet," for one horse, on C springs, fitted with

folding leather hood and platform behind, on which stood a youthful trim

servant in top-boots, popularly termed a "tiger." To produce this

satisfactorily, the best coach-building talent was required, and to work

it a horse of exceptional strength and breeding was needful, but when

complete this equipage had a distinction never surpassed. During this

period the pair-horse "mail phaeton" was introduced, and has enjoyed a

long period of popularity. As a travelling carriage with the needful

appointments the "britzska," having a straight body with ogee curves at

front and back, with single folding hood, and hung on C springs, was a

distinctive and popular feature among carriages of the period from 1824

until after 1840. Of two-wheeled vehicles the "stanhope" and "tilbury"

gigs, the "dog cart" and "tandem cart," came into use during these

years, and have afforded facilities of agreeable locomotion to many

thousands of people at a moderate cost. But the greatest improvement of

this period was the introduction of the "brougham." Several attempts had

been made to arrive at a light carriage of this description, but it was

not until 1839 that a carriage was produced to a design adopted by Lord

Brougham, and called after him. The "victoria" was known as a carriage

for public hire in continental cities for several years before being

adopted as a fashionable carriage by the wealthy classes. In 1869 the

prince of Wales brought one from Paris of the cab shape, and Baron

Rothschild brought one from Vienna of the square shape, examples

speedily followed. In various elegant and artistic forms, either as an

elliptic or C spring, it has since become a most popular and convenient

carriage.

Public carriages for hire, or hackney (q.v.) coaches, were first

established in London in 1625. In 1635 the number was restricted to

fifty. Still they increased, notwithstanding the opposition of the court

and king, who thought they would break up the roads, till in 1650 there

were as many as 300. In Paris they were introduced during the minority

of Louis XIV. by Nicholas Sauvage, who lived in the rue St Martin at the

sign of St Fiacre, from which circumstance hackney carriages in Paris

have since been called _fiacres_. In 1694 the number in London had

increased to 700. Many of these were old private coaches of the nobility

and gentry, and it was not until 1790 that coaches on a smaller scale

were built specially for hackney purposes (see COACH).

We are told that in 1673 there were stage coaches from London to York,

to Chester and to Exeter, having each forty horses on the road, and

carrying each six inside-passengers. The coach occupied eight days

travelling to Exeter. In 1706 a coach went from London to York every

Monday, Wednesday and Friday, performing the journey in four days. In

the same year there was a coach from London to Birmingham starting on

Monday and arriving on Wednesday. In 1754 a coach was started from

Manchester called the flying coach, which was advertised to reach London

in four days and a half. In 1784 coaches became universal at the speed

of 8 m. an hour.

In the year 1786 the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., began to

erect the pavilion at Brighton, and this led to a great increase of

traffic, so that in 1820 no less than 70 coaches daily visited and left

Brighton. The number continued to increase, until in 1835 there were as

many as 700 mail coaches throughout Great Britain and Ireland. The

system of road construction introduced by Mr McAdam during this time was

of great value in facilitating this development.

Notwithstanding the competition of the sedan-chair (q.v.), the

hackney-coach held its place and grew in importance, till it was

supplanted about 1820 by the _cabriolet de place_, now shortened into

"cab" (q.v.), which had previously held a most important place in Paris.

In that city the cabriolet came into great public favour about the

middle of the 18th century, and in the year 1813 there were 1150 such

vehicles plying in the Parisian streets. The original cabriolet was a

kind of hooded gig, inside which the driver sat, besides whom there was

only room left for a single passenger. For hackney purposes Mr Boulnois

introduced a four-wheeled cab to carry two persons, which was followed

by one to carry four persons, introduced by Mr Harvey, the prototype of

the London "four-wheeler."

The hansom patent safety cab (1834) owes its invention to J.A. Hansom

(q.v.), the architect of the Birmingham town-hall. This has passed

through many stages of improvement with which the name of Forder of

Wolverhampton is conspicuously associated.

The prototype of the modern "omnibus" first began plying in the streets

of Paris on the 18th of March 1662, going at fixed hours, at a stated

fare of five sous. Soldiers, lackeys, pages and livery servants were

forbidden to enter such conveyances, which were announced to be _pour la

plus grande commodite et liberte des personnes de merite_. In the time

of Charles X. the omnibus system in reality was established; for no

exclusion of any class or condition of person who tendered the proper

fare was permitted in the vehicles then put on various routes, and the

fact of the carriages being thus "at the service of all" gave rise to

the present name. The first London omnibus was started in July 1829 by

the enterprising Mr Shillibeer. The first omnibuses were drawn by three

horses abreast and carried twenty-two passengers, all inside. Though

appearing unwieldy they were light of draught and travelled speedily.

They were, however, too large for the convenience of street traffic, and

were superseded by others carrying twelve passengers inside. In 1849 an

outside seat along the centre of the roof was added. The London General

Omnibus Company was founded in 1856; since then continual improvements

in this system of public conveyance have been introduced.

_Modern Private Carriages_.--At the accession of Queen Victoria the

means of travelling by road and horse-power, in the case of public

coaches, had reached in England its utmost limits of speed and

convenience, and the travelling-carriages of the nobility and the

wealthy were equipped with the completest and most elaborate

contrivances to secure personal comfort and safety. More particularly

was this the case as regards continental tours, which had become

indispensable to all who had at their command the means for this costly

educational and pleasurable experience. Concurrently with this

development the style and character of court equipages had also reached

a consummate degree of splendour and artistic excellence. Not only was

this the case in points of decoration, in which livery colour and

heraldic devices were effectively employed, but also in the beauty of

outline and skilful structural adaptation, in which respect carriages of

that period made greater demands upon the capacity of the builder and

the skill of the workman than do those of the present day. For this

attainment the art of coachmaking was indebted to a very few leading

men, whose genius has left its impress upon the art, and is still

jealously cherished by those who in early life had experience of their

achievements. The early portion of Queen Victoria's reign was an age of

much emulation; the best-equipped carriages of that period, distinctive

of noble families and foreign embassies, with their graceful outline and

superb appointments, and harnessed to a splendid breed of horses--all

harmoniously blended, perfect in symmetry and adaptation--gave to the

London season, more especially on drawing-room days, and at other times

in Hyde Park, an attractiveness unequalled in any other capital. After

the death of the prince consort, the pageantry of that period very much

declined and, except as an appendage of royalty, full-dress carriages

have since been comparatively few, though there are hopes of a revival

in this direction. Meanwhile, owing to the rapid development of railways

and the wide extension of commerce, the demand for carriages greatly

increased. The larger types gave place to others of a lighter build and

more general utility, in which in some cases an infusion of American

ideas made its appearance. In accordance with the universal rule of

supply meeting the demand, Mr Stenson, an ironmaster of Northampton, was

successful in producing a mild forging steel, which proved for some

years, until the manufacture ceased, very conducive to the object of

securing lightness with strength. In the early 'seventies the eminent

mechanician, Sir Joseph Whitworth, in the course of his scientific

studies in the perfecting of artillery, succeeded in manufacturing a

steel of great purity, perfectly homogeneous and possessing marvellous

tenacity and strength, known as "fluid compressed steel." Incidentally

carriage-building was able to participate in the results of this

discovery. Two firms well known to Sir Joseph were asked to test its

merits as a material applicable to this industry. In this test much

difficulty was experienced, the nature of the steel not being favourable

to welding, of which so much is required in the making of coach

ironwork; but after much perseverance by skilful hands this was at

length accomplished, and for some years there existed not a little

rivalry in the use of this material, more especially in the case of

carriages on the C and under-spring principle, which for lightness,

elegance and luxurious riding left nothing to be desired. Many of these

carriages may be referred to to-day as rare examples of constructive

skill. Unfortunately, the original cost of the material, still more of

the labour to be expended upon it, and the difficulty of educating men

into the art of working it, were effectual barriers to its general

adoption. The idea, however, had taken hold, and attention was given by

other firms to the manufacture of the steel now in general use,

admitting of easier application, with approximate, if not equal,

results.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

From C and under-spring carriages there arose another application of

springs which was very prominently before the public during this period,

by means of which it was professed that two drawbacks recognized in the

C and under-spring carriages were obviated, which were caused by the

perch or bar which passes under the body holding the front and hind

parts in rigid connexion, and yet making use of a form of spring to

which the same terms may be applied. These objections are the weight of

the perch, and the limitation which it causes to the facility of

turning, which in narrow roads and crowded thoroughfares is an

inconvenience. The objection to weight is, however, minimized by the

introduction of steel, and as the more advanced builders almost always

construct the perch with a _forked_ arch in front, allowing the wheels

to pass under, the difficulty of a limited lock is in a great measure

overcome (fig. 1). It must be noted, however (and this cannot be too

emphatically stated), that the so-called C springs above referred to are

not at all the same in action as the C spring proper; they are but an

elongation of the ordinary elliptic spring in the form of the letter C

(fig. 2), without adding anything to, but rather lessening their

elasticity, and entirely ignoring the principle of _suspension_ by

leather braces over the C spring proper, by which alone the advantage of

superior ease is to be obtained.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

Another improvement which stamps the period under review is the

introduction of indiarubber for the tires of wheels. To produce a

carriage as nearly as possible free from noise and rattle has always

been the aim of high-class coachmaking. A structure composed of wood,

iron and glass, with axle-trees, doors, windows, lamps and other parts,

in use upon the road in all weathers, must from time to time require

some attention with this object. To meet this difficulty, the

introduction of indiarubber has been received by carriage-users as a

great boon. It was about the year 1852 that Mr Reading, who at that time

was known as a builder of invalid carriages, conceived the idea of

encircling wheels with that material, but his method only admitted of

its use on vehicles travelling slowly over good roads. This was improved

upon at a later date by Uriah Scott, who, taking advantage of the

tempering capacity of indiarubber by the chemical action of sulphur,

produced an inner rim of such density as to hold bolts, by which it

could be secured through the felloe, forming a base for the outer

covering of soft pliable rubber. This system was attended with

satisfactory results, and was in favour for some years with persons

whose health needed such provision. Another method, originated by Mr

Mulliner of Liverpool in the early 'seventies, was to screw on iron

flanges to the outer and inner sides of the felloes, having a kind of

lip to press into the indiarubber filling the intervening space; but the

cost of this--L36 per set--rendered its adoption prohibitive. Meanwhile

another invention by Uriah Scott, afterwards improved upon by an

American patentee, came into use; this was known as the

"rubber-cushioned axle," cylindrical rings being introduced between the

axle-box and hub of the wheel, thus insulating the body of the carriage

from the concussion of the road. This, however, necessitated the cutting

away of so much of the timber of the hub as to impair its durability,

and had, therefore, after a few years' experience, to be abandoned in

favour of an invention by a Parisian builder, who introduced indiarubber

bearings between the spring and axle-tree. This was thoroughly

practicable, and met with general acceptance, and it is still used in

conjunction with iron and steel tires. In 1890 the pneumatic tire was

first applied to road carriages. Its bulky appearance is a great

drawback, contrasting strongly with the qualities which distinguish a

graceful equipage; and in spite of its practical advantages it never

became popular in England or America. In Paris and its neighbourhood and

many parts of France, pneumatic tires are to be seen in frequent use

both on public and private conveyances. In another form the indiarubber

tire has become of almost universal application. Owing to an ingenious

invention of Mr Carment, what appeared to be an insuperable difficulty

in rolling a grooved tire was overcome (fig. 3). This so simplified the

application as to bring the cost within practicable limits. The grooved

tire is now made in several sections, in some of which the inward

projection for securing the rubber is dispensed with, this being kept in

position by wires running through the whole length, and electrically

welded at the point of contact. Whatever be the method chosen for

securing the tire, the best tires, both for durability and ease, are

those in which the rubber provided is most resilient in its nature.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

For the lifting and lowering of the hoods of victorias and other such

carriages, and the opening and closing of landaus, there are now many

automatic contrivances, of which the simplest are the most to be

preferred. The quarter-light or five-glass landau is a carriage which

has been greatly improved. The complicated adjustments of pillars,

windows and roof have been replaced by one simple parallel movement. The

first public exhibition of a finished carriage on this principle was by

an English firm at the Paris Exhibition of 1876 (fig. 4).

In the matter of style certain types of carriages have passed through

marked changes. Extreme lightness was at one time considered by many the

one desideratum both as to appearance and actual weight, in providing

which ease of movement and comfortable seating of the occupants became

secondary considerations--though to these extremes builders of repute

were always opposed. Still, when at the International Exhibition of

Paris 1889, it was seen that the Parisian builders had suddenly gone in

the opposite direction, the world of fashion in carriages was taken by

surprise. From being built upon easy, flowing, graceful lines, it was

seen, with some revulsion of feeling, that these were to be displaced by

the deep, full-bodied victoria, brougham and landau. Only by slow

degrees did this characteristic find acceptance with English

connoisseurs, and then only in a modified form, though eventually in a

greater or less degree it is now the prevailing style.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

While the better types of English carriages are still preeminent in

their constructive qualities, and represent the well-known

characteristics of individual firms, some emulation may be excited by

the elegant taste and careful workmanship which French builders display

in points of finish, both internally and externally. Of the various

types of carriages now in vogue, the victoria, in its many varieties of

form, is the most popular, accompanied, as of necessity, by the double

victoria, sociable, brougham, landaulet and landau. Four-in-hand coaches

for private use, as well as the "road" coaches, are built on a smaller

scale than formerly; 6 ft. 8 in. may now be taken as the standard height

of the roof from the ground. Owing to the encouragement given by the

Four-in-hand and Coaching Clubs, the ascendancy of this style of driving

is still preserved to Great Britain; and in association with it the

char-a-banc, mail phaeton, wagonette, and four-wheel dog-cart retain

their popularity. Of two-wheeled vehicles the polo-cart and ralli-cart

are most in favour, to which may be added the governess-car, which is

found convenient for many purposes not implied by its name. For a few

years an effort was made, but with very indifferent success, to bring

into fashion the tandem-cart, which may again be considered almost

obsolete in England.

America has long held a prominent position in connexion with the

carriage industry. In all the chief cities manufactories on a colossal

scale are to be found, producing thousands of vehicles annually and

equipped with the most perfect labour-saving machinery; and as vehicles

of any particular pattern--many of small value--are required, not

singly, but in large numbers, much economy is exercised in their

manufacture. It is remarkable that, as a contrast to the popular buggy,

wagon and rockaway of the United States, which are to be found in

infinite variety, carriage establishments of the wealthy are not

considered complete unless furnished with some of a European character,

selected from the most eminent firms of London or Paris, in addition to

others of their own manufacture. In Paris preference is given to an

excess of bulk, with elaborate scroll ornamentation and diminutive

windows, forming indeed, by reason of its exaggeration, a distinctive

class. In respect of workmanship and finish, carriages by the best-known

American builders leave nothing to be desired.

The International Exhibition of Paris 1900 brought together examples

from various continental countries, in some of which a preference for

curvilinear outline was displayed, but the best examples followed very

closely the well-known English styles. In the French section it was

interesting to find a revival of the once all-prevailing chariot,

barouche and britzska, suspended on C and under-springs, with perch, but

with ideas of lightness somewhat out of proportion to their general

character.

_Coach-making_, or the carriage-manufacturing industry, is a

combination of crafts rarely united in one trade, embracing as it does

work in such divers materials as wood, iron, steel, brass, cloth,

silk, leather, oils and colours, glass, ivory, hair, indiarubber, &c.

Many divisions of labour and numerous highly-skilled artisans are

consequently employed in the various stages in the construction of a

high-class carriage. The workmen include body-makers, who build up the

parts in which persons sit; carriage-makers, who make and fit together

all the under parts of the vehicle on which the body rests;

wheelwrights, joiners and fitters; several classes of smiths, for

special work connected with the strengthening of the body framework by

means of long edge plates, the construction of under works, tiring and

wheels, manufacture of springs, axle-trees, &c. Painting is an

important part of the business, those professing it being divided into

body, carriage and heraldry painters. Trimmers are needed who fit up

the upholstery of the interior, and budget trimmers who sew on the

patent leather covering to dasher wings, &c.

A very great deal in the coach-making industry depends upon the

selection of materials. Ash is the kind of wood required in the

framework both of body and carriage. The quality best suited for the

body is that of full-grown mild and free nature; for the carriage that

which is strong and robust; that for carriage-poles should be of

younger growth, straight and tough in quality. An important

consideration is the seasoning of this timber. Planks of various

thicknesses are required, varying from 1-1/2 in. to 6 in., the time

required for seasoning being one year for every inch of thickness.

After the framework is made, the body is panelled with 1/4 in. mild

Honduras mahogany, plain and free from grain, every joint and groove

carefully coated with ground white lead to exclude water. The roof is

covered with 1/4 in. wide pine boards, unless when superseded by an

American invention, by which, in order to obtain the needful width

frequently of 5 ft. or upwards, boards are cut from the circumference

of the tree, instead of through its diameter; three thicknesses of

very thin wood are then glued together under pressure, the grain of

the centre running across the outer plies, the whole forming a solid

covering without joints. Birch and elm of 1 in. thickness also enter

into the construction in many carriages; for floor and lining boards

pine is the material used.

Wheel-making is a very important branch of the business, in which,

owing to the increased lightness now required, many modern

improvements have been introduced. The timber used in an ordinary

carriage wheel is wych elm for the naves, heart of oak for the spokes,

and ash for the felloes. American hickory has of late years been also

largely used for spokes in exceptionally light wheels, as well as the

American method of making the rim in two sections of straight-grained

ash or hickory bent to the required circle. This method has much to

recommend it, more especially for wheels with indiarubber tires, in

which the wood felloes are not required to be nearly so deep as for

steel tires. One well-known feature in light wheels is the "Warner

nave," which is a solid iron casting with mortices to receive the

spokes, and being of small diameter gives the wheel a light

appearance.

For springs the finest quality of steel is made from Swedish ore, but

the ordinary English spring steel by the best makers leaves nothing to

be desired. To secure the most perfect elasticity it is important that

the tapering down of the ends of each plate should be done by hand

labour on the anvil, and that the plates should not be more than 1/4

in. in thickness. To obtain cheapness wholesale spring-makers adopt

the method of squeezing the ends of spring plates between eccentric

rollers, and so produce the tapered form, which, however, is too short

and gives a lumpy and unsightly appearance to the spring when put

together, so that by this they lose much of their pliability.

The iron mounting of coach work requires the skill of experienced

smiths, and gives scope for much taste and judgment in shaping the

work, and providing strength suited to the relative strain to which it

will be subjected. Axle-trees are not made by coach-builders, but by

firms who make it their special business. They are of two kinds, the

"mail," which are secured to the wheel by three bolts passing through

the nave, and the "collinge" (invented in 1792), the latter made

secure by gun-metal cone-shaped collets and nuts. The axle boxes which

are wedged into the nave are of three kinds, cast, chilled and wrought

iron, in all cases case-hardened, the first being the cheapest and the

last the most costly. Many attempts have been made to improve upon the

collinge axle-tree, but none of them has got far beyond the

experimental stage.

No branch of coach-building contributes more to the elegance of the

vehicle than that of painting. To obtain the needful perfection the

work has to pass through several stages before reaching the finishing

colour, which must be of the finest quality. The varnish used is

copal, of which there are two kinds, the one for finishing the body,

the other the carriage. In first-class work as many as eighteen or

twenty coats will be required to complete the various stages. After a

carriage has been in use about twelve months, it is practicable to

revive the brilliant gloss on the panels by hand-polishing with the

aid of rottenstone and oil, a process which requires a specially

trained man to do successfully.

The trimming of the interior of a carriage requires much skill and

judgment on the part of the workmen in providing really comfortable,

well-fitted seats and neatness of workmanship. In the middle of the

19th century figured tabaret or satin were much used, but for many

years past morocco has been almost universally preferred. Silk

lutestring spring curtains, Brussels or velvet pile carpet, complete

the interior, unless are added neat morocco covered trays with mirror,

&c., for ladies' convenience. Electric light is now frequently used

for the interior, and can be applied with much neatness and

efficiency. Road lamps, door handles, polished silver or brass

furniture, are supplied to the coach-builder by firms whose special

business it is to make them. Lever brakes are now a very ordinary

requirement. Much judgment is needful to make them efficient, and

careful workmanship to prevent rattle. Indiarubber is the best

material for blocks applied to steel tires, and cast iron for

indiarubber tires. The "Bowden wire" recently introduced is in some

cases a convenient and light alternative to the long bar connecting

the handle with the hind cross levers, and has the advantage of

passing out of sight through the interior of the body.

(J. A. M'N.)

CARRICKFERGUS, a seaport and watering-place of Co. Antrim, Ireland, in

the east parliamentary division; on the northern shore of Belfast Lough,

9-1/2 m. N.E. of Belfast by the Northern Counties (Midland) railway.

Pop. of urban district (1901) 4208. It stretches for about 1 m. along

the shore of the Lough. The principal building is the castle, originally

built by John de Courci towards the close of the 12th century, and

subsequently much enlarged. It stands on a projecting rock above the

sea, and was formerly a place of much strength. It is still maintained

as an arsenal, and mounted with heavy guns. The ancient donjon or keep,

90 ft. in height, is still in good preservation. The town walls, built

by Sir Henry Sidney, are still visible on the west and north, and the

North Gate remains. The parish church of St Nicholas, an antiquated

cruciform structure with curious Elizabethan work in the north transept,

and monuments of the Chichester family, was originally a chapel or

oratory dependent on a Franciscan monastery. The entrance to a

subterranean passage between the two establishments is still visible

under the communion-table of the church. The gaol, built on the site of

the monastery above mentioned, was formerly the county of Antrim prison.

The court-house, which adjoins the gaol, is a modern building. The town

has some trade in domestic produce, and in leather and linen

manufactures, there being several flax spinning-mills and bleach-works

in the immediate neighbourhood. Distilling is carried on. The harbour

admits vessels of 500 tons. The fisheries are valuable, especially the

oyster fisheries. At Duncrue about 2 m. from the town, rock salt of

remarkable purity and in large quantity is found in the Triassic

sandstone. The neighbouring country is generally hilly, and Slieve True

(1100 ft.) commands a magnificent prospect.

In 1182, John de Courci, to whom Henry II. had granted all the parts of

Ulster he could obtain possession of by the sword, fixed a colony in

this district. The castle came in the 13th century into possession of

the De Lacy family, who, being ejected, invited Edward Bruce to besiege

it (1315). After a desperate resistance the garrison surrendered. In

1386, the town was burned by the Scots, and in 1400 was destroyed by the

combined Scots and Irish. Subsequently, it suffered much by famine and

the occasional assaults of the neighbouring Irish chieftains, whose

favour the townsmen were at length forced to secure by the payment of an

annual tribute. In the reign of Charles I. many Scottish Covenanters

settled in the neighbourhood to avoid the persecution directed against

them. In the civil wars, from 1641, Carrickfergus was one of the chief

places of refuge for the Protestants of the county of Antrim; and on the

10th of June 1642, the first Presbytery held in Ireland met here. In

that year the garrison was commanded by General Robert Munro, who,

having afterwards relinquished the cause of the English parliament, was

surprised and taken prisoner by Sir Robert Adair in 1648. At a later

period Carrickfergus was held by the partisans of James II., but

surrendered in 1689 to the forces under King William's general

Schomberg; and in 1690 it was visited by King William, who landed here

on his expedition to Ireland. In 1760 it was surprised by a French

squadron under Commodore Thurot, who landed with about 1000 men, and,

after holding the place for a few days, evacuated it on the approach of

the English troops. Eighteen years later Paul Jones, in his ship the

"Ranger," succeeded in capturing the "Drake," a British sloop-of war, in

the neighbouring bay; but he left without molesting the town. In the

reign of Queen Elizabeth the town obtained a charter, and this was

confirmed by James I., who added the privilege of sending two burgesses

to the Irish parliament. The corporation, however, was superseded, under

the provisions of the Municipal Reform Act of 1840, by a board of

municipal commissioners. Carrickfergus was a parliamentary borough until

1885; and a county of a town till 1898, having previously (till 1850)

been the county town of county Antrim. But its importance was sapped by

the vicinity of Belfast, and its historical associations are now its

chief interest.

CARRICKMACROSS, a market town of Co. Monaghan, Ireland, in the south

parliamentary division, 68 m. N.W. of Dublin on a branch of the Great

Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 1874. It has a pleasant,

elevated site, a considerable agricultural trade, and a famous

manufacture of lace, which is carried on in various conventual

establishments. There are some remains of an Elizabethan castle, a seat

of the earls of Essex, which was destroyed during the wars of 1641; the

ruins of the old church of St Finbar commemorate the same disastrous

period.

CARRICK-ON-SHANNON, a market town and the county town of Co. Leitrim,

Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, beautifully situated on

the left bank of the upper Shannon, between Loughs Allen and Boderg,

close to the confluence of the Boyle. Pop. (1901) 1118. It is on the

Sligo branch of the Midland Great Western railway, 90 m. W.N.W. of

Dublin, the station being across the river in county Roscommon. Though

having so small a population it is the largest town in the county, is

the seat of the assizes, and has quays and some river trade. The

surrounding country, with its waterways, loughs and woods, is of

considerable beauty.

CARRICK-ON-SUIR, a market town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, in the east

parliamentary division, on the north (left) bank of the Suir, 14-1/4 m.

W.N.W. from Waterford by the Waterford & Limerick line of the Great

Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5406. It was

formerly a walled town, and contains some ancient buildings, such as the

castle, erected in 1309, formerly a seat of the dukes of Ormonde, now

belonging to the Butler family, a branch of which takes the title of

earl from the town. On the other side of the river, connected by a

bridge of the 14th century, and another of modern erection, stands the

suburb of Carrickbeg, in county Waterford, where an abbey was founded in

1336. The woollen manufactures for which the town was formerly famous

are extinct. A thriving export trade is carried on in agricultural

produce, condensed milk is manufactured, and slate is extensively

quarried in the neighbourhood, while some coal is exported from the

neighbouring fields. Dredging has improved the navigable channel of the

river, which is tidal to this point and is lined with quays.

CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1756-1794), French Revolutionist and Terrorist,

was born at Yolet, a village near Aurillac in Upper Auvergne. In 1790 he

was a country attorney (counsellor for the _bailliage_ of Aurillac) and

in 1792 he was chosen deputy to the National Convention. He was already

known as one of the influential members of the Cordeliers club and of

that of the Jacobins. After the subjugation of Flanders he was one of

the commissioners nominated in the close of 1792 by the Convention, and

sent into that country. In the following year he took part in

establishing the Revolutionary Tribunal. He voted for the death of Louis

XVI., was one of the first to call for the arrest of the duke of

Orleans, and took a prominent part in the overthrow of the Girondists

(on the 31st of May). After a mission into Normandy, Carrier was sent,

early in October 1793, to Nantes, under orders from the Convention to

suppress the revolt which was raging there, by the most severe measures.

Nothing loth, he established a revolutionary tribunal, and formed a body

of desperate men, called the Legion of Marat, for the purpose of

destroying in the swiftest way the masses of prisoners heaped in the

jails. The form of trial was soon discontinued, and the victims were

sent to the guillotine or shot or cut down in the prisons _en masse_. He

also had large numbers of prisoners put on board vessels with trap doors

for bottoms, and sunk in the Loire. This atrocious process, known as the

_Noyades_ of Nantes, gained for Carrier a reputation for wanton cruelty.

Since in his mission to Normandy he had been very moderate, it is

possible that, as he was nervous and ill when sent to Nantes, his mind

had become unbalanced by the atrocities committed by the Vendean and

royalist armies. Naturally, the stories told of him are not all true. He

was recalled by the Committee of Public Safety on the 8th of February

1794, took part in the attack on Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, but

was himself brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal on the 11th and

guillotined on the 16th of November 1794.

See Comte Fleury, _Carrier a Nantes_, 1793-1794 (Paris, 1897); Alfred

Lallie, _J.B. Carrier, representant du Cantal a la Convention

1756-1794 d'apres de nouveaux documents_ (Paris, 1901). These works,

and the others of Lallie, are inspired by strong royalist sympathies

and are not altogether to be accepted.

CARRIER, a general term for any person who conveys the goods of another

for hire, more specifically applied to the tradesmen, now largely

superseded by the railway system, who convey goods in carts or wagons on

the public roads. In jurisprudence, however, the term is collectively

applied to all conveyers of property, whether by land or water; and in

this sense the changes and enlargements of the system of transit

throughout the world have given additional importance to the subject.

The law by which carriers, both by land and sea, are made responsible

for the goods entrusted to them, is founded on the praetorian edict of

the civil law, to which the ninth title of the fourth book of the

Pandect is devoted. The edict itself is contained in these few words,

"_nautae, caupones, stabularii, quod cujusque salvum fore receperint,

nisi restituent, in eos judicium dabo._" The simplicity of the rule so

announced has had a most beneficial influence on the commerce of the

world. Throughout the great civilized region which took its law directly

from Rome, and through the other less civilized countries which followed

the same commercial code, it laid a foundation for the principle that

the carrier's engagement to the public is a contract of indemnity. It

bound him in the general case, to deliver what he had been entrusted

with, or its value,--thus sweeping away all secondary questions or

discussions as to the conditions of mere or less culpability on his part

under which loss or damage may have occurred; and it left any

limitations of this general responsibility to be separately adjusted by

special contract.

The law of England recognizes a distinction between a common and a

private carrier. The former is one who holds himself out to the public

as ready to carry for hire from place to place the goods of such persons

as choose to employ him. The owner of a stagecoach, a railway company,

the master of a general ship, a wharfinger carrying goods on his own

lighters are common carriers; and it makes no difference that one of the

_termini_ of the journey is out of England. It has been held, however,

that a person who carries only passengers is not a common carrier; nor

of course is a person who merely engages to carry the goods of

particular individuals or to carry goods upon any particular occasion. A

common carrier is subject at law to peculiar liabilities. He is bound to

carry the goods of any person who offers to pay his hire, unless there

is a good reason to the contrary, as, for example, when his carriage is

full, or the article is not such as he is in the habit of conveying. He

ought to carry the goods in the usual course without unnecessary

deviation or delay. To make him liable there must be a due delivery of

the goods to him in the known course of his business. His charge must be

reasonable; and he must not give undue preference to any customer or

class of customers. The latter principle, as enforced by statute, has

come to be of great importance in the law of railway companies. In

respect of goods entrusted to him, the carrier's liability, unless

limited by a special contract, is, as already stated, that of an

insurer. There is no question of negligence as in the case of injury to

passengers, for the warranty is simply to carry safely and securely. The

law, however, excepts losses or injuries occasioned immediately "by the

act of God or the king's enemies"--words which have long had a strict

technical signification. It would appear that concealment without fraud,

on the part of the customer, will relieve the carrier from his liability

for _negligence_, but not for actual _misfeasance_. Fraud or deceit by

the customer (e.g., in misrepresenting the real value of the goods)

will relieve the carrier from his liability. The responsibility of the

carrier ceases only with the delivery of the goods to the proper

consignee. By the Carriers' Act 1830 the liability of carriers for gold,

silver, &c. (in general "articles of great value in small compass") is

determined. Should the article or parcel exceed L10 in value, the

carrier is not to be liable for loss unless such value is declared by

the customer and the carrier's increased charge paid. Where the value is

thus declared, the carrier may, by public notice, demand an increased

charge, for which he must, if required, sign a receipt. Failing such

receipt or notice, the carrier must refund the increased charge and

remain liable as at common law. Except as above no mere notice or

declaration shall affect a carrier's liability; but he may make special

contracts with his customers. The carriage of goods by sea is subject to

special regulations (see AFFREIGHTMENT). The carriage of goods by

railway and canal is subject to the law of common carrier, except where

varied by particular statutes, as the Railway and Canal Traffic Acts

1854 to 1894 and the Regulation of Railways Acts 1840 to 1893. The

effect of these acts is to prevent railway companies as common carriers

from limiting by special contract their liability to receive, forward

and deliver goods, unless the conditions embodied in the special

contract are reasonable, and the contract is in writing and signed by,

or on behalf of, the sender. A railway company must provide reasonable

facilities for forwarding passengers' luggage; where luggage is taken

into the carriage with a passenger, the company is responsible for it

only in so far as loss or damage is due to the passenger's interference

with the company's exclusive control of it. As carriers of passengers

companies are bound, in the absence of any special contract, to exercise

due care and diligence, and are responsible for personal injuries only

when they have been occasioned by negligence or want of skill. Where

there has been contributory negligence on the part of the passenger,

i.e. where he might, by the exercise of ordinary care, have avoided the

consequences of the defendants' negligence--he is not entitled to

recover. By the act of 1846 (commonly called Lord Campbell's Act), when

a person's death has been caused by such negligence as would have

entitled him to an action had he survived, an action may be maintained

against the party responsible for the negligence on behalf of the wife,

husband, parent or child of the deceased. Previously such cases had been

governed by the maxim _actio personalis moritur cum persona_.

CARRIERE, MORITZ (1817-1895), German philosopher and historian, was born

at Griedel in Hesse Darmstadt on the 5th of March 1817. After studying

at Giessen, Gottingen and Berlin, he spent a few years in Italy studying

the fine arts, and established himself in 1842 at Giessen as a teacher

of philosophy. In 1853 he was appointed professor at the university of

Munich, where he lectured mainly on aesthetics. He died in Munich on the

19th of January 1895. An avowed enemy of Ultramontanism, he contributed

in no small degree to making the idea of German unity more palatable to

the South Germans. Carriere identified himself with the school of the

younger Fichte as one who held the theistic view of the world which

aimed at reconciling the contradictions between deism and pantheism.

Although no obstinate adherent of antiquated forms and prejudices, he

firmly upheld the fundamental truths of Christianity. His most important

works are: _Aesthetik_ (Leipzig, 1859; 3rd ed., 1885), supplemented by

_Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Kulturentwicklung und der Ideale der

Menschheit_ (3rd ed., 1877-1886); _Die philosophische Weltanschauung der

Reformationszeit_ (Stuttgart, 1847; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1886), and _Die

sittliche Weltordnung_ (Leipzig, 1877; 2nd ed., 1891), in which he

recognized both the immutability of the laws of nature and the freedom

of the will. He described his view of the world and life as

"real-idealism." His essay on Cromwell (in _Lebensskizzen_, 1890), which

may be considered his political confession of faith, also deserves

mention. His complete works were published at Leipzig, 14 vols., in

1886-1894.

See S.P.V. Lind in _Zeitschrift f. Philos._ (cvi, 1895, pp. 93-101);

W. Christ in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1903).

CARRINGTON, CHARLES ROBERT WYNN-CARINGTON, 1ST EARL (1843- ), English

statesman, son of the 2nd Baron Carrington (d. 1868), was educated at

Eton and Trinity, Cambridge, and sat in the House of Commons as a

Liberal for High Wycombe from 1865 till he succeeded to the title in

1868. He was governor of New South Wales 1885-1890, lord chamberlain

1892-1895, and became president of the board of agriculture in 1905,

having a seat in the cabinet in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's and Mr

Asquith's ministries. He was created Earl Carrington and Viscount

Wendover in 1895. The Carrington barony was conferred in 1796 on Robert

Smith (1752-1838), M.P. for Nottingham, a member of a famous banking

family, the title being suggested by one held from 1643 to 1706 in

another family of Smith in no way connected. The 2nd baron married as

his second wife one of the two daughters of Lord Willoughby de Eresby,

and their son, through her, became in 1879 joint hereditary lord great

chamberlain of England. The 2nd Baron took the surname of Carrington,

afterwards altered to Carington, instead of Smith.

CARRINGTON, RICHARD CHRISTOPHER (1826-1875), English astronomer, son of

a brewer at Brentford, was born in London on the 26th of May 1826.

Though intended for the Church, his studies and tastes inclined him to

astronomy, and with a view to gaining experience in the routine of an

observatory he accepted the post of observer in the university of

Durham. Finding, however, that there was little chance of obtaining

instruments suitable for the work which he wished to undertake, he

resigned that appointment and established in 1853 an observatory of his

own at Redhill. Here he devoted three years to a survey of the zone of

the heavens within 9 degrees of the North Pole, the results of which are

contained in his _Redhill Catalogue of 3735 Stars_. But his name is

chiefly perpetuated through his investigation of the motions of

sun-spots, by which he determined the elements of the sun's rotation and

made the important discovery of a systematic drift of the photosphere,

causing the rotation-periods of spots to lengthen with increase of solar

latitude. He died on the 27th of November 1875.

For further information see _Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, xiv.

13, xviii. 23, 109, xix. 140, 161, xxxvi. 137; _Memoirs Roy. Astr.

Soc._, xxvii. 139; _The Times_, Nov. 22 and Dec. 7, 1875; _Roy.

Society's Cat. Scient. Papers_, vols. i. and vii.; Introductions to

Works.

CARROCCIO; a war chariot drawn by oxen, used by the medieval republics

of Italy. It was a rectangular platform on which the standard of the

city and an altar were erected; priests held services on the altar

before the battle, and the trumpeters beside them encouraged the

fighters to the fray. In battle the carroccio was surrounded by the

bravest warriors in the army and it served both as a rallying-point and

as the palladium of the city's honour; its capture by the enemy was

regarded as an irretrievable defeat and humiliation. It was first

employed by the Milanese in 1038, and played a great part in the wars of

the Lombard league against the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. It was

afterwards adopted by other cities, and first appears on a Florentine

battlefield in 1228. The Florentine carroccio was usually followed by a

smaller car bearing the _martinella_, a bell to ring out military

signals. When war was regarded as likely the _martinella_ was attached

to the door of the church of Santa Maria in the Mercato Nuovo in

Florence and rung to warn both citizens and enemies. In times of peace

the carroccio was in the keeping of some great family which had

distinguished itself by signal services to the republic.

Accounts of the carroccio will be found in most histories of the

Italian republics; see for instance, M. Villani's _Chronache_, vi. 5

(Florence, 1825-1826); P. Villari, _The Two First Centuries of

Florentine History_, vol. i. (Engl. transl., London, 1894); Gino

Capponi, _Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_, vol. i. (Florence,

1875).

CARRODUS, JOHN TIPLADY (1836-1895), English violinist, was born on the

20th of January 1836, at Keighley, in Yorkshire. He made his first

appearance as a violinist at the age of nine, and had the advantage of

studying between the ages of twelve and eighteen at Stuttgart, with

Wilhelm Bernhard Molique. On his return to England in 1853 Costa got him

engagements in the leading orchestras. He was a member of the Covent

Garden opera orchestra from 1855, made his debut as a solo player at a

concert given on the 22nd of April 1863 by the Musical Society of

London, and succeeded Sainton as leader at Covent Garden in 1869. He

died at Hampstead on the 13th of July 1895. For many years he had led

the Philharmonic orchestra and those of the great provincial festivals.

He published two violin solos and a "_Morceau de salon_," and was a very

successful teacher.

CARROLL, CHARLES (1737-1832), American political leader, of Irish

ancestry, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 19th of September

1737. He was educated abroad in French Jesuit colleges, studied law at

Bourges, Paris and London, and in February 1765 returned to Maryland,

where an estate known as "Carrollton," in Frederick county, was settled

upon him; he always signed his name as "Charles Carroll of Carrollton."

Before and during the War of Independence, he was a whig or patriot

leader, and as such was naturally a member of the various local and

provincial extra-legal bodies--committees of correspondence, committees

of observation, council of safety, provincial convention (1774-1776) and

constitutional convention (1776). From 1777 until 1800 he was a member

of the Maryland senate. In April-June 1776 he, with Samuel Chase and

Benjamin Franklin, was a member of the commission fruitlessly sent by

the continental congress to Canada for the purpose of persuading the

Canadians to join the thirteen revolting colonies. From 1776 to 1779 he

sat in the continental congress, rendering important services as a

member of the board of war, and signing on the 2nd of August 1776 the

Declaration of Independence, though he had not been elected until the

day on which that document was adopted. He out-lived all of the other

signers. He was a member of the United States Senate from 1789 to 1792.

From 1801 until his death, at Baltimore, on the 14th of November 1832,

he lived in retirement, his last public act being the formal ceremony of

starting the construction of the Baltimore and Ohio railway (July 4,

1828). In politics, after the formation of parties, he was a staunch

Federalist. Of unusual ability, high character and great wealth, he

exercised a powerful influence, particularly among his co-religionists

of the Roman Catholic faith, and he used it to secure the independence

of the colonies and to establish a stable central government.

See the _Life_ by Kate Mason Rowland (1898).

CARROLL, JOHN (1735-1815), American Roman Catholic prelate, was born at

Upper Marlborough, Prince George's county, Maryland, on the 8th of

January 1735, the son of wealthy Catholic parents and a cousin of

Charles Carroll "of Carrollton." He was educated at St Omer's in

Flanders, becoming a novitiate in the Society of Jesus in 1753, and then

at the Jesuit college in Liege, being ordained priest in 1769 and

becoming professor of philosophy and theology. In 1771 he became a

professed father of the Society of Jesus and professor at Bruges. As

tutor to the son of Lord Stourton, he travelled through Europe in

1772-1773. After the papal brief of the 21st of July 1773 suppressed the

Society of Jesus, he accompanied its English members then in Flanders

to England. In 1774 he returned to America, and set to work at a mission

at Rock Creek, Montgomery county, Maryland, where his mother lived. He

shared the feeling for independence growing among the American

colonists, foreseeing that it would mean greater religious freedom. In

1776, at the request of the continental congress, he accompanied

Benjamin Franklin, Charles Carroll and Samuel Chase on their mission to

secure the aid or neutrality of the French-Canadians, and though

unsuccessful it gained for him the friendship of Franklin. In 1783 he

took a prominent part in the petition to Rome to take the control of the

American church away from London; and on Franklin's recommendation,

Carroll was named prefect apostolic, the American church being

recognized as a distinct body in a decree issued by Cardinal Antonelli

on the 9th of June 1784. In the summer of 1785 he began his visitations;

in 1786 he induced the general chapter to authorize a Catholic seminary

(now Georgetown University); and at the same session it was voted that

the condition of the church required a bishop, accountable directly to

the pope (and not to the Congregation of the Propaganda) and chosen by

the American clergy. Consent to this course was given by Antonelli in a

letter of the 12th of July 1788. The clergy met at Whitemarsh, Maryland,

and Baltimore was adopted as the episcopal seat, Carroll being chosen as

bishop; and on the 6th of November 1789 Pius VI. issued a bull to that

effect, Carroll being consecrated at Lulworth Castle, England, on the

15th of August 1790.

On his return from England the bishop saw Georgetown College completed

(1791), thanks to moneys he had received from English Catholics. His

first synod met on the 7th of November 1791; and on the 16th he issued

the "Circular on Christian Marriage," which attacked marriage by any

save "lawful pastors of our church." In 1795 the Rev. Leonard Neale

(1746-1817) was appointed his coadjutor. In 1799, after the death of

Washington, Bishop Carroll bade his clergy hold the 22nd of February

1800 as a day of mourning, and on that day delivered in his

pro-cathedral a memorial discourse which attracted much attention.

Already in 1802 he was pressing for the creation of new sees in his

diocese, and the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 gave added weight to this

request; in September 1805 the Propaganda made him administrator

apostolic of the diocese of New Orleans, to which he appointed John

Olivier as vicar general; and in 1808 Pius VII. divided Carroll's great

diocese into four sees, Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Bardstown

(Kentucky), suffragan to the metropolitanate of Baltimore, of which

Carroll actually became archbishop by the assumption of the long delayed

_pallium_ on the 18th of August 1811, having consecrated three

suffragans in the autumn of 1810. In 1811 ecclesiastical jurisdiction

over the Danish and Dutch West Indies was bestowed upon him. Carroll was

now an old man, and the shock of the war of 1812, which as a staunch

Federalist he had opposed until its actual declaration, together with

the action of the Holy See in appointing to the sees of Philadelphia and

New York other candidates than those of his recommendation, weighed on

his mind. He died in Georgetown on the 3rd of December 1815. He may well

be reckoned the greatest figure in the Roman Catholic Church of the

United States. His position in the church had never been easy, partly

because he had been a prominent member of the Society of Jesus. The

great size of his diocese had made it unwieldy; and his struggle to

secure the independence of the American church had been a difficult one.

As a defender of papal and episcopal authority he had, especially in

Philadelphia and Baltimore, to deal with churches whose trustees

insisted that they and their parishes alone could choose priests, that

bishop or prefect could not object to their choice. Akin to this

difficulty was the desire of Catholics of different nationalities to

have separate churches, a desire often created or encouraged by

intriguing and ambitious priests. Besides these and other internal

annoyances, Carroll had to meet the deep-seated distrust of his church

in communities settled almost exclusively by Protestants.

See John Gilmary Shea, _History of the Catholic Church in the United

States_, vol. ii. (1763-1815), (Akron and New York, 1888); and Daniel

Brent, _Biographical Sketch of the Most Rev. John Carroll, First

Archbishop of Baltimore, with Select Portions of His Writings_, edited

by John Carroll Brent (Baltimore, 1843).

CARRONADE, a piece of ordnance invented, by the application of an old

principle of gun construction, to serve as a ship's gun. The inventor

was the antiquary General Robert Melville (1728-1809). He designed the

piece in 1759, and called it the "smasher," but it was not adopted in

the British navy till 1779, and was then known as the "carronade," from

the Carron works on the Carron river in Stirlingshire, Scotland, where

it was first cast by Mr Gascoigne. The carronade had a powder chamber

like many of the earliest guns known, and was similar to a mortar. It

was short, light, had a limited range, but was destructive at close

quarters. Carronades were added to the existing armaments of guns proper

or long guns. A 38-gun frigate carried ten carronades, and was therefore

armed with 48 pieces of ordnance. As the official classifications were

not changed, they were misleading guides to the real strength of British

ships, which always carried more pieces than they were described as

carrying. The same remark applies to French and American ships when the

use of the carronade extended from the British to other navies.

CARROT. Wild carrot, _Daucus carota_, a member of the natural order

Umbelliferae, grows wild in fields and on roadsides and sea-shores in

Britain and the north temperate zone generally of the Old World. It is

an annual and resembles the cultivated carrot, except in the root, which

is thin and woody. It is the origin of the cultivated carrot, which can

be developed from it in a few generations. M. Vilmorin succeeded in

producing forms with thick fleshy roots and the biennial habit in four

generations. In the cultivated carrot, during the first season of

growth, the stem remains short and bears a rosette of graceful,

long-stalked, branched leaves with deeply cut divisions and small,

narrow ultimate segments. During this period the plant devotes its

energies to storing food, chiefly sugar, in the so-called root, which

consists of the upper part of the true root and the short portion of the

stem between the root and the lowest leaves. A transverse section of the

root shows a central core, generally yellow in colour, and an outer red

or scarlet rind. The core represents the wood of an ordinary stem and

the outer ring the soft outer tissue (bast and cortex). In the second

season the terminal bud in the centre of the leaf-rosette grows at the

expense of the stored nourishment and lengthens to form a furrowed,

rather rough, branched stem, 2 or 3 ft. high, and bearing the flowers in

a compound umbel. The umbel is characterized by the fact that the small

leaves (bracts) which surround it, resemble the foliage leaves on a much

reduced scale, and ultimately curve inwards, the whole inflorescence

forming a nest-like structure. The flowers are small, the outer white,

the central ones often pink or purplish. The fruit consists of two

one-seeded portions, each portion bearing four rows of stiff spinous

projections, which cause the fruits when dropped to cling together, and

in a natural condition help to spread the seed by clinging to the fur of

animals. On account of these projections the seeds cannot be sown evenly

without previous rubbing with sand or dry ashes to separate them. As

usual in the members of the order Umbelliferae, the wall of the fruit is

penetrated lengthwise by canals containing a characteristic oil.

Carrots vary considerably in the length, shape and colour of their

roots, and in the proportion of rind to core. The White Belgian, which

gives the largest crops, has a very thick root which is white, becoming

pale green above, where it projects above ground. For nutritive purposes

it is inferior to the red varieties. The carrot delights in a deep sandy

soil, which should be well drained and deeply trenched. The ground

should be prepared and manured in autumn or winter. For the long-rooted

sorts the soil should be at least 3 ft. deep, but the Short Horn

varieties may be grown in about 6 in. of good compost laid on the top of

a less suitable soil. Peat earth may be usefully employed in lightening

the soil. Good carrots of the larger sorts may be grown in unfavourable

soils by making large holes 18 in. deep with a crowbar, and filling them

up with sandy compost in which the seeds are to be sown. The main crop

is sown at the end of March or beginning of April. After sowing, it is

only necessary to thin the plants, and keep them clear of weeds. The

roots are taken up in autumn and stored during winter in a cool shed or

cellar.

CARRYING OVER, or CONTINUATION, a stock exchange term for the operation

by which the settlement of a bargain transacted for money or for a given

account, may for a consideration (called either a "contango" or a

"backwardation") be postponed from one settling day to another. Such a

continuation is equivalent to a sale "for the day" and a repurchase for

the succeeding account, or to a purchase "for the day" and a resale for

the succeeding account. The price at which such transactions are

adjusted is the "making-up" price of the day. (See ACCOUNT and STOCK

EXCHANGE.)

CARSIOLI (mod. _Carsoli_), an ancient city of Italy, on the Via Valeria,

42 m. E. by N. of Rome. It was founded in the country of the Aequi

between 302 and 298 B.C., just after the establishment of Alba Fucens,

no doubt as a stronghold to guard the road to the latter. It is

mentioned in 211 B.C. as one of the twelve out of thirty Latin colonies

which protested their inability to furnish more men or money for the war

against Hannibal. We find it used in 168 B.C. like Alba Fucens as a

place of confinement for political prisoners. It was sacked in the

Social War, but probably became a _municipium_ after it, though we hear

but little of it. The modern town of Carsoli first appears in a diploma

of A.D. 866, but the old site does not seem to have been abandoned until

the 13th century. It is now occupied only by vineyards, and lies about

2100 ft. above sea-level, in a plain surrounded by mountains, now called

Piano del Cavaliere. The line of the city walls (originally in tufa, and

reconstructed in limestone), built of rectangular blocks, can be traced,

and so can the scanty remains of several buildings, including the

_podium_ or base, of a temple, and also the ancient branch road from the

Via Valeria (which itself keeps just south-east of Carsioli), traversing

the site from north to south. The forty-third milestone of the Via

Valeria still lies at or near its original site; it was set up by Nerva

in A.D. 97. One mile to the north-west of Carsioli are the remains of an

ancient aqueduct consisting of a buttressed wall of concrete crossing a

valley.

See G.J. Pfeiffer and T. Ashby in _Supplementary Papers of the

American School in Rome_, i. (1905), 108 seq. (T. As.)

CARSON, CHRISTOPHER ["KIT"] (1809-1868), American hunter and scout, was

born in Madison county, Kentucky, on the 24th of December 1809. When he

was a year old his parents removed to Howard county, Missouri, then a

frontier settlement, and the boy was early trained in the hardships and

requirements of pioneer life. He served for a while as a saddler's

apprentice, and after 1826 devoted himself to the life of a professional

guide and hunter. He was hunter for the garrison at Bent's Fort on the

Arkansas river in what is now Bent county, Colorado, from 1832 to 1840,

and accompanied John C. Fremont on his exploring expeditions of 1842 and

1843-1844, and on his California expedition in 1845-1846. Carson took

part in the Mexican War, and, after the rush to the Pacific Coast began,

engaged as a guide to convoy emigrants and drovers across the plains and

mountains. In 1854 he became Indian agent at Taos, New Mexico, in which

position, through his knowledge of the Indian traits and language, he

was able to exercise for many years a restraining influence over the

warlike Apaches and other tribes. During the Civil War he rendered

invaluable services to the Federal cause in the south-west as chief

scout in charge of the various bodies of irregular scouts and rangers

participating in the constant border warfare that characterized the

conflict in that part of the Union. In March 1865 he was breveted

brigadier-general of volunteers for gallantry in the battle of Valverde

(on the 21st of February 1862) and for distinguished services in New

Mexico, and after the war resumed his position as Indian agent, which he

held until his death at Fort Lyon, Colorado, on the 23rd of May 1868.

"Kit" Carson occupies in the latter period of American pioneer history a

position somewhat similar to that held by Daniel Boone and David

Crockett at an earlier period, as the typical frontier hero and Indian

fighter, and his hairbreadth escapes and personal prowess are the

subject of innumerable stories.

See Charles Burdett, _Life of Kit Carson, the Great Western Hunter and

Guide_ (New York, 1859; new ed., 1877); and De Witt C. Peters, _The

Life and Adventures of Kit Carson, the Nestor of the Rocky Mountains,

from Facts Narrated by Himself_ (New York, 1858).

CARSON CITY, the capital of Nevada, U.S.A., and the county seat of

Ormsby county, about 120 m. N.E. of Sacramento, California. Pop. (1890)

3950; (1900) 2100; (1910) 2466. It is served by the Virginia and Truckee

railway, which has repair shops here, and by stage to Lake Tahoe, 12 m.

W. of the city. It is picturesquely situated in Eagle valley, near the

east base of the Sierra Nevada, at an elevation of 4720 ft. above the

sea. Within 1 m. of the city are Shaws Hot Springs. The city is a

distributing point for the neighbouring mining region. Among the public

buildings are the capitol, the United States government building, a

United States mint, and a state orphans' home; in the vicinity are the

state prison and a United States government school for Indians. The

industrial interests of the city are principally in mining, lumbering

and agriculture. It has an excellent supply of mountain spring water.

Carson City (named in honour of Christopher Carson) was settled in 1851

as a trading post, was laid out as a town in 1858, was made the capital

of the state and the county seat of the newly erected county in 1861,

and was chartered as a city in 1875.

CARSTARES (or CARSTAIRS), WILLIAM (1649-1715), Scottish clergyman, was

born at Cathcart, near Glasgow, on the 11th of February 1649, the son of

the Rev. John Carstares, a member of the extreme Covenanting party of

Protestors. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and then

passed over to Utrecht, where he commenced his lifelong friendship with

the prince of Orange, and began to take an active part in the politics

of his country. The government disliked Carstares for several reasons.

He was the intimate of William; he had been the bearer of messages

between the disaffected in Scotland and Holland; and he was believed to

be concerned with Sir James Steuart (1635-1715) in the authorship of a

pamphlet--_An Account of Scotland's Grievances by reason of the D. of

Lauderdale's Ministrie, humbly tendered to his Sacred Majesty_.

Accordingly, on his return to England, at the close of 1674, he was

committed to the Tower; the following year he was transferred to

Edinburgh Castle, and it was not till August 1679 that he was released.

After this he visited Ireland, and then became pastor to a Nonconformist

congregation at Cheshunt. During 1682 he was in Holland, but in the

following year he was again in London, and was implicated in the Rye

House Plot. On its discovery he was examined before the Scottish

Council; though the torture of the thumb-screw was applied, he refused

to utter a word till he was assured that his admissions would not be

used in evidence, and in the disclosures he then made he displayed great

discretion. On his return to Holland he was rewarded by William's still

warmer friendship, and the post of court chaplain; and after the

Revolution he continued to hold this office, under the title of royal

chaplain for Scotland. He was the confidential adviser of the king,

especially with regard to Scottish affairs, and rendered important

service in promoting the Revolution Settlement. On the accession of

Anne, Carstares retained his post as royal chaplain, but resided in

Edinburgh, having been elected principal of the university. He was also

minister of Greyfriars', and afterwards of St Giles', and was four times

chosen moderator of the general assembly. He took an important part in

promoting the Union, and was consulted by Harley and other leading

Englishmen concerning it. During Anne's reign, the chief object of his

policy was to frustrate the measures which were planned by Lord Oxford

to strengthen the Episcopalian Jacobites--especially a bill for

extending the privileges of the Episcopalians and the bill for replacing

in the hands of the old patrons the right of patronage, which by the

Revolution Settlement had been vested in the elders and the Protestant

heritors. On the accession of George I., Carstares was appointed, with

five others, to welcome the new dynasty in the name of the Scottish

Church. He was received graciously, and the office of royal chaplain was

again conferred upon him. A few months after he was struck with

apoplexy, and died on the 28th of December 1715.

See _State-papers and Letters addressed to William Carstares_, to

which is prefixed a Life by M'Cormick (1774); Story's _Character and

Career of William Carstares_ (1874); Andrew Lang's _History of

Scotland_ (1907).

CARSTENS, ARMUS JACOB (1754-1798), German painter, was born in

Schleswig, and in 1776 went to Copenhagen to study. In 1783 he went to

Italy, where he was much impressed by the work of Giulio Romano. He then

settled in Lubeck as a portrait painter, but was helped to visit Rome

again in 1792, and gradually produced some fine subject and historical

paintings, e.g. "Plato's Symposium" and the "Battle of Rossbach"--which

made him famous. He was appointed professor at Berlin, and in 1795 a

great exhibition of his works was held in Rome, where he died in 1798.

Carstens ranks as the founder of the later school of German historical

painting.

CARSULAE, an ancient city of Umbria, on the Via Flaminia, 19 m. N. of

Narnia (mod. _Narni_) and 24 m. S.S.W. of Mevania (mod. _Bevagna_). It

is little mentioned in ancient literature. The town was a _municipium_.

The Via Flaminia is well preserved and enters the north gate of the

town, the archway of which still stands. Remains of buildings may also

be seen upon the site, and the outline of an amphitheatre is visible.

The town of Cesi, 3 m. to the south-east, has polygonal walls, and may

perhaps be regarded as an Umbrian city which was destroyed by the

Romans, Carsulae being constructed in its stead. The medieval city, as

so often happened in Italy, returned to the pre-Roman site.

See G. Gamurrini in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1884), 149; for the tombs,

L. Lanzi, in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1902), 592.

CART (A.S. _croet_, Gaelic _cairt_; connected with "car"), a general

term for various kinds of vehicles (see CARRIAGE), in some cases for

carrying people, but more particularly for transporting goods, for

agricultural or postal purposes, &c., or for carriers. Though

constructed in various ways, the simplest type for goods is two-wheeled,

topless and springless; but as a general term "cart" is used in

combination with some more specific qualification (dog-cart,

donkey-cart, road-cart, polo-cart, &c.), when it is employed for

pleasure purposes. The "dog-cart," so called because originally used to

convey sporting dogs, is a more or less elevated two-wheeled carriage,

generally with scats back to back, in front and behind; the

"governess-cart" (presumably so called from its use for children), a

very low two-wheeled pony-carriage, has two side seats facing inwards;

the "tax-cart," a light two-wheeled farmer's cart, was so called because

formerly exempted from taxation as under the value of L21.

CARTAGENA, or CARTHAGENA, a city, seaport, and the capital of the

department of Bolivar, Colombia, South America, on the Caribbean coast,

in 10 deg. 25' 48" N., 75 deg. 34' W. Pop. (1905, official estimate)

14,000. The population of Cartagena is largely composed of blacks and

mixed races, which form the predominant type on the lowland plains of

northern Colombia. The well-to-do whites of Cartagena usually have

country houses on the Turbaco hills, where the temperature is much lower

than on the coast. The mean annual temperature in the city is 82 deg.,

and the port is classed as very unhealthful, especially for

unacclimatized foreigners. The harbour, which is the best on the north

coast of South America, is formed by an indentation of the coast-line

shut in by two long islands lying parallel to the mainland. It covers an

area of about 62.5 sq. m. and affords deep and secure anchorages and

ample facilities for loading and unloading large vessels. The city

itself has no modern quays, and large vessels do not approach within a

mile of its landing-stages, but the railway pier (lengthened 120 ft. in

1898) on the mainland opposite permits the mooring of vessels alongside.

There were formerly two entrances to the harbour--the Boca Grande (large

mouth) between the low sandy island or peninsula on which the city

stands and the island of Tierra Bomba, and the Boca Chica (small mouth)

at the south end of the latter island. The Boca Grande was filled with

stone after the city had been captured three times, because of the ease

with which an enemy's ships could pass through it at any time, and the

narrow and more easily defended Boca Chica, 7 m. farther south, has

since been used.

The city occupies a part of the upper island or peninsula facing the

northern end of the harbour, and is separated from the mainland on the

east by a shallow lagoon-like extension of the bay which is bridged by a

causeway passing through the extramural suburb of Xiximani on another

island. The old city, about 3/4 m. long, north and south, and 1/2 m.

wide, is enclosed by a heavy wall, in places 40 ft. thick, and is

defended by several formidable-looking forts, which have long been

dismantled, but are still in a good state of preservation. At the

mainland end of the causeway leading from the city is the fort of San

Felipe, about 100 ft. above sea-level, adapted as a distributing

reservoir in the city's waterworks; and behind it are verdure-covered

hills rising to an elevation of 500 ft., forming a picturesque

background to the grey walls and red-tiled roofs of the city. The

streets are narrow, irregular and roughly paved, but are lighted by

electricity; tramway lines run between the principal points of the city

and suburbs. The houses are built with thick walls of stone and brick

round open courts, in the Moorish style, and their iron-barred doors and

windows give them the appearance of being a part of the fortifications.

Among the numerous churches, the largest and most imposing is the Jesuit

church of San Juan de Dios, with its double towers and celebrated marble

pulpit; an old monastery adjoins. Cartagena is an episcopal see, and its

cathedral dates from colonial times. The city was once the headquarters

of the Inquisition in South America, and the edifice which it occupied,

now private property, is an object of much interest. The water supply of

the city was formerly obtained from rainwater tanks on the walls or by

carriage from springs a few miles inland. But in 1906 an English company

received a concession to bring water by pipes from springs on the

Turbaco hills, 300 ft. above the sea.

The commercial importance of Cartagena declined greatly during the

period of civil disorders which followed the war for independence, but

in later years has revived. In the reign of Philip II. the Spaniards had

opened a canal ("El Dique") through some marshes and lagoons into a

small western outlet of the Magdalena, which gave access to that river

at Calamar, about 81 m. above the bar at its mouth; during Cartagena's

decline this was allowed to fill up; it was reopened in 1846 for a short

time and then was obstructed again by river floods; but in 1881 it was

reopened for steam navigation. Towards the end of the 19th century a

railway, 65 m. long, was built between Cartagena and Calamar. Imports

consist of cotton, linen and woollen fabrics, hardware, cutlery and

machinery, kerosene, glass and earthenware; and the exports of cattle,

sugar, tobacco, coffee, coco-nuts and fibre, dividivi and dye-woods,

vegetable ivory, rubber, hides and skins, medicinal forest products,

gold, silver and platinum. The aggregate value of the exports in 1906

was $3,788,094 U.S. gold.

Cartagena was founded in 1533 by Pedro de Heredia. In 1544 it was

captured by pirates, who plundered the town; in 1585 by Sir Francis

Drake, who exacted a large ransom; and in 1697 by the French, who

obtained from it more than L1,000,000. In 1741 Admiral Vernon

unsuccessfully besieged the town. It was taken by Bolivar in 1815, but

was surrendered to the royalists in the same year. It was recaptured by

the republicans on the 25th of September 1821, and thereafter remained

in their possession. It figured prominently in the political agitations

and revolutions which followed, and underwent a siege in the civil war

of 1885. It was an important naval station under Spanish colonial rule,

and is the principal naval station of Colombia.

CARTAGENA, or CARTHAGENA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the

province of Murcia; in 37 deg. 36' N. and 0 deg. 58' W., at the terminus

of a branch railway from the city of Murcia, and on the Mediterranean

Sea. Pop. (1900) 99,871. Cartagena is fortified, and possesses an

arsenal and naval dockyards. Together with Ferrol and San Fernando near

Cadiz, the other great naval stations of Spain, it is governed by an

admiral with the title of captain-general. It has also an episcopal see.

The city stands on a hill separated by a little plain from the harbour;

towards the north and east it communicates with a fertile valley; on the

south and west it is hemmed in by high mountains. Its grey houses have a

neglected, almost a dilapidated appearance, from the friable stone of

which they are constructed; and there are no buildings of antiquarian

interest or striking architectural beauty, except, perhaps, the ruined

citadel and the remnants of the town walls. The wide streets are

traversed by a system of tramways, which pass through modern suburbs to

the mining district about two leagues inland, and on the west a canal

enables small vessels to enter the town without using the port. The

harbour, the largest in Spain after that of Vigo, and the finest on the

east coast, is a spacious bay, deep, except near its centre, where there

is a ledge of rock barely 5 ft. under water. It is dominated, on the

seaward side, by four hills, and approached by a narrow entrance, with

forts on either hand; a breakwater affords shelter on the east, and on

the west is the Arsenal Basin, often regarded as the original harbour of

the Carthaginians and Romans. The island called La Escombrera, the

ancient _Scombraria_ (i.e. "mackerel fishery"), 2-1/2 m. south, protects

Cartagena from the violence of wind and waves. The mines near the city

are very productive, and thousands of men and beasts are employed in

transporting lead, iron, copper, zinc and sulphur to the coast. The

industrial and commercial progress of Cartagena was much hindered,

during the first half of the 19th century, by the prevalence of epidemic

diseases, the abandonment of the arsenal, and rivalry with the

neighbouring port of Alicante. Its sanitary condition, though still

defective, was improved by the drainage of the adjacent Almajar Marsh;

and after 1870, when the population had dwindled to about 26,000,

Cartagena advanced rapidly in size and wealth. The opening of the

railway enabled it to compete successfully with Alicante, and revived

the mining and metallurgical industries, while considerable sums were

expended on bringing the coast and land defences up to date, and adding

new quays, docks and other harbour works. As a naval station, Cartagena

suffered severely in 1898 from the maritime disasters of the

Spanish-American War; and its commerce was much affected when, at the

beginning of the same year, Porman, or Portman, a mining village on a

well-sheltered bay about 11 m. east, was declared by royal order an

independent port. Vessels go to Porman to land coke and coal, and to

load iron ore and lead. From Cartagena the principal exports are

metallic ores, esparto grass, wine, cereals and fruit. Esparto grass,

which grows freely in the vicinity, is the _spartum_, or Spanish broom,

which gave the town its Roman designation of _Carthago Spartaria_. It is

still used locally for making shoes, ships' cables, mats and a kind of

spun cloth. Timber is largely imported from the United States, Sweden

and Russia; coal from Great Britain; dried codfish from Norway and

Newfoundland. In 1904, exclusive of coasters and small craft trading

with north-west Africa, 662 ships of 604,208 tons entered the port of

Cartagena, 259 being British and 150 Spanish; while 90 vessels were

accommodated at Porman.

Cartagena was founded about the year 243 B.C. by the Carthaginian

Hasdrubal, and was called _Carthago Nova_ or New Carthage, to

distinguish it from the African city of Carthage. It was conveniently

situated opposite to the Carthaginian territory in Africa, and was early

noted for its harbour. Its silver and gold mines were the source of

great wealth both to the Carthaginians and to the Romans. In 210 B.C.

this important place, the headquarters and treasure city of the Punic

army, was stormed and taken with great slaughter by P. Scipio. The city

continued to flourish under the Romans, who made it a colony, with the

name _Colonia Victrix Julia Nova Carthago_. In A.D. 425 it was pillaged

and nearly destroyed by the Goths. Cartagena was a bishopric from about

400 to 1289, when the see was removed to Murcia. Under the Moors it

became an independent principality, which was destroyed by Ferdinand II.

of Castile in 1243, restored by the Moors, and finally conquered by

James I. of Aragon in 1276. It was rebuilt by Philip II. of Spain

(1527-1598) for the sake of its harbour. In 1585 it was sacked by an

English fleet under Sir Francis Drake. In 1706, in the War of the

Spanish Succession, it was occupied by Sir John Leake; and in the next

year it was retaken by the duke of Berwick. On the 5th of November 1823

it capitulated to the French. In consequence of the insurrection in

Spain, Cartagena was in 1844 again the scene of warfare. On the 23rd of

August 1873 it was bombarded by the Spanish fleet under Admiral Lobos;

on the 11th of October a battle took place off the town, between the

ships of the government and the rebels, and on the 12th of January 1874

Cartagena was occupied by the government troops.

See _Biblioteca historica de Cartagena_, by G. Vicent y Portillo

(Madrid, 1889, &c.); _Fechos y fechas de Cartagena_, by I. Martinez

Rito (Cartagena, 1894); and _Serie de los obispos de Cartagena_, by P.

Diaz Casson (Madrid, 1895).

CARTAGO, the capital of the province of Cartago, in Costa Rica, Central

America; 13 m. E.S.E. of San Jose by the trans-continental railway. Pop.

(1900) 4536. Cartago is built 4930 ft. above sea-level, on the fertile

and beautiful plateau of San Jose, and at the southern base of the

volcano Irazu (11,200 ft.). Some of its older buildings, especially the

churches, are of considerable interest; but all bear marks of the

volcanic disturbances from which the town has suffered on many

occasions--notably in 1723, when it was nearly overwhelmed by the

bursting of the flooded crater of Irazu, and in 1841, when it was

shattered by an earthquake. There are hot mineral springs much

frequented by invalids at Bella Vista, a suburb connected with the town

by a tramway 3 m. long. The local trade is chiefly in coffee of fine

quality, which is readily cultivated in the rich volcanic soil of the

neighbourhood. Cartago is said to have been in existence as early as

1522; it was probably named in 1563 by the Spaniard Vazquez de Coronado,

to whom its foundation is often ascribed. Though several times plundered

by buccaneers, it retained its importance as the capital of Costa Rica

until 1823, when it is said by tradition to have contained 30,000

inhabitants. Its prosperity rapidly diminished after the transference of

the seat of government to San Jose, in 1823, but somewhat revived with

the development of railways after 1871.

CARTE, THOMAS (1686-1754), English historian, was born at Dusmoon, near

Clifton. He was educated at Oxford, and was first brought into notice by

his controversy with Dr Henry Chandler regarding the Irish massacre, in

which he defended Charles I. His attachment to the Stuarts also caused

him to remain a non-juror, and on the discovery of the plot of

Atterbury, whose secretary he was, he was forced to flee to France.

There he collected materials for an English edition of De Thou and

Rigault, which were purchased and published by Dr Mead. Being recalled

to England through the influence of Queen Caroline, he published, in

1738, _A General Account of the Necessary Materials for a History of

England_. The first volume of his _Central History of England_, which is

only of value for its vast and careful collection of facts, was

published in 1747. By the insertion in it of the statement that the

king's evil had been cured by the Pretender, Carte forfeited the favour

of most of his patrons. He, however, continued to publish; and the 2nd

volume appeared in 1750, the 3rd in 1752, the 4th in 1755. He published

also a _Life of James, duke of Ormond_, containing a collection of

letters, &c. (3 vols., 1735-1736; new ed., in 6 vols., Oxford, 1851),

and a _History of the Revolutions of Portugal_, with letters of Sir R.

Southwell during his embassy there (London, 1740). His papers became the

property of the university of Oxford, and were deposited in the Bodleian

library.

CARTER, ELIZABETH (1717-1806), English poet and translator, daughter of

the Rev. Nicholas Carter, was born at Deal, in Kent, on the 16th of

December 1717. Dr Carter educated his children, boys and girls, alike;

but Elizabeth's slowness tired his patience, and it was only by great

perseverance that she conquered her natural incapacity for learning. She

studied late at night and early in the morning, taking snuff and chewing

green tea to keep herself awake; thus causing severe injury to her

health. She learned Greek and Latin, and Dr Johnson said concerning a

celebrated scholar that he "understood Greek better than any one whom he

had ever known except Elizabeth Carter." She learned also Hebrew,

French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and lastly some Arabic.

She studied astronomy, ancient geography, and ancient and modern

history. Edward Cave was a friend of Dr Carter, and in 1734 some of

Elizabeth's verses, signed "Eliza," appeared in the _Gentleman's

Magazine_, to which she contributed for many years. In 1738 Cave

published her _Poems upon Particular Occasions_; in 1739 she translated

from the French an attack on Pope's _Essay on Man_ by J.P. de Crousaz;

and in the same year appeared her translation from the Italian of

Algarotti's _Newtonianismo per le Dame_, under the title of _Sir Isaac

Newton's Philosophy explained for the use of the Ladies, in six

Dialogues on Light and Colour_. Her translation of Epictetus (1758) was

undertaken in 1749 to please her friends, Thomas Secker (afterwards

archbishop of Canterbury) and his niece, Catherine Talbot, to whom the

translation was sent, sheet by sheet, as it was done. In 1762 Miss

Carter printed a second collection of _Poems on Several Occasions_. Her

letters to Miss Talbot contain an account of a tour on the continent

undertaken in 1763 in company with Edward and Elizabeth Montagu and

William Pulteney, 1st earl of Bath. Dr Carter, from 1762 to his death in

1774, lived with his daughter in a house at Deal, which she had

purchased. An annuity was settled on her by Sir William Pulteney and his

wife, who had inherited Lord Bath's fortune; and she had another annuity

from Mrs Montagu. Among Miss Carter's friends and correspondents were

Samuel Johnson, Bishop Butler, Richard Savage, Horace Walpole, Samuel

Richardson, Edmund Burke, Hannah More, and Elizabeth Vesey, who was a

leader of literary society. She died in Clarges Street, Piccadilly, on

the 19th of February 1806.

Her _Memoirs_ were published in 1807; her correspondence with Miss

Talbot and Mrs Vesey in 1809; and her letters to Mrs Montagu in 1817.

See also _A Woman of Wit and Wisdom_ (1906), a biography by Alice C.C.

Gaussen.

CARTERET, SIR GEORGE (c. 1610-1680), English politician, was born

between 1609 and 1617 on the island of Jersey, where his family had long

been prominent landholders. He was the son of Helier de Carteret of St

Ouen, and in his youth was trained to follow the sea. In 1639 he became

comptroller of the English navy. During the Civil War he was active in

behalf of the king. In 1643 he succeeded by reversion from his uncle,

Sir Philip Carteret, to the post of bailiff of Jersey, and in the same

year was appointed by the king lieutenant-governor of the island. After

subduing the Parliamentary party in the island, he was commissioned

(1644) a vice-admiral of Jersey and "the maritime parts adjacent," and

by virtue of that office he carried on from there an active privateering

campaign in the Royalist cause. Parliament branded him as a pirate and

excluded him specifically from future amnesty. His rule in Jersey was

severe, but profitable to the island; he developed its resources and

made it a refuge for Royalists, among whom in 1646 and again in

1649-1650 was Prince Charles, who created Carteret a knight and baronet.

In 1650, in consideration of Carteret's services, Charles granted to him

"a certain island and adjacent islets near Virginia, in America," which

were to be called New Jersey; but no settlement upon this grant was

made. In 1651 Carteret, after a seven weeks' siege, was compelled to

surrender Jersey to a Parliamentary force; he then joined the Royalist

exiles in France, where for a time he held a command in the French navy.

He returned to England at the Restoration, became a privy councillor,

sat in parliament for Portsmouth, and also served as vice-chamberlain of

the royal household, a position to which he had been appointed in 1647.

From 1661 to 1667 he was treasurer of the navy. He rendered valuable

service during the Dutch War, but his lax methods of keeping accounts

led to his being censured by parliament. In 1667 he became a deputy

treasurer of Ireland. He continued nevertheless in the royal favour, and

subsequently was appointed one of the commissioners of the admiralty and

a member of the board of trade and plantations. He belonged to that

group of courtiers interested in the colonization of America, and was

one of the eight to whom Charles II. granted the country of the

Carolinas by the charters of 1663 and 1665. In 1664 James, duke of York,

granted that part of his American territory between the Hudson and

Delaware rivers to Sir George Carteret and John, Lord Berkeley, and in

Carteret's honour this tract received the name of New Jersey. Sir

George's relative, Philip Carteret (d. 1682), was sent over as governor

in 1665, but was temporarily deposed in 1672 by the discontented

colonists, who chose James Carteret (perhaps a natural son of Sir

George) as "president." Philip Carteret was restored to his office in

1674. In this year Lord Berkeley disposed of his share of the grant,

which finally fell under the control of William Penn and his associates.

With them Carteret agreed (1676) upon a boundary line which divided the

colony into East and West Jersey. He died in January 1680, and two years

later his heirs disposed of his New Jersey holdings to Penn and other

Quakers.

CARTESIANISM,[1] the general name given to the philosophy developed

principally in the works of Descartes, Malebranche and Spinoza. It is

impossible to exhibit the full meaning of these authors except in

connexion, for they are all ruled by one and the same thought in

different stages of its evolution. It may be true that Malebranche and

Spinoza were prepared, the former by the study of Augustine, the latter

by the study of Jewish philosophy, to draw from Cartesian principles

consequences which Descartes never anticipated. But the foreign light

did not alter the picture on which it was cast, but only let it be seen

more clearly. The consequences were legitimately drawn. It may be shown

that they lay in the system from the first, and that they were evolved

by nothing but its own immanent dialectic. At the same time it is not

likely that they would ever have been brought into such clear

consciousness, or expressed with such consistency, except by a

philosopher whose circumstances and character had completely detached

him from all the convictions and prejudices of the age. In Malebranche,

Cartesianism found an interpreter whose meditative spirit was fostered

by the cloister, but whose speculative boldness was restrained by the

traditions of the Catholic church. In Spinoza it found one who was in

spirit and position more completely isolated than any monk, who was

removed from the influence of the religious as well as the secular world

of his time, and who in his solitude seemed scarcely ever to hear any

voice but the voice of philosophy. It is because Cartesianism found such

a pure organ of expression that its development is, in some sense,

complete and typical. Its principles have been carried to their ultimate

result, and we have before us all the data necessary to determine their

value.

Principle of doubt.

Certainty of the thinking self.

_The Philosophy of Descartes._--Descartes was, in the full sense of the

word, a partaker of the modern spirit. He was equally moved by the

tendencies that produced the Reformation, and the tendencies that

produced the revival of letters and science. Like Erasmus and Bacon, he

sought to escape from a transcendent and unreal philosophy of the other

world, to the knowledge of man and the world he lives in. But like

Luther, he found within human experience, among the matters nearest to

man, the consciousness of God, and therefore his renunciation of

scholasticism did not end either in materialism or in that absolute

distinction between faith and reason which inevitably leads to the

downfall of faith. What was peculiar to Descartes, however, was the

speculative interest which made it impossible for him to rest in mere

experience, whether of things spiritual or of things secular, which made

him search, both in our consciousness of God and our consciousness of

the world, for the links by which they are bound to the consciousness of

self. In both cases it is his aim to go back to the beginning, to

retrace the unconscious process by which the world of experience was

built up, to discover the hidden logic that connects the different parts

of the structure of belief, to substitute a reasoned system, all whose

elements are interdependent, for an unreasoned congeries of opinions.

Hence his first step involves reflection, doubt and abstraction. Turning

the eye of reason upon itself, he tries to measure the value of that

collection of beliefs of which he finds himself possessed; and the first

thing that reflection seems to discover is its accidental and

unconnected character. It is a mass of incongruous materials,

accumulated without system and untested. Its elements have been put

together under all kinds of influences, without any conscious

intellectual process, and therefore we can have no assurance of them.

In order that we may have such assurance we must unweave the web of

experience and thought which we have woven in our sleep, that we may

begin again at the beginning and weave it over again with "clear and

distinct" consciousness of what we are doing. _De omnibus dubitandum

est._ We must free ourselves by one decisive effort from the weight of

custom, prejudice and tradition with which our consciousness of the

world has been overlaid, that in that consciousness in its simplest and

most elementary form we may find the true beginning of knowledge. The

method of doubt is at the same time a method of abstraction, by which

Descartes rises above the thought of the particular objects of

knowledge, in order that he may find the primary truth in which lies the

very definition of knowledge, of the reason why anything can be said to

be true. First disappears the whole mass of dogmas and opinions as to

God and man which are confessedly received on mere authority. Then the

supposed evidence of sense is rejected, for external reality is not

immediately given in sensation. It is acknowledged by all that the

senses often mislead us as to the nature of things without us, and

perhaps they may also mislead us as to there being anything without us

at all. Nay, by an effort, we can even carry doubt beyond this point; we

can doubt even mathematical truth. When, indeed, we have our thoughts

directed to the geometrical demonstration, when the steps of the process

are immediately before our minds, we cannot but assent to the

proposition that the angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles;

but when we forget or turn away our thoughts from such demonstration, we

can imagine that God or some powerful spirit is playing upon our minds

to deceive them, also that even our most certain judgments may be

illusory. In this naive manner does Descartes express the idea that

there are necessities of thought prior to, and presupposed in the truth

of geometry. He is seeking to strip thought of all the "lendings" that

seem to come to it from anything but itself, of all relation to being

that can be supposed to be given to it from without, that he may

discover the primary unity of thought and being on which all knowledge

depends. And this he finds in pure self-consciousness. Whatever I

abstract from, I cannot abstract from self, from the "I think" that, as

Kant puts it, accompanies all our ideas; for it was in fact the very

independence of this universal element on the particulars that made all

our previous abstraction possible. Even doubt rests on certitude; alone

with self I cannot get rid of this self. By an effort of thought I

separate my thinking self from all that I think, but the thinking self

remains, and in thinking I am. _Cogito, ergo sum_: "I think, therefore I

am." The objective judgment of self-consciousness is bound up with or

involved in the very faculty of judging, and therefore remains when we

abstract from all other objective judgments. It is an assertion involved

in the very process by which we dismiss all other assertions. Have we

not then a right to regard it as a primitive unity of thought and being,

in which is contained, or out of which may be developed, the very

definition of truth?